The ins and outs of phospholipid asymmetry in the plasma membrane: roles in health and disease

AIF and Scythe (Bat3) regulate phosphatidylserine exposure and macrophage clearance of cells undergoing Fas (APO-1)-mediated apoptosis

Phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure on the cell surface has been considered a characteristic feature of apoptosis and serves as a molecular cue for engulfment of dying cells by phagocytes. However, the mechanism of PS exposure is still not fully elucidated. Here we show that the cytosolic release from mitochondria of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF) is required for PS exposure during death receptor-induced apoptosis and for efficient clearance of cell corpses by primary human macrophages. Fas-triggered PS exposure was significantly reduced upon siRNA-mediated silencing of AIF expression and by inhibition of the cytosolic translocation of AIF. In addition, AIF localizes to the plasma membrane upon Fas ligation and promotes activation of phospholipid scrambling activity. Finally, cytosolic stabilization of AIF through interaction with Scythe is shown to be involved in apoptotic PS exposure. Taken together, our results suggest an essential role for AIF and its binding partner Scythe in the pathway leading to apoptotic corpse clearance.

Phosphatidylethanolamine is externalized at the surface of microparticles

Microparticles (MPs) are membrane-bound vesicles shed normally or as a result of various (pathological) stimuli. MPs contain a wealth of bio-active macromolecules. Aminophospholipid phosphatidylserine (PS) is present on the surface of many MPs. As PS and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) are related, yet distinct aminophospholipids, the purpose of this study was to systematically and directly assess PE exposure on MPs. We examined MPs from various human cellular sources (human breast cancer, endothelial, red and white blood cells) by flow cytometry using a PE-specific probe, duramycin, and two PS-specific probes, annexin V and lactadherin. PS and PE exposure percentage was comparable on vascular and blood cell-derived MPs (80-90% of MP-gated events). However, the percentage of malignant breast cancer MPs exposing PE (~90%) was significantly higher than PS (~50%). Thus, while PS and PE exposure can result from a general loss of membrane asymmetry, there may also be distinct mechanisms of PE and PS exposure on MPs that vary by cellular source.

Lipoidal soft hybrid biocarriers of supramolecular construction for drug delivery

Lipid-based innovations have achieved new heights during the last few years as an essential component of drug development. The current challenge of drug delivery is liberation of drug agents at the right time in a safe and reproducible manner to a specific target site. A number of novel drug delivery systems has emerged encompassing various routes of administration, to achieve controlled and targeted drug delivery. Microparticulate lipoidal vesicular system represents a unique technology platform suitable for the oral and systemic administration of a wide variety of molecules with important therapeutic biological activities, including drugs, genes, and vaccine antigens. The success of liposomes as drug carriers has been reflected in a number of liposome-based formulations, which are commercially available or are currently undergoing clinical trials. Also, novel lipid carrier-mediated vesicular systems are originated. This paper has focused on the lipid-based supramolecular vesicular carriers that are used in various drug delivery and drug targeting systems.

Leishmania promastigotes lack phosphatidylserine but bind annexin V upon permeabilization or miltefosine treatment

The protozoan parasite Leishmania is an intracellular pathogen infecting and replicating inside vertebrate host macrophages. A recent model suggests that promastigote and amastigote forms of the parasite mimic mammalian apoptotic cells by exposing phosphatidylserine (PS) at the cell surface to trigger their phagocytic uptake into host macrophages. PS presentation at the cell surface is typically analyzed using fluorescence-labeled annexin V. Here we show that Leishmania promastigotes can be stained by fluorescence-labeled annexin V upon permeabilization or miltefosine treatment. However, combined lipid analysis by thin-layer chromatography, mass spectrometry and ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy revealed that Leishmania promastigotes lack any detectable amount of PS. Instead, we identified several other phospholipid classes such phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylethanolamine; phosphatidylglycerol and phosphatidylinositol as candidate lipids enabling annexin V staining.

Detection of apoptosis through the lipid order of the outer plasma membrane leaflet

Cell plasma membranes of living cells maintain their asymmetry, so that the outer leaflet presents a large quantity of sphingomyelin, which is critical for formation of ordered lipid domains. Here, a recently developed probe based on Nile Red (NR12S) was applied to monitor changes in the lipid order specifically at the outer leaflet of cell membranes. Important key features of NR12S are its ratiometric response exclusively to lipid order (liquid ordered vs. liquid disordered phase) and not to surface charge, the possibility of using it at very low concentrations (10-20nM) and the very simple staining protocol. Cholesterol extraction, oxidation and sphingomyelin hydrolysis were found to red shift the emission spectrum of NR12S, indicating a decrease in the lipid order at the outer plasma membrane leaflet. Remarkably, apoptosis induced by three different agents (actinomycin D, camptothecin, staurosporine) produced very similar spectroscopic effects, suggesting that apoptosis also significantly decreases the lipid order at this leaflet. The applicability of NR12S to detect apoptosis was further validated by fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry, using the ratio between the blue and red parts of its emission band. Thus, for the first time, an environment-sensitive probe, sensitive to lipid order, is shown to detect apoptosis, suggesting a new concept in apoptosis sensing.

Lipoidal soft hybrid biocarriers of supramolecular construction for drug delivery

Lipid-based innovations have achieved new heights during the last few years as an essential component of drug development. The current challenge of drug delivery is liberation of drug agents at the right time in a safe and reproducible manner to a specific target site. A number of novel drug delivery systems has emerged encompassing various routes of administration, to achieve controlled and targeted drug delivery. Microparticulate lipoidal vesicular system represents a unique technology platform suitable for the oral and systemic administration of a wide variety of molecules with important therapeutic biological activities, including drugs, genes, and vaccine antigens. The success of liposomes as drug carriers has been reflected in a number of liposome-based formulations, which are commercially available or are currently undergoing clinical trials. Also, novel lipid carrier-mediated vesicular systems are originated. This paper has focused on the lipid-based supramolecular vesicular carriers that are used in various drug delivery and drug targeting systems.

Integrin α PAT-2/CDC-42 signaling is required for muscle-mediated clearance of apoptotic cells in Caenorhabditis elegans

Clearance of apoptotic cells by engulfment plays an important role in the homeostasis and development of multicellular organisms. Despite the fact that the recognition of apoptotic cells by engulfment receptors is critical in inducing the engulfment process, the molecular mechanisms are still poorly understood. Here, we characterize a novel cell corpse engulfment pathway mediated by the integrin α subunit PAT-2 in Caenorhabditis elegans and show that it specifically functions in muscle-mediated engulfment during embryogenesis. Inactivation of pat-2 results in a defect in apoptotic cell internalization. The PAT-2 extracellular region binds to the surface of apoptotic cells in vivo, and the intracellular region may mediate signaling for engulfment. We identify essential roles of small GTPase CDC-42 and its activator UIG-1, a guanine-nucleotide exchange factor, in PAT-2–mediated cell corpse removal. PAT-2 and CDC-42 both function in muscle cells for apoptotic cell removal and are co-localized in growing muscle pseudopods around apoptotic cells. Our data suggest that PAT-2 functions through UIG-1 for CDC-42 activation, which in turn leads to cytoskeletal rearrangement and apoptotic cell internalization by muscle cells. Moreover, in contrast to PAT-2, the other integrin α subunit INA-1 and the engulfment receptor CED-1, which signal through the conserved signaling molecules CED-5 (DOCK180)/CED-12 (ELMO) or CED-6 (GULP) respectively, preferentially act in epithelial cells to mediate cell corpse removal during mid-embryogenesis. Our results show that different engulfing cells utilize distinct repertoires of receptors for engulfment at the whole organism level.

When cells undergo apoptosis, their corpses are quickly recognized and phagocytosed by engulfing cells. Although many cell types, such as muscle cells and epithelial cells, possess the ability to remove apoptotic cells, little is known about the receptors and signaling pathways used for apoptotic cell uptake by these “amateur” phagocytes. We show that, in Caenorhabditis elegans, integrin PAT-2/PAT-3 functions as an engulfment receptor in muscle cells. The integrin α subunit PAT-2 mediates both the recognition and subsequent phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. PAT-2 signals through UIG-1 for CDC-42 activation, leading to the cytoskeletal reorganization as the engulfing muscle cell extends pseudopods around the apoptotic cell. Furthermore, in contrast to PAT-2, the other integrin α subunit INA-1 and the engulfment receptor CED-1, both of which appear to act upstream of small GTPase CED-10 (RAC1), predominantly function in epithelial cells to mediate cell corpse removal. Therefore, epithelial cells and muscle cells employ different engulfment receptors for apoptotic cell recognition, downstream signaling, and specific GTPase activation during apoptotic cell removal.

Scythe cleavage during Fas (APO-1)-and staurosporine-mediated apoptosis

Scythe is a nuclear protein that has been implicated in the apoptotic process in Drosophila melanogaster; however, its role in apoptosis of mammalian cells is not fully elucidated. Here we show that cleavage of Scythe by caspase-3 occurs after activation of both the extrinsic (i.e. Fas/APO-1-mediated) and the intrinsic (i.e. staurosporine-induced) apoptosis pathway. Moreover, this caspase-dependent cleavage correlates with Scythe translocation from the nucleus to the cytosol. We also show that cytosolic re-localization of Scythe is required for Fas/APO-1-triggered phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure, a signal for macrophage clearance of apoptotic cells. Our data suggest that Scythe cleavage may represent a marker for caspase-3 activation and implicate cytosolic re-localization of Scythe in the pathway of PS exposure.

Radiotracers for SPECT imaging: current scenario and future prospects

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) has been the cornerstone of nuclear medicine and today it is widely used to detect molecular changes in cardiovascular, neurological and oncological diseases. While SPECT has been available since the 1980s, advances in instrumentation hardware, software and the availability of new radiotracers that are creating a revival in SPECT imaging are reviewed in this paper.

The biggest change in the last decade has been the fusion of CT with SPECT, which has improved attenuation correction and image quality. Advances in collimator design, replacement of sodium iodide crystals in the detectors with cadmium zinc telluride (CZT) detectors as well as advances in software and reconstruction algorithms have all helped to retain SPECT as a much needed and used technology.

Today, a wide spectrum of radiotracers is available for use in cardiovascular, neurology and oncology applications. The development of several radiotracers for neurological disorders is briefly described in this review, including [123I]FP-CIT (DaTSCANTM) available for Parkinson's disease. In cardiology, while technetium-99m labeled tetrofosmin and technetium-99m labeled sestamibi have been well known for myocardial perfusion imaging, we describe a recently completed multicenter clinical study on the use of [123I]mIBG (AdreViewTM) for imaging in chronic heart failure patients. For oncology, while bone scanning has been prevalent, newer radiotracers that target cancer mechanisms are being developed. Technetium-99m labeled RGD peptides have been reported in the literature that can be used for imaging angiogenesis, while technetium-99m labeled duramycin has been used to image apoptosis.

While PET/CT is considered to be the more advanced technology particularly for oncology applications, SPECT continues to be the modality of choice and the workhorse in many hospitals and nuclear medicine centers. The cost of SPECT instruments also makes them more attractive in developing countries where the cost of a scan is still prohibitive for many patients.

Flip-flop of phospholipids in proteoliposomes reconstituted from detergent extract of chloroplast membranes: kinetics and phospholipid specificity

Eukaryotic cells are compartmentalized into distinct sub-cellular organelles by lipid bilayers, which are known to be involved in numerous cellular processes. The wide repertoire of lipids, synthesized in the biogenic membranes like the endoplasmic reticulum and bacterial cytoplasmic membranes are initially localized in the cytosolic leaflet and some of these lipids have to be translocated to the exoplasmic leaflet for membrane biogenesis and uniform growth. It is known that phospholipid (PL) translocation in biogenic membranes is mediated by specific membrane proteins which occur in a rapid, bi-directional fashion without metabolic energy requirement and with no specificity to PL head group. A recent study reported the existence of biogenic membrane flippases in plants and that the mechanism of plant membrane biogenesis was similar to that found in animals. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time ATP independent and ATP dependent flippase activity in chloroplast membranes of plants. For this, we generated proteoliposomes from Triton X-100 extract of intact chloroplast, envelope membrane and thylakoid isolated from spinach leaves and assayed for flippase activity using fluorescent labeled phospholipids. Half-life time of flipping was found to be 6±1 min. We also show that: (a) intact chloroplast and envelope membrane reconstituted proteoliposomes can flip fluorescent labeled analogs of phosphatidylcholine in ATP independent manner, (b) envelope membrane and thylakoid reconstituted proteoliposomes can flip phosphatidylglycerol in ATP dependent manner, (c) Biogenic membrane ATP independent PC flipping activity is protein mediated and (d) the kinetics of PC translocation gets affected differently upon treatment with protease and protein modifying reagents.

Protein kinase Ypk1 phosphorylates regulatory proteins Orm1 and Orm2 to control sphingolipid homeostasis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Orm family proteins are conserved integral membrane proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum that are key homeostatic regulators of sphingolipid biosynthesis. Orm proteins bind to and inhibit serine:palmitoyl-coenzyme A transferase, the first enzyme in sphingolipid biosynthesis. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Orm1 and Orm2 are inactivated by phosphorylation in response to compromised sphingolipid synthesis (e.g., upon addition of inhibitor myriocin), thereby restoring sphingolipid production. We show here that protein kinase Ypk1, one of an essential pair of protein kinases, is responsible for this regulatory modification. Myriocin-induced hyperphosphorylation of Orm1 and Orm2 does not occur in ypk1 cells, and immunopurified Ypk1 phosphorylates Orm1 and Orm2 robustly in vitro exclusively on three residues that are known myriocin-induced sites. Furthermore, the temperature-sensitive growth of ypk1(ts) ypk2 cells is substantially ameliorated by deletion of ORM genes, confirming that a primary physiological role of Ypk1-mediated phosphorylation is to negatively regulate Orm function. Ypk1 immunoprecipitated from myriocin-treated cells displays a higher specific activity for Orm phosphorylation than Ypk1 from untreated cells. To identify the mechanism underlying Ypk1 activation, we systematically tested several candidate factors and found that the target of rapamycin complex 2 (TORC2) kinase plays a key role. In agreement with prior evidence that a TORC2-dependent site in Ypk1(T662) is necessary for cells to exhibit a wild-type level of myriocin resistance, a Ypk1(T662A) mutant displays only weak Orm phosphorylation in vivo and only weak activation in vitro in response to sphingolipid depletion. Additionally, sphingolipid depletion increases phosphorylation of Ypk1 at T662. Thus, Ypk1 is both a sensor and effector of sphingolipid level, and reduction in sphingolipids stimulates Ypk1, at least in part, via TORC2-dependent phosphorylation.

Global phospholipidomics analysis reveals selective pulmonary peroxidation profiles upon inhalation of single-walled carbon nanotubes

It is commonly believed that nanomaterials cause nonspecific oxidative damage. Our mass spectrometry-based oxidative lipidomics analysis of all major phospholipid classes revealed highly selective patterns of pulmonary peroxidation after inhalation exposure of mice to single-walled carbon nanotubes. No oxidized molecular species were found in the two most abundant phospholipid classes: phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine. Peroxidation products were identified in three relatively minor classes of anionic phospholipids, cardiolipin, phosphatidylserine, and phosphatidylinositol, whereby oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acid residues also showed unusual substrate specificity. This nonrandom peroxidation coincided with the accumulation of apoptotic cells in the lung. A similar selective phospholipid peroxidation profile was detected upon incubation of a mixture of total lung lipids with H(2)O(2)/cytochrome c known to catalyze cardiolipin and phosphatidylserine peroxidation in apoptotic cells. The characterized specific phospholipid peroxidation signaling pathways indicate new approaches to the development of mitochondria-targeted regulators of cardiolipin peroxidation to protect against deleterious effects of pro-apoptotic effects of single-walled carbon nanotubes in the lung.

Oxidized phosphatidylcholines facilitate phospholipid flip-flop in liposomes

Lipid asymmetry is a ubiquitous property of the lipid bilayers in cellular membranes and its maintenance and loss play important roles in cell physiology, such as blood coagulation and apoptosis. The resulting exposure of phosphatidylserine on the outer surface of the plasma membrane has been suggested to be caused by a specific membrane enzyme, scramblase, which catalyzes phospholipid flip-flop. Despite extensive research the role of scramblase(s) in apoptosis has remained elusive. Here, we show that phospholipid flip-flop is efficiently enhanced in liposomes by oxidatively modified phosphatidylcholines. A combination of fluorescence spectroscopy and molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the mechanistic basis for this property of oxidized phosphatidylcholines is due to major changes imposed by the oxidized phospholipids on the biophysical properties of lipid bilayers, resulting in a fast cross bilayer diffusion of membrane phospholipids and loss of lipid asymmetry, requiring no scramblase protein.

Phospholipid composition of plasma and erythrocyte membranes in animal species by 31P NMR

The aim of this study was to provide basal values of phospholipid (PL) composition in different animal species by 31P NMR analysis using detergents. This fast and accurate method allowed a quantitative analysis of PLs without any previous separation. Plasma and erythrocyte membrane PLs were investigated in mammals (pig, cow, horse). Moreover, for the first time, the composition of plasma PLs in avian (chicken and ostrich) was performed by 31P NMR. Significant qualitative and quantitative interspecies differences in plasma PL levels were found. Phosphatidilcholine (PC) and sphingomyelin (SPH) levels were significantly higher (P < 0.001) in chicken plasma than all the other species tested. In erythrocytes, cow PC and phosphatidylcholine diarachidoyl were significantly lower (P < 0.001) than for pigs and horses, whereas pig PC presented intermediate values among cows and horses. Inorganic phosphate and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate levels were also significantly different between the species under investigation. The [SPH/total PLs] molar ratios in erythrocytes confirmed interspecies differences in phospholipid composition while the PC/SPH molar ratios could be related to a distinct erythrocyte flexibility and aggregability. Diet and nutrition may contribute primarily to the interspecies differences in plasma PL amounts detected. Significant differences between chicken plasma PC and SPH levels and those of the other animal species could be ascribed to a fat metabolism specific to egg production.

Side-chain oxysterols: from cells to membranes to molecules

This review discusses the application of cellular biology, molecular biophysics, and computational simulation to understand membrane-mediated mechanisms by which oxysterols regulate cholesterol homeostasis. Side-chain oxysterols, which are produced enzymatically in vivo, are physiological regulators of cholesterol homeostasis and primarily serve as cellular signals for excess cholesterol. These oxysterols regulate cholesterol homeostasis through both transcriptional and non-transcriptional pathways; however, many molecular details of their interactions in these pathways are still not well understood. Cholesterol trafficking provides one mechanism for regulation. The current model of cholesterol trafficking regulation is based on the existence of two distinct cholesterol pools in the membrane: a low and a high availability/activity pool. It is proposed that the low availability/activity pool of cholesterol is integrated into tightly packing phospholipids and relatively inaccessible to water or cellular proteins, while the high availability cholesterol pool is more mobile in the membrane and is present in membranes where the phospholipids are not as compressed. Recent results suggest that oxysterols may promote cholesterol egress from membranes by shifting cholesterol from the low to the high activity pools. Furthermore, molecular simulations suggest a potential mechanism for oxysterol "activation" of cholesterol through its displacement in the membrane. This review discusses these results as well as several other important interactions between oxysterols and cholesterol in cellular and model lipid membranes. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Membrane protein structure and function.

Vacuolar import of phosphatidylcholine requires the ATP-binding cassette transporter Ybt1

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are well known for their roles as multidrug resistance determinants but also play important roles in regulation of lipid levels. In the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the plasma membrane ABC transporter proteins Pdr5 and Yor1 are required for normal rates of transport of phosphatidyethanolamine to the surface of the cell. Loss of these ABC transporters causes a defect in phospholipid asymmetry across the plasma membrane and has been linked with slowed rates of trafficking of other membrane proteins. Four ABC transporter proteins are found on the limiting membrane of the yeast vacuole and loss of one of these vacuolar ABC transporters, Ybt1, caused a major defect in the normal delivery of the phosphatidylcholine (PC) analog NBD-PC (7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-PC) to the lumen of the vacuole. NBD-PC accumulates on cytosolic membranes in an ybt1Δ strain. We demonstrated that Ybt1 is required to import NBD-PC into vacuoles in the presence of ATP in vitro. Loss of Ybt1 prevented vacuolar remodeling of PC analogs. Turnover of Ybt1 was reduced under conditions in which function of this vacuolar remodeling pathway was required. Our data describe a novel vacuolar route for lipid remodeling and reutilization in addition to previously described enzymatic avenues in the cytoplasm.

Circulating microparticles: new insights into the biochemical basis of microparticle release and activity

Circulating microparticles released from various cell types are present in healthy individuals and the number and composition of their membrane vary in different disorders. Long considered to be cellular debris, microparticles have been recently identified as regulatory vectors of intercellular cross-talk. Indeed, circulating microparticles represent a heterogeneous mixture of spheroids of diverse surface membrane glycoproteins and lipids, with diverse cytoplasm components, the pattern of which depends on the type of stimulation and pathophysiology of parental cells. Despite extensive research into the procoagulant and proinflammatory properties of microparticles, there are few data that can provide information on the mechanism(s) of their formation and biological effects. Although several mechanisms of microparticle release have been suggested, the precise order of the events associated with key features of microparticle formation, transmembrane phosphatidylserine redistribution and cytoskeleton disruption remain to be clarified. In this review, we provide an overview of the molecular mechanisms involved in microparticle formation, as well as the diverse physiological and pathological roles they are able to undertake. Understanding the mechanism(s) governing microparticle release processes may be critical to understanding their precise role in various pathophysiological processes and thus indicate new potential routes to therapy.

Ca2+-activated transbilayer movement of plasma membrane phospholipids in Leishmania donovani during ionomycin or thapsigargin stimulation

The protozoan parasite Leishmania causes serious infections in humans all over the world. After being inoculated into the skin through the bite of an infected sandfly, Leishmania promastigotes must gain entry into macrophages to initiate a successful infection. Specific, surface exposed phospholipids have been implicated in Leishmania-macrophage interaction but the mechanisms controlling and regulating the plasma membrane lipid distribution remains to be elucidated. Here, we provide evidence for Ca(2+)-induced phospholipid scrambling in the plasma membrane of Leishmania donovani. Stimulation of parasites with ionomycin increases intracellular Ca(2+) levels and triggers exposure of phosphatidylethanolamine at the cell surface. We found that increasing intracellular Ca(2+) levels with ionomycin or thapsigargin induces rapid transbilayer movement of NBD-labelled phospholipids in the parasite plasma membrane that is bidirectional, independent of cellular ATP and not specific to the polar lipid head group. The findings suggest the presence of a Ca(2+)-dependent lipid scramblase activity in Leishmania parasites. Our studies further show that lipid scrambling is not activated by rapid exposure of promastigotes to higher physiological temperature that increases intracellular Ca(2+) levels.

Pumping lipids with P4-ATPases

While accumulating evidence indicates that P4-ATPases catalyze phospholipid transport across cellular bilayers, their kinship to cation-pumping ATPases has raised fundamental questions concerning the underlying flippase mechanism. Loss of P4-ATPase function perturbs vesicle formation in late secretory and endocytic compartments. An intriguing concept is that P4-ATPases help drive vesicle budding by generating imbalances in transbilayer lipid numbers. Moreover, activation of P4-ATPases by phosphoinositides and other effectors of coat recruitment provide a potential mechanism to confine flippase activity to sites of vesicle biogenesis. These developments have raised considerable interest in understanding the mechanism, regulation and biological implications of P4-ATPase-catalyzed phospholipid transport.

Effects of n-3 PUFAs on breast cancer cells through their incorporation in plasma membrane

Background

PUFAs are important molecules for membrane order and function; they can modify inflammation-inducible cytokines production, eicosanoid production, plasma triacylglycerol synthesis and gene expression. Recent studies suggest that n-3 PUFAs can be cancer chemopreventive, chemosuppressive and auxiliary agents for cancer therapy. N-3 PUFAs could alter cancer growth influencing cell replication, cell cycle, and cell death. The question that remains to be answered is how n-3 PUFAs can affect so many physiological processes. We hypothesize that n-3 PUFAs alter membrane stability, modifying cellular signalling in breast cancer cells.

Methods

Two lines of human breast cancer cells characterized by different expression of ER and EGFR receptors were treated with AA, EPA or DHA. We have used the MTT viability test and expression of apoptotic markers to evaluate the effect of PUFAs on cancer growth. Phospholipids were analysed by HPLC/GC, to assess n-3 incorporation into the cell membrane.

Results

We have observed that EPA and DHA induce cell apoptosis, a reduction of cell viability and the expression of Bcl2 and procaspase-8. Moreover, DHA slightly reduces the concentration of EGFR but EPA has no effect. Both EPA and DHA reduce the activation of EGFR.

N-3 fatty acids are partially metabolized in both cell lines; AA is integrated without being further metabolized. We have analysed the fatty acid pattern in membrane phospholipids where they are incorporated with different degrees of specificity. N-3 PUFAs influence the n-6 content and vice versa.

Conclusions

Our results indicate that n-3 PUFA feeding might induce modifications of breast cancer membrane structure that increases the degree of fatty acid unsaturation. This paper underlines the importance of nutritional factors on health maintenance and on disease prevention.

Snake cytotoxins bind to membranes via interactions with phosphatidylserine head groups of lipids

The major representatives of Elapidae snake venom, cytotoxins (CTs), share similar three-fingered fold and exert diverse range of biological activities against various cell types. CT-induced cell death starts from the membrane recognition process, whose molecular details remain unclear. It is known, however, that the presence of anionic lipids in cell membranes is one of the important factors determining CT-membrane binding. In this work, we therefore investigated specific interactions between one of the most abundant of such lipids, phosphatidylserine (PS), and CT 4 of Naja kaouthia using a combined, experimental and modeling, approach. It was shown that incorporation of PS into zwitterionic liposomes greatly increased the membrane-damaging activity of CT 4 measured by the release of the liposome-entrapped calcein fluorescent dye. The CT-induced leakage rate depends on the PS concentration with a maximum at approximately 20% PS. Interestingly, the effects observed for PS were much more pronounced than those measured for another anionic lipid, sulfatide. To delineate the potential PS binding sites on CT 4 and estimate their relative affinities, a series of computer simulations was performed for the systems containing the head group of PS and different spatial models of CT 4 in aqueous solution and in an implicit membrane. This was done using an original hybrid computational protocol implementing docking, Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations. As a result, at least three putative PS-binding sites with different affinities to PS molecule were delineated. Being located in different parts of the CT molecule, these anion-binding sites can potentially facilitate and modulate the multi-step process of the toxin insertion into lipid bilayers. This feature together with the diverse binding affinities of the sites to a wide variety of anionic targets on the membrane surface appears to be functionally meaningful and may adjust CT action against different types of cells.

Axonal regeneration proceeds through specific axonal fusion in transected C. elegans neurons

Functional neuronal recovery following injury arises when severed axons reconnect with their targets. In Caenorhabditis elegans following laser-induced axotomy, the axon still attached to the cell body is able to regrow and reconnect with its separated distal fragment. Here we show that reconnection of separated axon fragments during regeneration of C. elegans mechanosensory neurons occurs through a mechanism of axonal fusion, which prevents Wallerian degeneration of the distal fragment. Through electron microscopy analysis and imaging with the photoconvertible fluorescent protein Kaede, we show that the fusion process re-establishes membrane continuity and repristinates anterograde and retrograde cytoplasmic diffusion. We also provide evidence that axonal fusion occurs with a remarkable level of accuracy, with the proximal re-growing axon recognizing its own separated distal fragment. Thus, efficient axonal regeneration can occur by selective reconnection and fusion of separated axonal fragments beyond an injury site, with restoration of the damaged neuronal tract.

In vivo optical imaging of acute cell death using a near-infrared fluorescent zinc-dipicolylamine probe

Cell death is a fundamental biological process that is present in numerous disease pathologies. Fluorescent probes that detect cell death have been developed for a myriad of research applications ranging from microscopy to in vivo imaging. Here we describe a synthetic near-infrared (NIR) conjugate of zinc(II)-dipicolylamine (Zn²+-DPA) for in vivo imaging of cell death. Chemically induced in vivo models of myopathy were established using an ionphore, ethanol, or ketamine as cytotoxins. The Zn²+-DPA fluorescent probe or corresponding control was subsequently injected, and whole animal fluorescence imaging demonstrated probe uptake at the site of muscle damage, which was confirmed by ex vivo and histological analyses. Further, a comparative study with a NIR fluorescent conjugate Annexin V showed less intense uptake at the site of muscle damage and high accumulation in the bladder. The results indicate that the fluorescent Zn²+-DPA conjugate is an effective probe for in vivo cell death detection and in some cases may be an appropriate alternative to fluorescent Annexin V conjugates.

Membrane rafts in plant cells

Over the past five years, the structure, composition and possible functions of membrane raft-like domains on plant plasma membranes (PM) have been described. Proteomic analyses have indicated that a high proportion of proteins associated with detergent-insoluble membranes (DIMs), supposed to contain raft-like domains isolated from the PM, might be involved in signalling pathways. Recently, the dynamic association of specific proteins with the DIM fraction upon environmental stress has been reported. Innovative imaging methods have shown that lateral segregation of lipids and proteins exists at the nanoscale level in the plant PM, correlating detergent insolubility and membrane-domain localization of presumptive raft proteins. These data suggest a role for plant rafts as signal transduction platforms, similar to those documented for mammalian cells.

Dengue virus ensures its fusion in late endosomes using compartment-specific lipids

Many enveloped viruses invade cells via endocytosis and use different environmental factors as triggers for virus-endosome fusion that delivers viral genome into cytosol. Intriguingly, dengue virus (DEN), the most prevalent mosquito-borne virus that infects up to 100 million people each year, fuses only in late endosomes, while activation of DEN protein fusogen glycoprotein E is triggered already at pH characteristic for early endosomes. Are there any cofactors that time DEN fusion to virion entry into late endosomes? Here we show that DEN utilizes bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate, a lipid specific to late endosomes, as a co-factor for its endosomal acidification-dependent fusion machinery. Effective virus fusion to plasma- and intracellular- membranes, as well as to protein-free liposomes, requires the target membrane to contain anionic lipids such as bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate and phosphatidylserine. Anionic lipids act downstream of low-pH-dependent fusion stages and promote the advance from the earliest hemifusion intermediates to the fusion pore opening. To reach anionic lipid-enriched late endosomes, DEN travels through acidified early endosomes, but we found that low pH-dependent loss of fusogenic properties of DEN is relatively slow in the presence of anionic lipid-free target membranes. We propose that anionic lipid-dependence of DEN fusion machinery protects it against premature irreversible restructuring and inactivation and ensures viral fusion in late endosomes, where the virus encounters anionic lipids for the first time during entry. Currently there are neither vaccines nor effective therapies for DEN, and the essential role of the newly identified DEN-bis(monoacylglycero)phosphate interactions in viral genome escape from the endosome suggests a novel target for drug design.

Dengue virus infection is a growing public health problem with up to 100 million cases annually, and neither vaccines nor effective therapies are available. To search for the ways of preventing and treating dengue infections we need to better understand their molecular mechanisms. As with many other viruses, dengue virus enters cells by fusion between the viral membrane and the membrane of intracellular vesicles (endosomes). In this work we explored the fusion stage of dengue virus entry in different experimental systems ranging from virus fusion to artificial lipid membranes to fusion inside the cells. While earlier work on dengue virus entry has focused on viral protein that mediates fusion, we found that effective action of this protein requires specific lipid composition of the membrane the virus fuses to. In effect, this lipid dependence allows virus to control intracellular location of the fusion event and, thus, the place of its RNA release by exploiting cell-controlled differences between lipid compositions of different organelles the virus travels through. The essential role of the interactions between dengue virus and its lipid cofactors during viral entry suggests that these interactions may be targeted in drug design.

Disruption of the lipid-transporting LdMT-LdRos3 complex in Leishmania donovani affects membrane lipid asymmetry but not host cell invasion

Maintenance and regulation of the asymmetric lipid distribution across eukaryotic plasma membranes is governed by the concerted action of specific membrane proteins controlling lipid movement across the bilayer. Here, we show that the miltefosine transporter (LdMT), a member of the P4-ATPase subfamily in Leishmania donovani, and the Cdc50-like protein LdRos3 form a stable complex that plays an essential role in maintaining phospholipid asymmetry in the parasite plasma membrane. Loss of either LdMT or LdRos3 abolishes ATP-dependent transport of NBD-labelled phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) and phosphatidylcholine from the outer to the inner plasma membrane leaflet and results in an increased cell surface exposure of endogenous PE. We also find that promastigotes of L. donovani lack any detectable amount of phosphatidylserine (PS) but retain their infectivity in THP-1-derived macrophages. Likewise, infectivity was unchanged for parasites without LdMT-LdRos3 complexes. We conclude that exposure of PS and PE to the exoplasmic leaflet is not crucial for the infectivity of L. donovani promastigotes.

AC3-33, a novel secretory protein, inhibits Elk1 transcriptional activity via ERK pathway

The transcription factor AP-1 plays an important role in cellular proliferation, transformation and death. In this study, we report a novel human gene, AC3-33 (GenBank name: c3orf33, FLJ31139), which encodes a secretory protein that can inhibit Elk1 transcriptional activity via ERK1/2 pathway. The AC3-33 mRNA encodes a protein of 251 amino acids, which is a classical secretory protein. Functional investigation reveals that overexpression of AC3-33 significantly inhibit AP-1 activity and DNA-binding ability. Further investigation indicated that overexpression of AC3-33 significantly inhibit transcriptional activity of Elk1 and c-jun, but not c-fos. As for the upstream of signaling pathway of Elk-1, our study demonstrated that overexpression of AC3-33 significantly down-regulates phosphorylation of ERK1/2, but not JNK/SAPK or p38 MAPK. These results clearly indicate that AC3-33 is a novel member of the secretory family and inhibits Elk1 transcriptional activity via ERK1/2 MAPK.

Caenorhabditis elegans transthyretin-like protein TTR-52 mediates recognition of apoptotic cells by the CED-1 phagocyte receptor

During apoptosis, dying cells are swiftly removed by phagocytes. It is not fully understood how apoptotic cells are recognized by phagocytes. Here we report the identification and characterization of the Caenorhabditis elegans ttr-52 gene, which encodes a transthyretin-like protein and is required for efficient cell corpse engulfment. The TTR-52 protein is expressed in, and secreted from, C. elegans endoderm and clusters around apoptotic cells. Genetic analysis indicates that TTR-52 acts in the cell corpse engulfment pathway mediated by CED-1, CED-6 and CED-7 and affects clustering of the phagocyte receptor CED-1 around apoptotic cells. TTR-52 recognizes surface-exposed phosphatidylserine (PtdSer) in vivo and binds to both PtdSer and the extracellular domain of CED-1 in vitro. TTR-52 is therefore the first bridging molecule identified in C. elegans that mediates recognition of apoptotic cells by crosslinking the PtdSer 'eat me' signal with the phagocyte receptor CED-1.

Programmed cell clearance: molecular regulation of the elimination of apoptotic cell corpses and its role in the resolution of inflammation

Programmed cell clearance is a physiological process of elimination of apoptotic cell corpses. Recent studies have disclosed several ligand-receptor interactions that dictate the recognition or non-recognition of cells by macrophages and other phagocytes. The externalization of the anionic phospholipid, phosphatidylserine is effectively recognized by specific receptors on professional phagocytes and facilitates the clearance of apoptotic cells. Macrophage disposal of cells at sites of inflammation is believed to play an important role in the resolution of the inflammatory process, and recent studies have suggested a role for the NADPH oxidase in the process of macrophage elimination of activated neutrophils. The present review will focus on the molecular regulation of programmed cell clearance, and discuss the role of cell elimination in the resolution of inflammation.

Engulfment of apoptotic cells in C. elegans is mediated by integrin alpha/SRC signaling

BACKGROUND

Engulfment of apoptotic cells is important for cellular homeostasis and the development of multicellular organisms. Previous studies have shown that more than one engulfment receptors act upstream of the conserved signaling module CED-2/CrkII-CED-5/Dock180-CED-12/ELMO for cell corpse removal in C. elegans, but little is known about their identities, except for PSR-1.

RESULTS

We show that in C. elegans, integrin functions as an engulfment receptor in the recognition and subsequent phagocytosis of apoptotic cells. Mutations in the integrin alpha gene ina-1 result in inefficient engulfment of apoptotic cells. The INA-1 extracellular domain binds to the surface of apoptotic cells in vivo. This binding requires the phospholipid scramblase SCRM-1, which promotes the exposure of phosphatidylserine, a key "eat me" signal in apoptotic cells. Furthermore, we identify an essential role of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase SRC-1 in INA-1-mediated cell corpse removal. INA-1 and SRC-1 both act in the engulfing cells during the engulfment process and are colocalized in the phagocytic cups extending around apoptotic cells. Finally, our genetic and biochemical data suggest that SRC-1 relays the scrm-1-dependent engulfment signal from INA-1 to the conserved motility-promoting signaling complex CED-2/CrkII-CED-5/Dock180-CED-12/ELMO for CED-10/Rac activation, probably by interactions with CED-2 and the INA-1 cytoplasmic domain, leading to the internalization of apoptotic cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide evidence that integrin functions as an engulfment receptor at the whole-organism level and reveal a nonconventional signaling pathway in which SRC provides a FAK-independent linkage between integrin alpha and the common motility-promoting signaling module CED-2/CrkII-CED-5/Dock180-CED-12/ELMO to promote the internalization of apoptotic cells.