Attachment-related psychodynamics

Changes in Relationship-Specific Attachment in Emotionally Focused Couple Therapy

Emotionally focused couple therapy (EFT; Johnson, The practice of emotionally focused couple therapy (1st/2nd edition). Brunner-Routledge, New York, 2004) is an effective treatment of relationship distress (Johnson et al., Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 1999; 6, 67). However, less is known about EFT's impact on couples' relationship-specific attachment bond. Using hierarchical linear modeling with a sample of 32 couples, we examined session-by-session changes in couples' relationship-specific attachment anxiety and avoidance and pre- to posttherapy changes in their relationship-specific attachment behaviors. Couples significantly decreased in relationship-specific attachment avoidance, and those who completed a blamer softening significantly decreased in relationship-specific attachment anxiety. Couples' attachment behavior significantly increased toward security. Finally, session-by-session decreases in relationship-specific attachment anxiety and avoidance were significant associated with increases in relationship satisfaction across sessions. These results provide empirical support for the attachment-based assumptions of EFT. Video abstract accessible by clicking here.

Extending the Transdiagnostic Model of Attachment and Psychopathology

Research has suggested that high levels of attachment insecurities that are formed through interactions with significant others are associated with a general vulnerability to mental disorders. In the present paper, we extend Ein-Dor and Doron's (2015) transdiagnostic model linking attachment orientations with internalizing and externalizing symptoms, to include thought disorder spectrum symptoms. Specifically, we speculate on the processes that mediate the linkage between attachment insecurities and psychosis and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms, and indicate the different contexts that might set a trajectory of one individual to one set of symptoms while another individual to a different set of symptoms.

Dimensions of adult attachment are significantly associated with specific affective temperament constellations in a Hungarian university sample

BACKGROUND

Related to emotion regulation and mental health, adult attachment and affective temperaments are relevant research topics of contemporary psychiatry and clinical psychology. However, to date, only one study investigated the relationship between these two constructs. Thus, we aimed to further reveal adult attachment's association with affective temperaments.

METHODS

Affective temperament and adult attachment dimensions of 1469 Hungarian university students were assessed with self-report measures (Temperament Evaluation of Memphis, Pisa and San Diego autoquestionnaire and Experiences in Close Relationships Scale, respectively). Age and measured variables were compared between genders with ANOVAs. Associations between attachment dimensions and affective temperaments were examined with Pearson's correlations and partial correlations; the moderation effect of age and gender on these relationships was tested with PROCESS macro. Using Fisher r-to-z transformation, we also compared our results with the findings of the previous study. Cohen's ds were used to report effect size and Cronbach's alphas were computed as indices of internal reliability.

RESULTS

Significant correlations were found between attachment dimensions and affective temperaments. Correlations were especially robust between attachment anxiety and depressive, cyclothymic and anxious temperaments. Contrasted with the results of the previous study, hyperthymic temperament was negatively related to attachment avoidance and anxious temperament was significantly more strongly correlated with attachment anxiety in our study.

LIMITATIONS

We used a previous version of the adult attachment measure. Our sample differed from the target sample in several ways. Participants were not screened for mental disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings highlight that adult attachment dimensions are significantly associated with affective temperaments.

Meeting the expectations of your heritage culture: Links between attachment orientations, intragroup marginalization and psychological adjustment

Do insecurely attached individuals perceive greater rejection from their heritage culture? Few studies have examined the antecedents and outcomes of this perceived rejection - termed intragroup marginalization - in spite of its implications for the adjustment of cultural migrants to the mainstream culture. This study investigated whether anxious and avoidant attachment orientations among cultural migrants were associated with greater intragroup marginalization and, in turn, with lower subjective well-being and flourishing and higher acculturative stress. Anxious attachment was associated with heightened intragroup marginalization from friends and, in turn, with increased acculturative stress; anxious attachment was also associated with increased intragroup marginalization from family. Avoidant attachment was linked with increased intragroup marginalization from family and, in turn, with decreased subjective well-being.

Insecure Attachment Styles and Increased Borderline Personality Organization in Substance Use Disorders

BACKGROUND

Previous research has linked insecure attachment styles and borderline personality organization to substance use disorder (SUD). However, it still remains unclear whether those impairments apply to different kinds of SUDs to the same extent. Therefore, in this study we sought to investigate potential differences regarding attachment deficits and borderline personality organization in two different SUD inpatient groups and furthermore in comparison to healthy controls.

SAMPLING AND METHODS

A total of 66 (24 female) inpatients diagnosed with alcohol use disorder (AUD), 57 (10 female) inpatients diagnosed with polydrug use disorder (PUD), and 114 (51 female) healthy controls completed the Borderline Personality Inventory and the Attachment Style Questionnaire.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy controls, AUD and PUD inpatients showed significant deficits in all attachment parameters (p < 0.01) as well as a significantly increased amount of borderline personality organization (p < 0.01). No differences between AUD and PUD inpatients were observed (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the drug(s) of choice cannot be regarded as an indicator for the extent of attachment deficits or personality pathology. These initial findings are mainly limited by the rather small sample size as well as just a single point of measurement. Future research might also consider further covariates such as comorbidity or psychotropic medication.

Longitudinal Associations Among Relationship Satisfaction, Sexual Satisfaction, and Frequency of Sex in Early Marriage

The current research used two 8-wave longitudinal studies spanning the first 4-5 years of 207 marriages to examine the potential bidirectional associations among marital satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and frequency of sex. All three variables declined over time, though the rate of decline in each variable became increasingly less steep. Controlling for these changes, own marital and sexual satisfaction were bidirectionally positively associated with one another; higher levels of marital satisfaction at one wave of assessment predicted more positive changes in sexual satisfaction from that assessment to the next and higher levels of sexual satisfaction at one wave of assessment predicted more positive changes in marital satisfaction from that assessment to the next. Likewise, own sexual satisfaction and frequency of sex were bidirectionally positively associated with one another. Additionally, partner sexual satisfaction positively predicted changes in frequency of sex and own sexual satisfaction among husbands, yet partner marital satisfaction negatively predicted changes in both frequency of sex and own sexual satisfaction. Controlling these associations, marital satisfaction did not directly predict changes in frequency of sex or vice versa. Only the association between partner sexual satisfaction and changes in own sexual satisfaction varied across men and women and none of the key effects varied across the studies. These findings suggest that sexual and relationship satisfaction are intricately intertwined and thus that interventions to treat and prevent marital distress may benefit by targeting the sexual relationship and interventions to treat and prevent sexual distress in marriage may benefit by targeting the marital relationship.

FROM ME TO US: THE CONSTRUCTION OF FAMILY ALLIANCE

This longitudinal prospective and multi-informant study based on a three-wave research program (pregnancy, 12 months' postpartum, and 16 months' postpartum) aimed to determine the process of construction of family alliance, as assessed by the Lausanne Trilogue Play (Fivaz-Depeursinge & Corboz-Warnery, 1999). A model using parents' individual characteristics (i.e., personality traits and attachment orientations) as distal variables, coparenting as a mediator, child's temperament as a moderator, and family alliance as outcome was tested using structural equation modeling on 62 nonreferred families. Results showed that both parents' conscientiousness was positively and mothers' avoidant attachment and fathers' anxious attachment were negatively and indirectly (via coparenting) associated with the family alliance. The discussion underlines mothers' and fathers' different roles and the importance of coparenting as a core mechanism in the development of family alliance.

Mother-child reminiscing at risk: Maternal attachment, elaboration, and child autobiographical memory specificity

Mother-child reminiscing, the process by which mothers and their children discuss past events and emotional experiences, has been robustly linked with child outcomes, including autobiographical memory. To advance previous work linking elaborative maternal reminiscing with child autobiographical memory specificity, the ability to generate and retrieve specific memories from one's past, it is essential to make distinctions among aspects of elaboration and to consider how maternal risk factors may influence the reminiscing context. The current study evaluated (a) an interaction between emotional and structural elaboration predicting child autobiographical memory specificity and (b) the potential moderating role of maternal adult attachment. Participants consisted of 95 preschool-aged children and their mothers. The sample was predominantly low income and racially diverse. Dyads completed a reminiscing task that was coded for emotional and structural elaboration. Mothers completed the Experiences in Close Relationships questionnaire (ECR-R) to assess attachment-related avoidance and anxiety, and children completed the Autobiographical Memory Test-Preschool Version (AMT-PV) to assess memory specificity. Results indicated that the association between structural reminiscing and child memory specificity was moderated by emotional elements of reminiscing. At high levels of emotional elaboration, mothers with high levels of structural elaboration had children with more specific memory than mothers with low levels of structural elaboration. Moreover, emotional elaboration (a) predicted less specific child memory without high structural support and (b) negatively predicted child specificity at high levels of maternal attachment avoidance and anxiety, a profile associated with fearful avoidance. Future directions and implications are discussed.

Exploring Attachment Patterns in Patients With Comorbid Borderline Personality and Substance Use Disorders

Studies exploring attachment patterns in samples of patients with borderline personality disorder (BPD) report a combination of preoccupied and fearful-avoidant patterns. This has been interpreted as reflecting the approach-avoidance dilemma of BPD. Comorbid substance use disorders (SUD) have not been considered in these studies, despite the high proportions of SUD among BPD patients and despite the more avoidant attachment in SUD samples. This cross-sectional, naturalistic study explores attachment patterns in a sample of comorbid (BPD and SUD) patients, comparing them to two samples of patients with either SUD or BPD only. Within-group comparisons replicated findings of both preoccupied and fearful-avoidant attachment in BPD and comorbid groups. But between-group comparisons showed that comorbid patients were significantly less preoccupied (p = 0.018) and more dismissing-avoidant (p = 0.030). Although both groups were similar in several psychiatric measures, attachment patterns of the comorbid group were more similar to substance abusers than to borderline patients.

The role of sex, attachment and autonomy-connectedness in personality functioning

Previous studies have found significant relationships among sex, attachment and autonomy-connectedness and DSM-IV personality characteristics. In the present study, we aimed to add to the current knowledge about attachment-related aspects of personality pathology, by examining the relationships of these same variables with dimensions of pathological personality structure as conceptualized by Kernberg. The study was performed among 106 ambulatory patients from a Dutch mental healthcare institute. A path model based upon neo-analytical object relation theory and attachment theory was tested. We expected significant associations among sex, attachment, autonomy and aspects of personality functioning. Both insecure attachment styles as well as the autonomy-connectedness components of sensitivity to others (SO) and capacity of managing new situations predicted general personality dysfunctioning significantly. More specifically, reality testing was negatively predicted by the autonomy component of capacity of managing new situations, and aggression was significantly predicted by sex as well as both insecure attachment styles. We advise scientists as well as clinicians to be alert on sex differences in autonomy-connectedness and aspects of personality dysfunctioning. Taking sex-specific variations in attachment and autonomy into account next to a more explicit focus on insecure attachment styles and autonomy problems may enhance, the current relatively low, treatment effectiveness for personality pathology.

Age and sex differences in the influence of attachment relationships on adolescent psychological health

The quality of adolescent attachment with mothers, fathers, and peers, and the impact of these relationships on psychological health and self-esteem is examined in a sample of 615 high school students. Using an attachment theory perspective, it is argued that different attachment relationships have different affects on adjustment depending on age and gender. Results support the view that attachment develops in peer relationships before withdrawing from parental relationships in adolescence and that this process occurs at different ages and has different consequences for self-esteem and depression. Mother attachment had a greater impact on psychological adjustment for girls while father attachment had a greater impact for boys. It is concluded that while an attachment framework is useful for understanding developmental changes in relationship networks during adolescence, further individual difference and developmental factors may need to be considered.

Adult attachment orientation and automatic processing of emotional information on a semantic level: A masked affective priming study

Early adverse social experiences leading to attachment insecurity could cause heightened sensitivity to emotional information. Automatic processing of emotional stimuli conveys information about positive-negative differentiation and the so-called possessor vs. other-relevance of valence. The aim of the present study was to examine automatic processing of emotional and relevance type information on a semantic level as a function of adult attachment avoidance and anxiety. A masked affective priming task, varying valence and relevance of prime and target adjectives, was presented to a sample of 153 healthy adults. The Experiences in Close Relationships scale was administered to assess attachment orientation. Significant priming effects for valence and relevance were observed. Attachment avoidance, but not attachment anxiety, was significantly related to affective priming independently of trait anxiety and depression. Specifically, attachment avoidance was found to be related to affective priming effects based on other-relevant words. It can be concluded that automatic processing of emotional adjectives used to characterize safe or risky social environments is heightened in avoidant individuals. The avoidantly attached processing style has similarities with repressive coping, which is characterized by an enhanced early response to emotion stimuli followed by avoidant biases at a controlled processing level.

Influence of adult attachment insecurities on parenting self-esteem: the mediating role of dyadic adjustment

BACKGROUND

Parenting self-esteem includes two global components, parents' self-efficacy and satisfaction with their parental role, and has a crucial role in parent-child interactions. The purpose of this study was to develop an integrative model linking adult attachment insecurities, dyadic adjustment, and parenting self-esteem.

METHODS

The study involved 118 pairs (236 subjects) of heterosexual parents of a firstborn child aged 0-6 years. They were administered the Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised (ECR-R) questionnaire, the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, and the Parenting Sense of Competence Scale.

RESULTS

Path analysis was used to design and test a theoretical integrative model, achieving a good fit with the data. Findings showed that dyadic adjustment mediates the negative influence on parenting self-efficacy of both attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance. Parenting satisfaction is positively influenced by parenting self-efficacy and negatively affected by child's age. Attachment anxiety negatively influences parenting satisfaction.

CONCLUSION

Our findings are in line with the theoretical expectations and have promising implications for future research and intervention programs designed to improve parenting self-esteem.

Attachment dimensions’ capacity to predict problem behaviors in an African context

Considerable research links aspects of attachment to internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors. The association is yet to be established in an African context. Canonical correlation analysis was conducted on the data of 135 primary school learners and their parents and guardians in Mankweng, a township in Polokwane, South Africa, to evaluate the avoidance and anxiety attachment dimensions’ capacity to predict problem behaviors. There was a relationship between learner-reported internalizing problem behaviors and the attachment dimensions avoidance, and to some extent anxiety. Conversely, externalizing could not be predicted from the attachment patterns of the learners. The results are discussed within existing attachment and the problem behavior literature.

Validation of the FEEL-KJ: An Instrument to Measure Emotion Regulation Strategies in Children and Adolescents

Although the field of emotion regulation in children and adolescents is growing, there is need for age-adjusted measures that assess a large variety of strategies. An interesting instrument in this respect is the FEEL-KJ because it measures 7 adaptive and 5 maladaptive emotion regulation strategies in response to three different emotions. However, the FEEL-KJ has not yet been validated extensively. Therefore, the current study aims to test the internal structure and validity of the FEEL-KJ in a large sample of Dutch-speaking Belgian children and adolescents (N = 1102, 8-18 years old). The investigation of the internal structure confirms earlier reports of a two-factor structure with Adaptive and Maladaptive Emotion Regulation as overarching categories. However, it also suggests that the two-factor model is more complex than what was previously assumed. The evaluation of the FEEL-KJ validity furthermore provides evidence for its construct and external validity. In sum, the current study confirms that the FEEL-KJ is a valuable and reliable measure of emotion regulation strategies in children and adolescents.

Dyadic adjustment and parenting stress in internationally adoptive mothers and fathers: the mediating role of adult attachment dimensions

Previous research has shown that a positive marital functioning represents a resource in adoptive families, leading to a decrease in parenting stress, but little is known about the factors mediating such a relationship. This study aimed to explore whether adult attachment avoidance and anxiety mediate the effect of dyadic functioning on parenting stress in 90 internationally adoptive couples (mothers and fathers) who had adopted a child (aged 3–10 years) in the last 36 months. Participants completed self-report measures of dyadic adjustment, adult attachment, and parenting stress. A series of path analyses supported the mediation hypothesis, but differentially for mothers and fathers. Among mothers, there was a direct and negative relationship between dyadic adjustment and parenting stress. In addition, a better dyadic adjustment was related to lower levels of attachment anxiety, which in turn were associated with less parenting stress. Among fathers, increased dyadic adjustment was related to lower levels of attachment avoidance, which in turn were associated with reduced parenting stress. These findings suggest the importance of including both mothers and fathers in adoption research. Adoptive parents could benefit from specific interventions aimed at reducing attachment avoidance and anxiety by supporting parental sense of competence and involvement for mothers and fathers, respectively.

Neural basis of attachment-caregiving systems interaction: insights from neuroimaging studies

The attachment and the caregiving system are complementary systems which are active simultaneously in infant and mother interactions. This ensures the infant survival and optimal social, emotional, and cognitive development. In this brief review we first define the characteristics of these two behavioral systems and the theory that links them, according to what Bowlby called the “attachment-caregiving social bond” (Bowlby, 1969). We then follow with those neuroimaging studies that have focused on this particular issue, i.e., those which have studied the activation of the careging system in women (using infant stimuli) and have explored how the individual attachment model (through the Adult Attachment Interview) modulates its activity. Studies report altered activation in limbic and prefrontal areas and in basal ganglia and hypothalamus/pituitary regions. These altered activations are thought to be the neural substrate of the attachment-caregiving systems interaction.

The Attachment Paradox: How Can So Many of Us (the Insecure Ones) Have No Adaptive Advantages?

Bowlby's (1969/1982) attachment theory has generated an enormous body of research and conceptual elaborations. Although attachment theory and research propose that attachment security provides a person with many adaptive advantages during all phases of the life cycle, numerous studies indicate that almost half of the human species can be classified as insecurely attached or insecure with respect to attachment. It seems odd that evolution left humans in this vulnerable position unless there are some advantages, under at least some conditions, to anxious and avoidant attachment styles. We argue that a social group containing members with different attachment patterns may be more conducive to survival than a homogeneous group of securely attached individuals. In making this argument, we extend the scope of attachment theory and research by considering a broader range of adaptive functions of insecure attachment strategies. We also present preliminary data to support our argument.

How avoidant attachment influences subjective well-being: an investigation about the age and gender differences

Intimate relationship is a significant factor that influences older adults' subjective well-being. Avoidant attachment reflects a basic working model regarding interpersonal relationships. The current study aims to test how age and gender moderate the effect of avoidant attachment to spouse on subjective well-being. Fifty-six married couples aged from 20 to 79 years in Hong Kong were recruited for the study. Their avoidant attachment to spouse and subjective well-being were measured by questionnaires. In general, avoidant attachment to spouse was found to undermine subjective well-being. More importantly, age significantly moderated the negative association between avoidant attachment and subjective well-being, but the direction of the moderating effect was opposite for husbands and wives. Compared with their younger counterparts, the detrimental effect of avoidant attachment on subjective well-being was weaker for older wives but stronger for older husbands. The results suggest that marital relationship may play different roles in different life stages for the two genders. In later adulthood, males may become more dependent on the marital relationship to maintain subjective well-being, whereas females can be relatively independent.

Sugarcoated isolation: evidence that social avoidance is linked to higher basal glucose levels and higher consumption of glucose

Objective: The human brain adjusts its level of effort in coping with various life stressors as a partial function of perceived access to social resources. We examined whether people who avoid social ties maintain a higher fasting basal level of glucose in their bloodstream and consume more sugar-rich food, reflecting strategies to draw more on personal resources when threatened. Methods: In Study 1 (N = 60), we obtained fasting blood glucose and adult attachment orientations data. In Study 2 (N = 285), we collected measures of fasting blood glucose and adult attachment orientations from older adults of mixed gender, using a measure of attachment style different from Study 1. In Study 3 (N = 108), we examined the link between trait-like attachment avoidance, manipulation of an asocial state, and consumption of sugar-rich food. In Study 4 (N = 115), we examined whether manipulating the social network will moderate the effect of attachment avoidance on consumption of sugar-rich food. Results: In Study 1, fasting blood glucose levels corresponded with higher attachment avoidance scores after statistically adjusting for time of assessment and interpersonal anxiety. For Study 2, fasting blood glucose continued to correspond with higher adult attachment avoidance even after statistically adjusting for interpersonal anxiety, stress indices, age, gender, social support and body mass. In Study 3, people high in attachment avoidance consume more sugar-rich food, especially when reminded of asocial tendencies. Study 4 indicated that after facing a stressful task in the presence of others, avoidant people gather more sugar-rich food than more socially oriented people. Conclusion: Results are consistent with the suggestion that socially avoidant individuals upwardly adjust their basal glucose levels and consume more glucose-rich food with the expectation of increased personal effort because of limited access to social resources. Further investigation of this link is warranted.

Emotional awareness as a pathway linking adult attachment to subsequent depression

Although research links insecure adult attachment with depression, the emotional processes accounting for this association over time remain relatively unexplored. To address this gap, this study investigated whether deficits in emotional awareness serve as one explanatory process. Adult female caregivers (N = 417, Mage = 37.83) completed questionnaires annually for 3 years. As anticipated, attachment avoidance exerted an indirect effect on depression via emotional awareness. Attachment anxiety directly predicted subsequent depression, but the indirect effect through emotional awareness was nonsignificant. These results suggest that an avoidant attachment style interferes with the effective processing of emotions, thereby placing women at risk for depression. This research implicates emotional awareness as a potential target for interventions aimed at reducing depressive symptoms in mothers with avoidant attachment styles.

Effects of Adult Romantic Attachment and Social Support on Resilience and Depression in Individuals with Spinal Cord Injuries

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can cause psychological consequences that negatively affect quality of life. It is increasingly recognized that factors such as resilience and social support may produce a buffering effect and are associated with improved health outcomes. However the influence of adult attachment style on an individual's ability to utilize social support after SCI has not been examined.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine relationships between adult romantic attachment perceived social support depression and resilience in individuals with SCI. In addition we evaluated potential mediating effects of social support and adult attachment on resilience and depression.

METHODS

Participants included 106 adults with SCI undergoing inpatient rehabilitation. Individuals completed measures of adult attachment (avoidance and anxiety) social support resilience and depression. Path analysis was performed to assess for presence of mediation effects.

RESULTS

When accounting for the smaller sample size support was found for the model (comparative fit index = .927; chi square = 7.86, P = .01; β = -0.25, standard error [SE] = -2.93, P < .05). The mediating effect of social support on the association between attachment avoidance and resilience was the only hypothesized mediating effect found to be significant (β = -0.25, SE = -2.93, P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest that individuals with SCI with higher levels of attachment avoidance have lower perceived social support which relates to lower perceived resilience. Assessing attachment patterns during inpatient rehabilitation may allow therapists to intervene to provide greater support.

Using attachment theory to inform the design and delivery of mental health services: a systematic review of the literature

PURPOSE

The aim of this review was to propose and describe the design and delivery of an attachment-informed general mental health service.

METHOD

We systematically searched the PsycINFO, MEDLINE, Web of Knowledge, COPAC, CINAHL, and Science Direct databases from 1960 to 2013. We also searched reference lists of relevant papers and directly contacted authors in the field. Literature describing attachment theory and its applicability in designing and delivering general mental health services was synthesized using thematic analysis. Papers published in English, books or chapters in edited books that described applying attachment theory in designing and delivering mental health services for adults and adolescents were included in the review. Of the 1,105 articles identified, 14 met inclusion criteria for the review. Eight key themes, and four subthemes, were extracted and organized to reflect the experience of a service user moving through the mental health system.

RESULTS

Key themes extracted were as follows: service policy and evaluation; referrals; assessment and formulation; intervention; support for staff; support for carers; moving on; and potential service benefits. Papers reviewed suggested that service users with severe mental health problems have attachment needs that should be met in general mental health services.

CONCLUSIONS

Attachment theory provides a useful framework to inform the design and delivery of general mental health services. The resource implications for services are discussed, as are limitations of the review and recommendations for future research.

PRACTITIONER POINTS

Attachment theory should be used to inform the design and delivery of general mental health services. Mental health services should evaluate the extent to which they meet service users' attachment needs. Attachment-informed mental health services should assess outcomes, including cost-effectiveness over time. Papers included in this review focus on long-stay residential care or secure services and there is a limited experimental evidence base to show that providing an attachment-informed service improves patient outcomes.

"Why Did You Want to See Me?": Teachers' Reactions to a Student's Request as a Function of Teachers' Personal Early Experiences of Attachment

This study attempts to demonstrate the relationship between teachers' personal early experiences of attachment with their parents and their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral reactions to a hypothetical student's request to speak with them, expressed in short or detailed form. A similar procedure has been used by Perrine and Steele King for students, and now has been used for teachers. For this purpose, self-report questionnaires were administered to a sample of 395 female teachers. The results showed a significant relationship between parental bonding experiences and behavioral and emotional, but not cognitive, reactions to an hypothetical student's request. The optimal parenting group reported more positive emotional and behavioral reactions, while the affectionate control group reported more negative emotional reactions to the hypothetical student's request than the other groups. These results offer useful implications to be utilized in teachers' training programs.

Calibrating Use of Emotion Regulation Strategies to the Relationship Context: An Attachment Perspective

This research tested whether adult attachment orientations predict use of emotion regulation strategies in theoretically consistent ways, and whether associations among attachment orientations and emotion regulatory strategies are moderated by critical features of the relationship context. Ninety-six couples (192 individuals) reported on their attachment orientations, habitual use of emotion regulation strategies (cognitive reappraisal, expressive suppression, negative emotion expressivity), and perceptions of relationship closeness and negative partner behaviors. Highly secure individuals reported greater use of cognitive reappraisal, especially when they felt closer to their partners, and engaged in less suppression when their partners behaved more negatively toward them. Highly avoidant individuals reported greater use of suppression, especially when they perceived more negative partner behaviors, and when their partners were more avoidant. Highly anxious individuals also used more suppression when their partners were more avoidant, but they expressed more negative emotions when they were paired with less avoidant partners. Fearful-avoidant individuals' emotion regulation patterns resembled those of both highly secure and dismissive-avoidant individuals. This study illustrates how attending to moderating effects within specific relationships and testing joint effects of both partners' personality characteristics can help identify contextual boundaries of emotion regulation strategies and clarify emotional response patterns in couples.

Machiavellianism and Adult Attachment in General Interpersonal Relationships and Close Relationships

Up to the present, the relationship between Machiavellianism and adult attachment has remained a question to be answered in the psychological literature. That is why this study focused on the relationship between Machiavellianism and attachment towards significant others in general interpersonal relationships and in intimate-close relationships. Two attachment tests (Relationship Questionnaire and long-form of Experiences in Close Relationship) and the Mach-IV test were conducted on a sample consisting of 185 subjects. Results have revealed that Machiavellian subjects show a dismissing-avoidant attachment style in their general interpersonal relationships, while avoidance is further accompanied by some characteristics of attachment anxiety in their intimate-close relationships. Our findings further refine the relationship between Machiavellianism and dismissing-avoidant attachment. Machiavellian individuals not only have a negative representation of significant others, but they also tend to seek symbiotic closeness in order to exploit their partners. This ambitendency in distance regulation might be particularly important in understanding the vulnerability of Machiavellian individuals.

Emotion regulation as a mediator in the relationship between attachment and depressive symptomatology: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Attachment theory has been conceptualised as an emotion regulation theory. Research attributes the occurrence of depressive symptoms to a dysfunction of emotion regulation. Anxious attachment and avoidant attachment, which are two dimensions of insecure attachment, are hypothesised to lead to the development of hyperactivating and deactivating emotion regulation strategies.

METHODS

This systematic review examines the literature on the role of emotion regulation and its relationship with attachment and depressive symptomatology. Furthermore, we examined evidence for hyperactivating and deactivating strategies.

RESULTS

Nineteen papers were identified. Adolescent studies demonstrated associations of varying strength and found unreliable and contradictory results for emotion regulation as a mediator. Conversely, adult studies provided strong evidence for emotion regulation as a mediator. The hypothesis that hyperactivating strategies mediate anxious attachment and depressive symptoms was consistently supported. Mixed evidence was provided for deactivating strategies as mediators to avoidant attachment and depressive symptomatology.

LIMITATIONS

Limitations of methodology and quality of studies are identified with particular attention drawn to problems with conceptual singularity and multicollinearity.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite mixed variable findings, this review indicates that emotion regulation is a mediator between attachment and depression. Hyperactivating strategies, in particular, have been consistently noted as mediators for anxious attachment and depressive symptomatology, whereas evidence for deactivating strategies as mediators between avoidant attachment and depressive symptoms has been mixed. Future research should test the mediators of attachment and symptoms and examine theoretically grounded models of psychopathology, such as metacognitive and cognitive models using clinical samples.

Parents' self-reported attachment styles: a review of links with parenting behaviors, emotions, and cognitions

For decades, attachment scholars have been investigating how parents' adult attachment orientations relate to the ways in which they parent. Traditionally, this research has been conducted by developmental and clinical psychologists who typically employ the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) to measure adult attachment. However, dating back to the mid-1990s, social and personality psychologists have been investigating how self-reported adult attachment styles relate to various facets of parenting. The literature on self-reported attachment and parenting has received less attention than AAI research on the same topic and, to date, there is no comprehensive review of this literature. In this article, we review more than 60 studies of the links between self-reported attachment styles and parenting, integrate the findings to reach general conclusions, discuss unresolved questions, and suggest future directions. Finally, we discuss the potential benefits to the study of parenting of collaborations among researchers from the developmental and social attachment research traditions.

Common therapeutic factors in bereavement groups

Group therapy remains a popular treatment format for individuals experiencing bereavement. Although many innovative group treatments for grief are being developed, common therapeutic factors can also contribute to outcomes. The author integrates research on group therapy processes and treatment for grief, and examines evidence regarding group therapeutic factors that may influence bereavement group outcomes. Specifically, research on therapeutic factors related to sharing and support, interpersonal learning, and meaning-making is highlighted where it has relevance to bereavement groups. Potential research examining the interactions of these processes, their effects on group functioning and outcomes, and the moderators of these effects are discussed.

Adult attachment and emotion dysregulation in borderline personality and somatoform disorders

BACKGROUND

Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and somatoform disorders (SoD) involve significant problems in relationships and emotion regulation, but the similarities and differences between these disorders in these areas is not well understood.

METHOD

In 472 psychotherapy inpatients BPD and/or SoD diagnoses were confirmed or ruled out using clinical interviews and standardized measures. Emotional under- and over-regulation and indices of adult attachment working models and fears were assessed with validated self-report measures. Bivariate and multivariate analyses were conducted to examine relationships among the study variables and differences based on diagnostic status.

RESULTS

Under-regulation of emotion was moderately related to fear of abandonment but weakly related to fear of closeness. Over-regulation of emotion was moderately related to fear of closeness but not to fear of abandonment. BPD was associated with under-regulation of emotion and fear of abandonment, and, when comorbid with SoD, with fear of closeness. SoD was associated with inhibition or denial of fears of abandonment or closeness, and over-regulation of emotion.

CONCLUSIONS

Study results suggest that insecure attachment may play a role in both BPD and SoD, but in different ways, with hyperactivating emotion dysregulation prominent in BPD and deactivating emotion dysregulation evident in SoD. Also, combined hyper- and de-activating strategy components that may reflect a pattern of disorganized attachment were found, particularly in patients with comorbid BPD and SoD.

Attachment style moderates partner presence effects on pain: a laser-evoked potentials study

Social support is crucial for psychological and physical well-being. Yet, in experimental and clinical pain research, the presence of others has been found to both attenuate and intensify pain. To investigate the factors underlying these mixed effects, we administered noxious laser stimuli to 39 healthy women while their romantic partner was present or absent, and measured pain ratings and laser-evoked potentials (LEPs) to assess the effects of partner presence on subjective pain experience and underlying neural processes. Further, we examined whether individual differences in adult attachment style (AAS), alone or in interaction with the partner’s level of attentional focus (manipulated to be either on or away from the participant) might modulate these effects. We found that the effects of partner presence vs absence on pain-related measures depended on AAS but not partner attentional focus. The higher participants’ attachment avoidance, the higher pain ratings and N2 and P2 local peak amplitudes were in the presence compared with the absence of the romantic partner. As LEPs are thought to reflect activity relating to the salience of events, our data suggest that partner presence may influence the perceived salience of events threatening the body, particularly in individuals who tend to mistrust others.

Anxious attachment style predicts an enhanced cortisol response to group psychosocial stress

Insecure attachment style is associated with poor health outcomes. A proposed pathway implicates the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA-axis), dysregulation of which is associated with a wide range of mental and physical ill-health. However, data on stress reactivity in relation to attachment style is contradictory. This relationship was examined using the novel Trier Social Stress Test for groups (TSST-G): a group-based acute psychosocial stressor. Each participant, in the presence of other group members, individually performed public speaking and mental arithmetic tasks. Seventy-eight healthy young females (20.2 ± 3.2 years), in groups of up to six participants completed demographic information and the Vulnerable Attachment Style Questionnaire (VASQ), and were then exposed to the TSST-G. Physiological stress reactivity was assessed using salivary cortisol concentrations, measured on seven occasions at 10-min intervals. Vulnerable attachment predicted greater cortisol reactivity independent of age, smoking status, menstrual phase and body mass index. Supplementary analysis indicated that insecure anxious attachment style (high scores on the insecurity and proximity-seeking sub-scales of the VASQ) showed greater cortisol reactivity than participants with secure attachment style. Avoidant attachment style (high scores for insecurity and low scores for proximity seeking) was not significantly different from the secure attachment style. Attachment style was not associated with the timing of the cortisol peak or post-stress recovery in cortisol concentrations. These findings in healthy young females indicate subtle underlying changes in HPA axis function in relation to attachment style and may be important for future mental health and well-being.

Grief and growth of bereaved siblings as related to attachment style and flexibility

This study examined the relationship between attachment style, coping flexibility, military/non-military cause of death, levels of grief reactions and posttraumatic growth (PTG), in 150 bereaved adult siblings in Israel. Insecurely attached participants, 72% of the sample, reported more grief and less PTG than did securely attached ones. Highly avoidant individuals exhibited the least amount of PTG. Securely attached siblings were more flexible and flexibly coping participants reported less grief and higher PTG. Cause of death was not related to grief and PTG. Discussion of these findings yields conditions enabling PTG after a sibling loss.

Another step closer to measuring the ghosts in the nursery: preliminary validation of the Trauma Reflective Functioning Scale

The aim of this study was to examine preliminary evidence of the validity of the Trauma Reflective Functioning Scale and to investigate reflective functioning (RF) and attachment in pregnant women with histories of trauma, with a particular focus on the capacity to mentalize regarding trauma and its implications for adaptation to pregnancy and couple functioning. The Adult Attachment Interview was used to assess attachment, unresolved trauma and mentalization (measured as RF) regarding relationships with attachment figures (RF-G) and trauma (RF-T) in 100 pregnant women with histories of abuse and neglect. The majority (63%) of women had insecure attachment states of mind and approximately half were unresolved regarding trauma. Furthermore, the majority of women manifested deficits specific to RF-T. Their RF-T was significantly lower than their RF-G; the findings indicate that women with histories of childhood abuse and neglect do not manifest a generic inhibition of reflectiveness, but a collapse of mentalization specific to trauma. Low RF-T, indicative of difficulty in considering traumatic experiences in mental state terms, was associated with difficulty in investment in the pregnancy and lack of positive feelings about the baby and motherhood. In addition, low RF-T was also associated with difficulties in intimate relationships. Results of a regression analysis with RF indicated that RF-T was the best predictor of investment in pregnancy and couple functioning. In sum, the study provides preliminary evidence that RF-T can be reliably measured and is a valid construct that has potential usefulness for research and clinical practice. It highlights the importance of mentalization specifically about trauma and suggests that it is not the experience of trauma per se, but the absence of mentalization regarding trauma that is associated with difficulties in close relationships and in making the transition to parenthood.

Facing danger: how do people behave in times of need? The case of adult attachment styles

Bowlby’s (1982) attachment theory has generated an enormous body of research and conceptual elaborations. Although attachment theory and research propose that attachment security provides a person with many adaptive advantages, during all phases of the life cycle, numerous studies indicate that almost half of the human species can be classified as insecurely attached or insecure with respect to attachment. It seems odd that evolution left humans in this vulnerable position, unless there are some advantages to individuals or groups, under at least some conditions, of anxious and avoidant attachment styles. I argue that a social group containing members with different attachment patterns may be more conducive to survival than a homogeneous group of securely attached individuals because each attachment disposition has specific adaptive advantages that promote the survival of the individual and people around him or her when facing threats and perils. In making this argument, I extend the scope of attachment theory and research by considering a broader range of adaptive functions of insecure attachment strategies, and present data to support my argument.

[Relationship between early maladaptive schemas, attachment quality and fear of darkness]

INTRODUCTION

Although fear of darkness is most common in childhood, it is also a remarkable phenomenon in young adulthood.

AIM

To examine the relationship between fear of darkness, early maladaptive schemas and attachment quality in young adults and assess fear related sex differences.

METHOD

A self-developed scale was used to measure fear of darkness' intensity and frequency. Young Schema Questionnaire - Short Form and two scales that measure attachment dimensions were also applied. 120 university students (68 women, 52 men) filled in the tests.

RESULTS

Fear of darkness' frequency correlated with avoidant attachment, and intensity with independent and anxious attachment. Fear of darkness variables correlated with several early maladaptive schemas. Women reported more frequent and intensive fear of darkness than men.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicated that the elevated level of fear of darkness is related to specific cognitive style and attachment quality. This highlights the potential clinical relevance of fear of darkness.