Phosphodiesterase 4D deficiency in the ryanodine-receptor complex promotes heart failure and arrhythmias

Defective Ca2+ cycling as a key pathogenic mechanism of heart failure

Structural and functional alterations in the Ca(2+) regulatory proteins present in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) have recently been shown to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of heart failure (HF), and lethal arrhythmia as well. Chronic activation of the sympathetic nervous system induces abnormalities in both the function and structure of these proteins. For instance, the diastolic Ca(2+) leak through the SR Ca(2+) release channel (ryanodine receptor) reduces the SR Ca(2+) content, inducing contractile dysfunction. Moreover, the Ca(2+) leak provides a substrate for delayed after depolarization that leads to lethal arrhythmia. There is a considerable body of evidence regarding the role of Ca(2+) cycling abnormality in HF.

5-HT4-elicited positive inotropic response is mediated by cAMP and regulated by PDE3 in failing rat and human cardiac ventricles

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The left ventricle in failing hearts becomes sensitive to 5-HT parallelled by appearance of functional G(s)-coupled 5-HT(4) receptors. Here, we have explored the regulatory functions of phosphodiesterases in the 5-HT(4) receptor-mediated functional effects in ventricular muscle from failing rat and human heart.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Extensive myocardial infarctions were induced by coronary artery ligation in Wistar rats. Contractility was measured in left ventricular papillary muscles of rat, 6 weeks after surgery and in left ventricular trabeculae from explanted human hearts. cAMP was quantified by RIA.

KEY RESULTS

In papillary muscles from postinfarction rat hearts, 5-HT(4) stimulation exerted positive inotropic and lusitropic effects and increased cAMP. The inotropic effect was increased by non-selective PDE inhibition (IBMX, 10 microM) and selective inhibition of PDE3 (cilostamide, 1 microM), but not of PDE2 (EHNA, 10 microM) or PDE4 (rolipram, 10 microM). Combined PDE3 and PDE4 inhibition enhanced inotropic responses beyond the effect of PDE3 inhibition alone, increased the sensitivity to 5-HT, and also revealed an inotropic response in control (sham-operated) rat ventricle. Lusitropic effects were increased only during combined PDE inhibition. In failing human ventricle, the 5-HT(4) receptor-mediated positive inotropic response was regulated by PDEs in a manner similar to that in postinfarction rat hearts.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

5-HT(4) receptor-mediated positive inotropic responses in failing rat ventricle were cAMP-dependent. PDE3 was the main PDE regulating this response and involvement of PDE4 was disclosed by concomitant inhibition of PDE3 in both postinfarction rat and failing human hearts. 5-HT, PDE3 and PDE4 may have pathophysiological functions in heart failure.

Production and characterization of pharmacologically active recombinant human phosphodiesterase 4B in Dictyostelium discoideum

Phosphodiesterase 4B (PDE4B) is an important therapeutic target for asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. To identify PDE4 subtype-specific compounds using high-throughput assays, full-length recombinant PDE4 proteins are needed in bulk quantity. In the present study, full-length human PDE4B2 was expressed in the cellular slime mould Dictyostelium discoideum (Dd). A cell density of 2 x 10(7) cells/mL was obtained and up to 1 mg/L recombinant PDE4B2 was purified through Ni-NTA affinity chromatography. The expressed protein was soluble and its activity was comparable to PDE4B2 protein expressed in mammalian cells (K(m)=1.7 microM). The functional significance of the Dd expression system is supported by the demonstration that, in concert with proteins expressed in mammalian systems, there are no major changes in the affinity for PDE4B2 inhibitors and substrates. These findings thus provide the first evidence that Dd can be utilized for the expression and purification of functionally active full-length human PDE4B2 in large amounts required for high-throughput screening of pharmacologically active compounds against this therapeutic target.

Phosphatase inhibitor-1-deficient mice are protected from catecholamine-induced arrhythmias and myocardial hypertrophy

AIMS

Phosphatase inhibitor-1 (I-1) is a conditional amplifier of beta-adrenergic signalling downstream of protein kinase A by inhibiting type-1 phosphatases only in its PKA-phosphorylated form. I-1 is downregulated in failing hearts and thus contributes to beta-adrenergic desensitization. It is unclear whether this should be viewed as a predominantly adverse or protective response.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We generated transgenic mice with cardiac-specific I-1 overexpression (I-1-TG) and evaluated cardiac function and responses to catecholamines in mice with targeted disruption of the I-1 gene (I-1-KO). Both groups were compared with their wild-type (WT) littermates. I-1-TG developed cardiac hypertrophy and mild dysfunction which was accompanied by a substantial compensatory increase in PP1 abundance and activity, confounding cause-effect relationships. I-1-KO had normal heart structure with mildly reduced sensitivity, but unchanged maximal contractile responses to beta-adrenergic stimulation, both in vitro and in vivo. Notably, I-1-KO were partially protected from lethal catecholamine-induced arrhythmias and from hypertrophy and dilation induced by a 7 day infusion with the beta-adrenergic agonist isoprenaline. Moreover, I-1-KO exhibited a partially preserved acute beta-adrenergic response after chronic isoprenaline, which was completely absent in similarly treated WT. At the molecular level, I-1-KO showed lower steady-state phosphorylation of the cardiac ryanodine receptor/Ca(2+) release channel and the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+)-ATPase-regulating protein phospholamban. These alterations may lower the propensity for diastolic Ca(2+) release and Ca(2+) uptake and thus stabilize the SR and account for the protection.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, loss of I-1 attenuates detrimental effects of catecholamines on the heart, suggesting I-1 downregulation in heart failure as a beneficial desensitization mechanism and I-1 inhibition as a potential novel strategy for heart failure treatment.

[Ryanodine receptor and heart disease]

Calcium ions (Ca2+) play an essential role in cardiac excitation-contraction coupling. Ca2+ is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) and is release via SR-Ca-release channels (ryanodine receptors, RyR2) to trigger contraction. RyR2 is a homotetramer comprising 4 pore-forming subunits. Each subunit is closely associated to regulatory proteins such as calstabine 2 (FKBP12.6), calmodulin, PKA, CamKII, calsequestrin and form a macromolecular complex that plays a critical role in pathological conditions. As a matter of fact, alterations of the channel activity and/or associated regulatory proteins can cause severe functional alterations resulting in arrhythmias and sudden death. Thus, RyR2 represent a novel therapeutic target and the discovery of a new pharmacological agent able to restore a normal RyR2 channel function represents a major challenge in the cardiac field.

Cytoplasmic cAMP concentrations in intact cardiac myocytes

In cardiac myocytes there is evidence that activation of some receptors can regulate protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent responses by stimulating cAMP production that is limited to discrete intracellular domains. We previously developed a computational model of compartmentalized cAMP signaling to investigate the feasibility of this idea. The model was able to reproduce experimental results demonstrating that both beta(1)-adrenergic and M(2) muscarinic receptor-mediated cAMP changes occur in microdomains associated with PKA signaling. However, the model also suggested that the cAMP concentration throughout most of the cell could be significantly higher than that found in PKA-signaling domains. In the present study we tested this counterintuitive hypothesis using a freely diffusible fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based biosensor constructed from the type 2 exchange protein activated by cAMP (Epac2-camps). It was determined that in adult ventricular myocytes the basal cAMP concentration detected by the probe is approximately 1.2 muM, which is high enough to maximally activate PKA. Furthermore, the probe detected responses produced by both beta(1) and M(2) receptor activation. Modeling suggests that responses detected by Epac2-camps mainly reflect what is happening in a bulk cytosolic compartment with little contribution from microdomains where PKA signaling occurs. These results support the conclusion that even though beta(1) and M(2) receptor activation can produce global changes in cAMP, compartmentation plays an important role by maintaining microdomains where cAMP levels are significantly below that found throughout most of the cell. This allows receptor stimulation to regulate cAMP activity over concentration ranges appropriate for modulating both higher (e.g., PKA) and lower affinity (e.g., Epac) effectors.

Anxiogenic-like behavioral phenotype of mice deficient in phosphodiesterase 4B (PDE4B)

Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4), an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of cyclic AMP and plays a critical role in controlling its intracellular concentration, has been implicated in depression- and anxiety-like behaviors. However, the functions of the four PDE4 subfamilies (PDE4A, PDE4B, PDE4C, and PDE4D) remain largely unknown. In animal tests sensitive to anxiolytics, antidepressants, memory enhancers, or analgesics, we examined the behavioral phenotype of mice deficient in PDE4B (PDE4B-/-). Immunoblot analysis revealed loss of PDE4B expression in the cerebral cortex and amygdala of PDE4B-/- mice. The reduction of PDE4B expression was accompanied by decreases in PDE4 activity in the brain regions of PDE4B-/- mice. Compared to PDE4B+/+ littermates, PDE4B-/- mice displayed anxiogenic-like behavior, as evidenced by decreased head-dips and time spent in head-dipping in the holeboard test, reduced transitions and time on the light side in the light-dark transition test, and decreased initial exploration and rears in the open-field test. Consistent with anxiogenic-like behavior, PDE4B-/- mice displayed increased levels of plasma corticosterone. In addition, these mice also showed a modest increase in the proliferation of neuronal cells in the hippocampal dentate gyrus. In the forced-swim test, PDE4B-/- mice exhibited decreased immobility; however, this was not supported by the results from the tail-suspension test. PDE4B-/- mice did not display changes in memory, locomotor activity, or nociceptive responses. Taken together, these results suggest that the PDE4B subfamily is involved in signaling pathways that contribute to anxiogenic-like effects on behavior.

Some components of the cardiac β-adrenergic system are altered in the chronic indeterminate form of experimental Trypanosoma cruzi infection

The chronic indeterminate form of Trypanosoma cruzi infection could be the key to knowing which patients will develop chagasic myocardiopathy. Infected mice present a period in which cardiac functional and structural alterations are different from those described for acute or chronic phases. We studied some components of the cardiac β-adrenergic system in mouse hearts infected with T. cruzi Tulahuen strain or SGO-Z12 isolate during the chronic indeterminate phase of infection. We determined: (i) the primary messenger (epinephrine and norepinephrine) levels in plasma by reverse-phase-HPLC; (ii) the cardiac β-adrenergic receptors' (β-AR) density and affinity by binding with tritiated dihidroalprenolol and by immunofluorescence; (iii) the cardiac concentration of the second messenger (cAMP) (by ELISA) given its importance for the phosphorylation of the proteins involved in cardiac contraction; (iv) the cardiac contractility and functional studies of the β-ARs as a response to the ligand binding to the receptor; and (v) the left ventricular ejection fraction as a measure of in vivo cardiac function. Plasma catecholamines levels remained similar to those found in uninfected controls. The β-ARs' affinity decreased in both infected groups compared with the uninfected group (P<0.05) while the receptors' density increased only in the SGO-Z12 group (P<0.01). Cyclic AMP levels were higher in both infected groups (P<0.01) relative to controls, and were higher in SGO-Z12-infected mice compared with those infected with the Tulahuen strain. However, the basal contractile force remained unchanged and the response to catecholamines only increased in the Tulahuen group (P<0.05). The left ventricular ejection fraction, on the other hand, was diminished in SGO-Z12-infected mice. Heterogeneity between T. cruzi strains determine, in the chronic indeterminate form, alterations in the signaling pathways of the β-adrenergic system at different levels: (i) between catecholamines and the β(1)-receptors; (ii) between the receptors' activation and the adenylyl-cyclase activation; and/or (iii) between cAMP and the contractile response.

Toward biologically targeted therapy of calcium cycling defects in heart failure

A growing body of evidence indicates that heart failure progression is tightly associated with dysregulation of phosphorylation of Ca2+ regulators localized in the sub-cellular microdomain of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. Chemical or genetic correction of abnormalities in cardiac phosphorylation cascades is emerging as a potential target in the treatment of heart failure. Here, we review how specific kinases and phosphatases finely tune Ca2+ cycling and regulate excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling in cardiomyocytes.

Remodeling of ryanodine receptor complex causes "leaky" channels: a molecular mechanism for decreased exercise capacity

During exercise, defects in calcium (Ca2+) release have been proposed to impair muscle function. Here, we show that during exercise in mice and humans, the major Ca2+ release channel required for excitation-contraction coupling (ECC) in skeletal muscle, the ryanodine receptor (RyR1), is progressively PKA-hyperphosphorylated, S-nitrosylated, and depleted of the phosphodiesterase PDE4D3 and the RyR1 stabilizing subunit calstabin1 (FKBP12), resulting in "leaky" channels that cause decreased exercise tolerance in mice. Mice with skeletal muscle-specific calstabin1 deletion or PDE4D deficiency exhibited significantly impaired exercise capacity. A small molecule (S107) that prevents depletion of calstabin1 from the RyR1 complex improved force generation and exercise capacity, reduced Ca2+-dependent neutral protease calpain activity and plasma creatine kinase levels. Taken together, these data suggest a possible mechanism by which Ca2+ leak via calstabin1-depleted RyR1 channels leads to defective Ca2+ signaling, muscle damage, and impaired exercise capacity.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium leak and cardiac arrhythmias

Ventricular arrhythmias deteriorating into sudden cardiac death are a major cause of mortality worldwide. The recent linkage of a genetic form of cardiac arrhythmia to mutations in the gene encoding RyR2 (ryanodine receptor 2) has uncovered an important role of this SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum) calcium release channel in triggering arrhythmias. Mutant RyR2 channels give rise to spontaneous release of calcium (Ca(2+)) from the SR during diastole, which enhances the probability of ventricular arrhythmias. Several molecular mechanisms have been proposed to explain the gain-of-function phenotype observed in mutant RyR2 channels. Despite considerable differences between the models discussed in the present review, each predicts spontaneous diastolic Ca(2+) leak from the SR due to incomplete closure of the RyR2 channel. Enhanced SR Ca(2+) leak is also observed in common structural diseases of the heart, such as heart failure. In heart failure, defective channel regulation in the absence of inherited mutations may also increase SR Ca(2+) leak and initiate cardiac arrhythmias. Therefore inhibition of diastolic Ca(2+) leak through SR Ca(2+) release channels has emerged as a new and promising therapeutic target for cardiac arrhythmias.

Mechanisms of human arrhythmia syndromes: abnormal cardiac macromolecular interactions

Many cardiac ion channels exist within macromolecular signaling complexes, comprised of pore-forming subunits that associate with auxiliary subunits, regulatory enzymes, and targeting proteins. This complex protein assembly ensures proper modulation of channel activity and ion homeostasis. The association of genetic defects in regulatory and targeting proteins to inherited arrhythmia syndromes has led to a better understanding of the critical role these proteins play in ion channel modulation.

Signaling from beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptors is defined by differential interactions with PDE4

Beta1- and beta2-adrenergic receptors (betaARs) are highly homologous, yet they play clearly distinct roles in cardiac physiology and pathology. Myocyte contraction, for instance, is readily stimulated by beta1AR but not beta2AR signaling, and chronic stimulation of the two receptors has opposing effects on myocyte apoptosis and cell survival. Differences in the assembly of macromolecular signaling complexes may explain the distinct biological outcomes. Here, we demonstrate that beta1AR forms a signaling complex with a cAMP-specific phosphodiesterase (PDE) in a manner inherently different from a beta2AR/beta-arrestin/PDE complex reported previously. The beta1AR binds a PDE variant, PDE4D8, in a direct manner, and occupancy of the receptor by an agonist causes dissociation of this complex. Conversely, agonist binding to the beta2AR is a prerequisite for the recruitment of a complex consisting of beta-arrestin and the PDE4D variant, PDE4D5, to the receptor. We propose that the distinct modes of interaction with PDEs result in divergent cAMP signals in the vicinity of the two receptors, thus, providing an additional layer of complexity to enforce the specificity of beta1- and beta2-adrenoceptor signaling.

A-kinase anchoring proteins as the basis for cAMP signaling

Common challenges to any cell are the processing of the extracellular stimuli it receives into intracellular signaling cascades that initiate a multitude of diverse biological functions. However, many of these stimuli act via a common signaling pathway, suggesting the cell must somehow discriminate between different stimuli and respond accordingly. Subcellular targeting through the association with adaptor and scaffolding proteins has emerged as a key mechanism by which cells maintain signaling specificity. Compartmentation of cAMP signaling is maintained by the clustering of cAMP signaling enzymes in discrete units by the scaffolding protein A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAP). In doing so, AKAPs provide the molecular architecture for the cAMP micordomains that underlie the spacial-temporal control of cAMP signaling.

Neural remodeling may partly contribute to the abnormality of excitation–contraction coupling in heart failure

Heart failure (HF) is a major and growing public health problem in the world. About 50% of deaths in HF occur suddenly due to malignant arrhythmia. Therefore, exploring the further mechanisms of chronic HF and finding new therapy targets are essential for the progression of HF treatment. Recently, some published papers suggested that myocardial neural remodeling and abnormal excitation-contraction (EC) coupling might partly contribute to the development of HF and sudden cardiac death. Even though a few studies have demonstrated that the sympathetic nerve system (SNS) may have significant impact on the functional states of myocardial EC coupling through the beta-adrenergic signaling pathway, so far, it still remains unknown that whether neural remodeling affects the EC coupling. Studies from Marks' group demonstrated that 70% of cardiac ryanodine receptors (RyR2), which located on the sarcoplasmic reculum (SR) controlling intracellular Ca(2+) release and muscle contraction in the heart, from failing hearts were abnormal and only 15% exhibited the most severe defects. In addition, Litwin et al. observed that temporal and spatial heterogeneities in local Ca(2+) release events in a rabbit model of HF after myocardial infarction. Because some studies have demonstrated that chronic SNS hyperactivity in HF led to protein kinase A (PKA) hyperphosphorylation of RyR2 in the heart, and the myocardial sympathetic nerve distribution become heterogeneous in the setting of HF. Thus, it is reasonable for us to propose the hypothesis that neural remodeling may partly account for the abnormality of EC coupling in HF.

PDE4 inhibitor, roflumilast protects cardiomyocytes against NO-induced apoptosis via activation of PKA and Epac dual pathways

Myocyte apoptosis plays an important role in myocardial infarction and cAMP is crucial in the regulation of myocyte apoptosis. Phosphodiesterase-4 (PDE4) inhibitor blocks the hydrolysis of cAMP via inhibition of PDE4 and is attractive candidate for novel anti-inflammatory drugs. However, its function in cardiovascular diseases and cardiomyocyte apoptosis is unclear. Therefore, we investigated whether roflumilast, a PDE4 inhibitor, exerts protective effect against NO-induced apoptosis in both of H9c2 cells and neonatal rat cardiomyocytes (NRCMs), focusing on cAMP downstream molecules such as protein kinase A (PKA) and exchange protein directly activated by cAMP (Epac). According to our data, intracellular cAMP was increased by roflumilast treatment in H9c2 cells and NRCMs. Roflumilast inhibited SNP-induced apoptosis and this effect was reversed by PKA specific inhibitor H-89 and KT-5720. In addition, PKA specific activator N(6)-benzoyladenosine 3',5-cyclic monophosphate (N(6)Bz-cAMP) mimicked the effects of roflumilast. CREB phosphorylation by roflumilast was also inhibited by H-89, indicating that roflumilast protects SNP-induced apoptosis via PKA-dependent pathway. Roflumilast increased Epac1/GTP-Rap1 and the protective effect was abolished by Epac1 siRNA transfection, demonstrating that Epac signaling was also involved in this protective response. In support, Epac specific activator 8-(4-chlrorophenylthio)-2'-O-methyladenosine-3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (8CPT-2Me-cAMP) protected SNP-induced apoptosis. PI3K/Akt inhibitor LY294002 blocked roflumilast-induced Akt phosphorylation and protective effect. Furthermore, inhibition of Epac1 with siRNA had no effect on roflumilast-induced CREB phosphorylation, whereas inhibited Akt phosphorylation, implicating that Akt phosphorylation was regulated by Epac pathway. In addition, it was also observed that rolipram and cilomilast exert similar effects as roflumilast. In summary, our data indicate that roflumilast protects NO-induced apoptosis via both cAMP-PKA/CREB and Epac/Akt-dependent pathway. Our study suggests a possibility of PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast as a potential therapeutic agent against myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury.

Inherited arrhythmias: a National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Office of Rare Diseases workshop consensus report about the diagnosis, phenotyping, molecular mechanisms, and therapeutic approaches for primary cardiomyopathies of gene mutations affecting ion channel function

The National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and Office of Rare Diseases at the National Institutes of Health organized a workshop (September 14 to 15, 2006, in Bethesda, Md) to advise on new research directions needed for improved identification and treatment of rare inherited arrhythmias. These included the following: (1) Na+ channelopathies; (2) arrhythmias due to K+ channel mutations; and (3) arrhythmias due to other inherited arrhythmogenic mechanisms. Another major goal was to provide recommendations to support, enable, or facilitate research to improve future diagnosis and management of inherited arrhythmias. Classifications of electric heart diseases have proved to be exceedingly complex and in many respects contradictory. A new contemporary and rigorous classification of arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathies is proposed. This consensus report provides an important framework and overview to this increasingly heterogeneous group of primary cardiac membrane channel diseases. Of particular note, the present classification scheme recognizes the rapid evolution of molecular biology and novel therapeutic approaches in cardiology, as well as the introduction of many recently described diseases, and is unique in that it incorporates ion channelopathies as a primary cardiomyopathy in consensus with a recent American Heart Association Scientific Statement.

Phosphodiesterase-4 blunts inotropism and arrhythmias but not sinoatrial tachycardia of (-)-adrenaline mediated through mouse cardiac beta(1)-adrenoceptors

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

beta(1) and beta(2)-adrenoceptors coexist in murine heart but beta(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated effects have not been detected in atrial and ventricular tissues, possibly due to marked phosphodiesterase (PDE) activity. We investigated the influence of the PDE3 inhibitor cilostamide and PDE4 inhibitor rolipram on the effects of (-)-adrenaline in three regions of murine heart.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

(-)-Adrenaline-evoked cardiostimulation was compared on sinoatrial beating rate, left atrial and right ventricular contractile force in isolated tissues from 129SvxC57B1/6 cross mice. Ventricular arrhythmic contractions were also assessed.

KEY RESULTS

Both rolipram (1 microM) and cilostamide (300 nM) caused transient sinoatrial tachycardia but neither enhanced the chronotropic potency of (-)-adrenaline. Rolipram potentiated 19-fold (left atrium) and 7-fold (right ventricle) the inotropic effects of (-)-adrenaline. (-)-Adrenaline elicited concentration-dependent ventricular arrhythmias that were potentiated by rolipram. All effects of (-)-adrenaline were antagonized by the beta(1)-adrenoceptor-selective antagonist CGP20712A (300 nM). Cilostamide (300 nM) did not increase the chronotropic and inotropic potencies of (-)-adrenaline, but administered jointly with rolipram in the presence of CGP20712A, uncovered left atrial inotropic effects of (-)-adrenaline that were prevented by the beta(2)-adrenoceptor-selective antagonist ICI118551.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

PDE4 blunts the beta(1)-adrenoceptor-mediated effects of (-)-adrenaline in left atrium and right ventricle but not in sinoatrial node. Both PDE3 and PDE4 reduce basal sinoatrial rate in a compartment distinct from the beta(1)-adrenoceptor compartment. PDE3 and PDE4, acting in concert, prevent left atrial beta(2)-adrenoceptor-mediated inotropy. PDE4 partially protects the right ventricle against (-)-adrenaline-evoked arrhythmias.

Spectrin-anchored phosphodiesterase 4D4 restricts cAMP from disrupting microtubules and inducing endothelial cell gap formation

Dynamic cAMP fluctuations that are restricted to a sub-plasma-membrane domain strengthen endothelial barrier integrity. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) localize within this domain where they limit cAMP diffusion into the bulk cytosolic compartment; however, the molecular identity of PDEs responsible for endothelial cell membrane cAMP compartmentation remain poorly understood. Our present findings reveal that the D4 splice variant of the PDE4 phosphodiesterase family - PDE4D4 - is expressed in pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells, and is found in plasma membrane fractions. PDE4D4 interacts with alpha II spectrin within this membrane domain. Although constitutive PDE4D4 activity limits cAMP access to the bulk cytosol, inhibiting its activity permits cAMP to access a cytosolic domain that is rich in microtubules, where it promotes protein kinase A (PKA) phosphorylation of tau at Ser214. Such phosphorylation reorganizes microtubules and induces interendothelial cell gap formation. Thus, spectrin-anchored PDE4D4 shapes the physiological response to cAMP by directing it to barrier-enhancing effectors while limiting PKA-mediated microtubule reorganization.

Structures of the four subfamilies of phosphodiesterase-4 provide insight into the selectivity of their inhibitors

PDE4 (phosphodiesterase-4)-selective inhibitors have attracted much attention as potential therapeutics for the treatment of both depression and major inflammatory diseases, but their practical application has been compromised by side effects. A possible cause for the side effects is that current PDE4-selective inhibitors similarly inhibit isoforms from all four PDE4 subfamilies. The development of PDE4 subfamily-selective inhibitors has been hampered by a lack of structural information. In the present study, we rectify this by providing the crystal structures of the catalytic domains of PDE4A, PDE4B and PDE4D in complex with the PDE4 inhibitor NVP {4-[8-(3-nitrophenyl)-[1,7]naphthyridin-6-yl]benzoic acid} as well as the unliganded PDE4C structure. NVP binds in the same conformation to the deep cAMP substrate pocket and interacts with the same residues in each instance. However, detailed structural comparison reveals significant conformational differences. Although the active sites of PDE4B and PDE4D are mostly comparable, PDE4A shows significant displacements of the residues next to the invariant glutamine residue that is critical for substrate and inhibitor binding. PDE4C appears to be more distal from other PDE4 subfamilies, with certain key residues being disordered. Our analyses provide the first structural basis for the development of PDE4 subfamily-selective inhibitors.

The effects of a type 4 phosphodiesterase inhibitor and the muscarinic cholinergic antagonist tolterodine tartrate on detrusor overactivity in female rats with bladder outlet obstruction

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the effects of the selective phosphodiesterase (PDE) type 4 inhibitor IC485 and the widely used antimuscarinic drug tolterodine tartrate on bladder activity in rats with bladder outlet obstruction (BOO), as inhibition of PDE4 leads to elevation of intracellular cAMP levels and relaxation of smooth muscle.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

BOO was induced in female Sprague-Dawley rats by tying a silk ligature around the urethra. Six weeks after inducing BOO, conscious rats were assessed by cystometry with the urethral ligature intact. The effects of IC485 (5, 10 and 50 mg/kg intravenous, i.v.) were examined and compared with those of tolterodine (0.01, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg i.v.).

RESULTS

IC485 (5-50 mg/kg i.v.) decreased the number and amplitude of non-voiding contractions during the storage phase by 63-88% and 49-83%, respectively; IC485 also increased bladder capacity by 28-37%. There was no change in blood pressure after applying IC485. Tolterodine tartrate (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg) significantly decreased the number and amplitude of non-voiding contractions by 38-74% and 29-44%, respectively, and increased bladder capacity by 19-51%. Whereas voiding efficiency and maximum voiding pressure were not altered by IC485 at any dose, tolterodine significantly reduced both, by 35-67% and 19-34%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Both IC485 and tolterodine tartrate reduced detrusor overactivity in rats with BOO. In addition, doses of IC485 that suppressed non-voiding contractions had no effect on voiding function. Therefore, selective PDE4 inhibitors deserve further study as potential agents for treating detrusor overactivity in patients with BOO.

Cloning, stable expression of human phosphodiesterase 7A and development of an assay for screening of PDE7 selective inhibitors

Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) constitute a superfamily of enzymes that plays an important role in signal transduction by catalysing the hydrolysis of cAMP and cGMP. cDNA encoding PDE7A1 subtype was cloned and a stable recombinant HEK 293 cell line expressing high levels of PDE7A1 was generated. Transient transfection of pCRE-Luc plasmid, harboring luciferase reporter gene into the stable recombinant cell line and subsequent treatment with PDE7 inhibitor, resulted in a dose-dependent increase in luciferase activity. This method provides a simple and sensitive cell-based assay for screening of PDE7 selective inhibitors for the treatment of T cell mediated diseases.

Small-molecule inhibitors of PDE-IV and -VII in the treatment of respiratory diseases and chronic inflammation

Targeting phosphodiesterase IV (PDE-IV) with small-molecule inhibitors as a therapeutic for chronic inflammatory disorders has been an active area of research interest for many years. The major drawback, however, has been to develop pharmacophores that would differentiate between targeting isoforms of PDE-IV associated with inflammation, as opposed to those that cause emesis, a major side effect associated with PDE-IV inhibition. Several different approaches have been employed, including designing subtype selective PDE-IV inhibitors. A recent approach has been to develop chemotypes that target PDE-VII, a cAMP-specific PDE, expressed widely in immune and pro-inflammatory cells. It is hypothesized that dual inhibitors, which function to inhibit both PDE-IV and VII, may achieve a higher therapeutic index and thereby exhibit a lower propensity to cause adverse side effects that are characteristic when targeting PDE-IV alone. This review focuses on the major classes of compounds that are presently being studied for their potential to inhibit PDE-VII and discusses the available data in the development of dual PDE-IV and -VII inhibitors, their biologic activity and their scope as a therapeutic choice in chronic inflammatory diseases.

A Novel Early Onset Lethal Form of Catecholaminergic Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia Maps to Chromosome 7p14-p22

INTRODUCTION

Previously, autosomal dominant catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT [1]) was mapped to chromosome 1q42-43 with identification of pathogenic mutations in RYR2. Autosomal recessive CPVT (2) was mapped to chromosome 1p13-21, leading to the identification of mutations in CASQ2. In this study, we aimed to elucidate clinical phenotypes of a new variant of CPVT (3) in an inbred Arab family and also delineate the chromosomal location of the gene causing CPVT (3).

METHODS AND RESULTS

In a highly inbred family, clinical symptoms of CPVT appeared early in childhood (7-12 years) and in three of the four cases, the first appearance of symptoms turned into a fatal outcome. Parents of the affected children were first-degree cousins and without any symptoms. Segregation analysis suggested an autosomal recessive inheritance. A genome-wide search using polymorphic DNA markers mapped the disease locus to a 25-Mb interval on chromosome 7p14-p22. A maximal multipoint LOD score of 3.17 was obtained at marker D7S493. Sequencing of putative candidate genes, SP4, NPY, FKBP9, FKBP14, PDE1C, and TBX20, in and around this locus, did not reveal any mutation.

CONCLUSIONS

We have identified a novel highly malignant autosomal recessive form of CPVT and mapped this disorder to a 25-Mb interval on chromosome 7p14-p22.

Biochemistry and physiology of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases: essential components in cyclic nucleotide signaling

Although cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) were described soon after the discovery of cAMP, their complexity and functions in signaling is only recently beginning to become fully realized. We now know that at least 100 different PDE proteins degrade cAMP and cGMP in eukaryotes. A complex PDE gene organization and a large number of PDE splicing variants serve to fine-tune cyclic nucleotide signals and contribute to specificity in signaling. Here we review some of the major concepts related to our understanding of PDE function and regulation including: (a) the structure of catalytic and regulatory domains and arrangement in holoenzymes; (b) PDE integration into signaling complexes; (c) the nature and function of negative and positive feedback circuits that have been conserved in PDEs from prokaryotes to human; (d) the emerging association of mutant PDE alleles with inherited diseases; and (e) the role of PDEs in generating subcellular signaling compartments.

p75 neurotrophin receptor regulates tissue fibrosis through inhibition of plasminogen activation via a PDE4/cAMP/PKA pathway

Clearance of fibrin through proteolytic degradation is a critical step of matrix remodeling that contributes to tissue repair in a variety of pathological conditions, such as stroke, atherosclerosis, and pulmonary disease. However, the molecular mechanisms that regulate fibrin deposition are not known. Here, we report that the p75 neurotrophin receptor (p75^NTR), a TNF receptor superfamily member up-regulated after tissue injury, blocks fibrinolysis by down-regulating the serine protease, tissue plasminogen activator (tPA), and up-regulating plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1). We have discovered a new mechanism in which phosphodiesterase PDE4A4/5 interacts with p75^NTR to enhance cAMP degradation. The p75^NTR-dependent down-regulation of cAMP results in a decrease in extracellular proteolytic activity. This mechanism is supported in vivo in p75^NTR-deficient mice, which show increased proteolysis after sciatic nerve injury and lung fibrosis. Our results reveal a novel pathogenic mechanism by which p75^NTR regulates degradation of cAMP and perpetuates scar formation after injury.

Phosphodiesterases regulate airway smooth muscle function in health and disease

On the basis of structure, regulation, and kinetic properties, phosphodiesterases (PDEs) represent a superfamily of enzymes divided into 11 subfamilies that catalyze cytosolic levels of 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) or 3',5'-cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) to 5'-AMP or 5'-GMP, respectively. PDE4 represents the major PDE expressed in inflammatory cells as well as airway smooth muscle (ASM), and selective PDE4 inhibitors provide a broad spectrum of anti-inflammatory effects such as abrogating cytokine and chemokine release from inflammatory cells and inhibiting inflammatory cell trafficking. Due to cell- and tissue-specific gene expression and regulation, PDEs modulate unique organ-based functions. New tools or compounds that selectively inhibit PDE subfamilies and genetically engineered mice deficient in selective isoforms have greatly enhanced our understanding of PDE function in airway inflammation and resident cell function. This chapter will focus on recent advances in our understanding of the role of PDE in regulating ASM function.

Phosphorylation of RyR2 and shortening of RyR2 cluster spacing in spontaneously hypertensive rat with heart failure

As a critical step toward understanding the role of abnormal intracellular Ca(2+) release via the ryanodine receptor (RyR(2)) during the development of hypertension-induced cardiac hypertrophy and heart failure, this study examines two questions: 1) At what stage, if ever, in the development of hypertrophy and heart failure is RyR(2) hyperphosphorylated at Ser(2808)? 2) Does the spatial distribution of RyR(2) clusters change in failing hearts? Using a newly developed semiquantitative immunohistochemistry method and Western blotting, we measured phosphorylation of RyR(2) at Ser(2808) in the spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHR) at four distinct disease stages. A major finding is that hyperphosphorylation of RyR(2) at Ser(2808) occurred only at late-stage heart failure in SHR, but not in age-matched controls. Furthermore, the spacing between RyR(2) clusters was shortened in failing hearts, as predicted by quantitative model simulation to increase spontaneous Ca(2+) wave generation and arrhythmias.

PI3Kgamma is required for PDE4, not PDE3, activity in subcellular microdomains containing the sarcoplasmic reticular calcium ATPase in cardiomyocytes

We recently showed that phosphoinositide-3-kinase-gamma-deficient (PI3Kgamma(-/-)) mice have enhanced cardiac contractility attributable to cAMP-dependent increases in sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) content and release but not L-type Ca(2+) current (I(Ca,L)), demonstrating PI3Kgamma locally regulates cAMP levels in cardiomyocytes. Because phosphodiesterases (PDEs) can contribute to cAMP compartmentation, we examined whether the PDE activity was altered by PI3Kgamma ablation. Selective inhibition of PDE3 or PDE4 in wild-type (WT) cardiomyocytes elevated Ca(2+) transients, SR Ca(2+) content, and phospholamban phosphorylation (PLN-PO(4)) by similar amounts to levels observed in untreated PI3Kgamma(-/-) myocytes. Combined PDE3 and PDE4 inhibition caused no further increases in SR function. By contrast, only PDE3 inhibition affected Ca(2+) transients, SR Ca(2+) loads, and PLN-PO(4) levels in PI3Kgamma(-/-) myocytes. On the other hand, inhibition of PDE3 or PDE4 alone did not affect I(Ca,L) in either PI3Kgamma(-/-) or WT cardiomyocytes, whereas simultaneous PDE3 and PDE4 inhibition elevated I(Ca,L) in both groups. Ryanodine receptor (RyR(2)) phosphorylation levels were not different in basal conditions between PI3Kgamma(-/-) and WT myocytes and increased in both groups with PDE inhibition. Our results establish that L-type Ca(2+) channels, RyR(2), and SR Ca(2+) pumps are regulated differently in distinct subcellular compartments by PDE3 and PDE4. In addition, the loss of PI3Kgamma selectively abolishes PDE4 activity, not PDE3, in subcellular compartments containing the SR Ca(2+)-ATPase but not RyR(2) or L-type Ca(2+) channels.

Organization and Ca2+Regulation of Adenylyl Cyclases in cAMP Microdomains

The adenylyl cyclases are variously regulated by G protein subunits, a number of serine/threonine and tyrosine protein kinases, and Ca2+. In some physiological situations, this regulation can be readily incorporated into a hormonal cascade, controlling processes such as cardiac contractility or neurotransmitter release. However, the significance of some modes of regulation is obscure and is likely only to be apparent in explicit cellular contexts (or stages of the cell cycle). The regulation of many of the ACs by the ubiquitous second messenger Ca2+provides an overarching mechanism for integrating the activities of these two major signaling systems. Elaborate devices have been evolved to ensure that this interaction occurs, to guarantee the fidelity of the interaction, and to insulate the microenvironment in which it occurs. Subcellular targeting, as well as a variety of scaffolding devices, is used to promote interaction of the ACs with specific signaling proteins and regulatory factors to generate privileged domains for cAMP signaling. A direct consequence of this organization is that cAMP will exhibit distinct kinetics in discrete cellular domains. A variety of means are now available to study cAMP in these domains and to dissect their components in real time in live cells. These topics are explored within the present review.

cAMP and cGMP signaling cross-talk: role of phosphodiesterases and implications for cardiac pathophysiology

Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases regulate cAMP-mediated signaling by controlling intracellular cAMP content. The cAMP-hydrolyzing activity of several families of cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases found in human heart is regulated by cGMP. In the case of PDE2, this regulation primarily involves the allosteric stimulation of cAMP hydrolysis by cGMP. For PDE3, cGMP acts as a competitive inhibitor of cAMP hydrolysis. Several cGMP-mediated responses in cardiac cells, including a potentiation of Ca(2+) currents and a diminution of the responsiveness to beta-adrenergic receptor agonists, have been shown to result from the effects of cGMP on cAMP hydrolysis. These effects appear to be dependent on the specific spatial distribution of the cGMP-generating and cAMP-hydrolyzing proteins, as well as on the intracellular concentrations of the two cyclic nucleotides. Gaining a more precise understanding of how these cross-talk mechanisms are individually regulated and coordinated is an important direction for future research.

Modulation of the Ryanodine Receptor and Intracellular Calcium

Ryanodine receptors (RyRs)/Ca2+ release channels, on the endoplasmic and sarcoplasmic reticulum of most cell types, are required for intracellular Ca2+ release involved in diverse cellular functions, including muscle contraction and neurotransmitter release. The large cytoplasmic domain of the RyR serves as a scaffold for proteins that bind to and modulate the channel's function and that comprise a macromolecular signaling complex. These proteins include calstabins [FK506-binding proteins (FKBPs)], calmodulin (CaM), phosphodiesterase, kinases, phosphatases, and their cognate targeting proteins. This review focuses on recent progress in the understanding of RyR regulation and disease mechanisms that are associated with channel dysfunction.

Cellular alternans: a mechanism linking calcium cycling proteins to cardiac arrhythmogenesis

Essentially all previous research on alternans has been restricted to normal myocardium, whereas sudden cardiac death (SCD) occurs most commonly in patients with ventricular dysfunction (i.e., heart failure), which is associated with marked disruption of proteins responsible for normal calcium cycling in myocytes. Several lines of evidence from studies in normal hearts suggest a link between impaired calcium cycling which characterizes ventricular mechanical dysfunction and impaired calcium cycling that is responsible for alternans. In normal myocardium, cells which exhibit the slowest calcium cycling, and not the slowest repolarization, are most susceptible to alternans. Decreased expression of key calcium cycling proteins is observed in alternans-prone cells. Sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase (SERCA2a) expression is decreased, suggesting a mechanism for the slower sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) calcium reuptake observed in alternans-prone cells. In addition, diminished ryanodine receptor (RyR) function leading to abnormal calcium release from the SR is also linked to cellular alternans. Although impaired contractile function clearly predisposes to SCD, the mechanisms linking mechanical to electrophysiological dysfunction in the heart are unclear. We propose that cellular calcium alternans may be an important mechanism linking mechanical dysfunction to cardiac arrhythmogenesis.

Regulation of Ca2+ and Na+ in normal and failing cardiac myocytes

Ca(2+) in cardiac myocytes regulates contractility and relaxation, and Ca(2+) and Na (+)regulation are linked via Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchange (NCX). Heart failure (HF) is accompanied by contractile dysfunction and arrhythmias, both of which may be due to altered cellular Ca(2+) handling. Smaller Ca(2+) transient and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) content cause systolic dysfunction in HF. The reduced SR Ca(2+) content is due to: (a) reduced SR Ca(2+)-ATPase function (which also contributes to diastolic dysfunction), (b) increased expression and function of NCX (which competes with SR Ca(2+)-ATPase during relaxation, but preserves diastolic function), and (c) enhanced diastolic SR Ca(2+) leak. Relative contributions of these may vary with HF etiology and stage. Triggered arrhythmias (e.g., delayed afterdepolarizations [DADs]) are prominent in HF. DADs are due to spontaneous SR Ca(2+) release and consequent activation of transient inward NCX current, which in HF allows DADs to more readily trigger arrhythmogenic action potentials. Thus NCX and Na(+) are critical in systolic and diastolic function and arrhythmias. [Na(+)](i) is elevated in HF, which may limit SR unloading and provide some Ca(2+) influx during the HF action potential, thus limiting the depression of systolic function. High [Na(+)](i) in HF is due to enhanced Na(+) influx. Cellular Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase (NKA) function appears unaltered, despite reduced NKA expression. This dichotomy led us to test NKA regulation by phospholemman (PLM). We find that PLM regulates NKA in a manner analogous to phospholamban regulation of SR Ca(2+)-ATPase (i.e., inhibition that is relieved by PLM phosphorylation). We measured intermolecular FRET between PLM and NKA, which is reduced upon PLM phosphorylation. The lower expression level of more phosphorylated PLM in HF may explain the above dichotomy. Thus, altered Ca(2+) and Na(+) handling contributes to altered contractile function and arrhythmogenesis in HF.

cAMP-Specific Phosphodiesterase-4 Enzymes in the Cardiovascular System

Cyclic AMP regulates a vast number of distinct events in all cells. Early studies established that its hydrolysis by cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs) controlled both the magnitude and the duration of its influence. Recent evidence shows that PDEs also act as coincident detectors linking cyclic-nucleotide- and non-cyclic-nucleotide-based cellular signaling processes and are tethered with great selectively to defined intracellular structures, thereby integrating and spatially restricting their cellular effects in time and space. Although 11 distinct families of PDEs have been defined, and cells invariably express numerous individual PDE enzymes, a large measure of our increased appreciation of the roles of these enzymes in regulating cyclic nucleotide signaling has come from studies on the PDE4 family. Four PDE4 genes encode more than 20 isoforms. Alternative mRNA splicing and the use of different promoters allows cells the possibility of expressing numerous PDE4 enzymes, each with unique amino-terminal-targeting and/or regulatory sequences. Dominant negative and small interfering RNA-mediated knockdown strategies have proven that particular isoforms can uniquely control specific cellular functions. Thus the protein kinase A phosphorylation status of the beta(2) adrenoceptor and, thereby, its ability to switch its signaling to extracellular signal-regulated kinase activation, is uniquely regulated by PDE4D5 in cardiomyocytes. We describe how cardiomyocytes and vascular smooth muscle cells selectively vary both the expression and the catalytic activities of PDE4 isoforms to regulate their various functions and how altered regulation of these processes can influence the development, or resolution, of cardiovascular pathologies, such as heart failure, as well as various vasculopathies.

Compartmentalization of cardiac beta-adrenergic inotropy modulation by phosphodiesterase type 5

BACKGROUND

Recent cell-based studies have found that cGMP synthesis and hydrolysis by phosphodiesterase (PDE) appear compartmentalized, with nitric oxide synthase-derived and/or PDE type 5 (PDE-5)-hydrolyzable cGMP undetected at the sarcolemmal membrane in contrast to cGMP stimulated by natriuretic peptide. In the present study, we determine the functional significance of such compartments with a comparison of beta-adrenergic modulation by PDE-5 inhibition to that of natriuretic peptide stimulation in both cardiomyocytes and intact hearts. The potential role of differential cGMP and protein kinase G stimulation by these 2 modulators was also studied.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Intact C57/BL6 mouse hearts were studied with pressure-volume analysis, and adult isolated myocytes were studied with fluorescence microscopy. PDE-5 inhibition with 0.1 to 1 micromol/L sildenafil (SIL) suppressed isoproterenol (ISO)-stimulated contractility, whereas 10 micromol/L atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) had no effect. ISO suppression by SIL was prevented in cells pretreated with a protein kinase G inhibitor. Surprisingly, myocardial cGMP changed little with SIL+ISO yet rose nearly 5-fold with ANP, whereas protein kinase G activation (vasodilator-stimulated protein phosphorylation; ELISA assay) displayed the opposite: increased with SIL+ISO but unaltered by ANP+ISO. PDE-5 and ANP compartments were functionally separated, as inhibition of nitric oxide synthase by N(w)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester eliminated antiadrenergic effects of SIL, yet this was not restorable by co-stimulation with ANP.

CONCLUSIONS

Regulation of cardiac beta-adrenergic response by cGMP is specifically linked to a nitric oxide-synthesis/PDE-5-hydrolyzed pool signaling via protein kinase G. Natriuretic peptide stimulation achieves greater detectable increases in cGMP but not protein kinase G activity and does not modulate beta-adrenergic response. Such disparities likely contribute to differential cardiac regulation by drugs that modulate cGMP synthesis and hydrolysis.

Molecular basis for PP2A regulatory subunit B56alpha targeting in cardiomyocytes

Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) is a multifunctional protein phosphatase with critical roles in excitable cell signaling. In the heart, PP2A function is linked with modulation of beta-adrenergic signaling and has been suggested to regulate key ion channels and transporters including Na/Ca exchanger, ryanodine receptor, inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor, and Na/K ATPase. Although many of the functional roles and molecular targets for PP2A in heart are known, little is established regarding the cellular pathways that localize specific PP2A isoform activities to subcellular sites. We report that the PP2A regulatory subunit B56alpha is an in vivo binding partner for ankyrin-B, an adapter protein required for normal subcellular localization of the Na/Ca exchanger, Na/K ATPase, and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor. Ankyrin-B and B56alpha are colocalized and coimmunoprecipitate in primary cardiomyocytes. Using multiple strategies, we identified the structural requirements on B56alpha for ankyrin-B association as a 13 residue motif in the B56alpha COOH terminus not present in other B56 family polypeptides. Finally, we report that reduced ankyrin-B expression in primary ankyrin-B(+/-) cardiomyocytes results in disorganized distribution of B56alpha that can be rescued by exogenous expression of ankyrin-B. These new data implicate ankyrin-B as a critical targeting component for PP2A in heart and identify a new class of signaling proteins targeted by ankyrin polypeptides.

Overview of PDEs and their regulation

Contraction and relaxation of vascular smooth muscle and cardiac myocytes are key physiological events in the cardiovascular system. These events are regulated by second messengers, cAMP and cGMP, in response to extracellular stimulants. The strength of signal transduction is controlled by intracellular cyclic nucleotide concentrations, which are determined by a balance in production and degradation of cAMP and cGMP. Degradation of cyclic nucleotides is catalyzed by 3',5'-cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs), and therefore regulation of PDEs hydrolytic activity is important for modulation of cellular functions. Mammalian PDEs are composed of 21 genes and are categorized into 11 families based on sequence homology, enzymatic properties, and sensitivity to inhibitors. PDE families contain many splice variants that mostly are unique in tissue-expression patterns, gene regulation, enzymatic regulation by phosphorylation and regulatory proteins, subcellular localization, and interaction with association proteins. Each unique variant is closely related to the regulation of a specific cellular signaling. Thus, multiple PDEs function as a particular modulator of each cardiovascular function and regulate physiological homeostasis.

Myocardial phosphodiesterases and regulation of cardiac contractility in health and cardiac disease

Phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors are potent cardiotonic agents used for parenteral inotropic support in heart failure. Contractile effects of these agents are mediated through cAMP-protein kinase A-induced stimulation of I (Ca2+) which ultimately results in increased Ca(2+)-induced sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release. A number of additional effects such as increases in sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) stores, stimulation of reverse mode Na(+)-Ca(2+) exchange, direct or cAMP-mediated effects on sarcoplasmic reticulum ryanodine receptor, stimulation of the voltage-sensitive sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) release mechanism, as well as A(1) adenosine receptor blockade could contribute to positive inotropic responses to PDE inhibitors. Moreover, some PDE inhibitors exhibit Ca(2+) sensitizer properties as they could increase the affinity of troponin C Ca(2+)-binding sites as well as reduce Ca(2+) threshold for thin myofilament sliding and facilitate cross-bridge cycling. Inotropic responses to PDE inhibitors are significantly reduced in cardiac disease, an effect largely attributed to downregulation of cAMP-mediated signalling due to sustained sympathetic activation. Four PDE isoenzymes (PDE1, PDE2, PDE3 and PDE4) are present in myocardial tissue of various mammalian species, of which PDE3 and PDE4 are particularly involved in regulation of cardiac myocyte contraction. PDE cAMP-hydrolysing activity is preserved in compensated cardiac hypertrophy but significantly reduced in animal models of heart failure. However, clinical studies have not revealed any changes in distribution profile as well as kinetic and regulatory properties of myocardial PDEs in failing human hearts. A reduction of PDE inhibitors-induced contractile responses in heart failure has therefore been ascribed to reduced cAMP synthesis due to uncoupling of adenylyl cyclase from beta-adrenoreceptor. In cardiac myocytes, PDEs are targeted to distinct subcellular compartments by scaffolding proteins such as myomegalin, mAKAP and beta-arrestins. Over subcellular microdomains, cAMP hydrolysis by PDE3 and PDE4 allows to control the activity of local pools of protein kinase A and therefore the extent of protein kinase A-mediated phosphorylation of cellular proteins.

Regulation of phosphodiesterase 3 and inducible cAMP early repressor in the heart

Growing evidence suggests that multiple spatially, temporally, and functionally distinct pools of cyclic nucleotides exist and regulate cardiac performance, from acute myocardial contractility to chronic gene expression and cardiac structural remodeling. Cyclic nucleotide phosphodiesterases (PDEs), by hydrolyzing cAMP and cyclic GMP, regulate the amplitude, duration, and compartmentation of cyclic nucleotide-mediated signaling. In particular, PDE3 enzymes play a major role in regulating cAMP metabolism in the cardiovascular system. PDE3 inhibitors, by raising cAMP content, have acute inotropic and vasodilatory effects in treating congestive heart failure but have increased mortality in long-term therapy. PDE3A expression is downregulated in human and animal failing hearts. In vitro, inhibition of PDE3A function is associated with myocyte apoptosis through sustained induction of a transcriptional repressor ICER (inducible cAMP early repressor) and thereby inhibition of antiapoptotic molecule Bcl-2 expression. Sustained induction of ICER may also cause the change of other protein expression implicated in human and animal failing hearts. These data suggest that the downregulation of PDE3A observed in failing hearts may play a causative role in the progression of heart failure, in part, by inducing ICER and promoting cardiac myocyte dysfunction. Hence, strategies that maintain PDE3A function may represent an attractive approach to circumvent myocyte apoptosis and cardiac dysfunction.

A reporter gene assay for screening of PDE4 subtype selective inhibitors

Phosphodiesterase (PDE) constitutes a superfamily of enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of cAMP and cGMP into their corresponding monophosphates and play an important role in diverse physiological functions. The present study provides a process for identifying PDE4 subtypes selective inhibitors using a reporter gene assay. Stable recombinant HEK-293 cell lines expressing high levels of PDE4A4B, PDE4B2A, and PDE4D3 subtypes individually were generated. Transient transfection of pCRE-Luc plasmid, harboring luciferase reporter gene under the control of cAMP response element (CRE)-binding sequence, into these stable recombinant cell lines followed by treatment with PDE4 inhibitor, resulted in a dose dependent increase in luciferase activity. This methods provide a novel, simple and sensitive assay for high throughput screening of PDE4 subtype selective inhibitors for treatment of asthma and COPD.

Agonists and antagonists of the cardiac ryanodine receptor: Potential therapeutic agents?

This review addresses the potential use of the intracellular ryanodine receptor (RyR) Ca(2+) release channel as a therapeutic target in heart disease. Heart disease encompasses a wide range of conditions with the major contributors to mortality and morbidity being ischaemic heart disease and heart failure (HF). In addition there are many rare, but devastating conditions, some of which are either genetically linked to the RyR and its regulatory proteins or involve drug-induced modification of the proteins. The defects in Ca(2+) signalling vary with the nature of the heart disease and the stage in its progress and therefore specific corrections require different modifications of Ca(2+) signalling. Compounds that activate the RyR are potential inotropic agents to increase the Ca(2+) transient and strength of contraction. Compounds that reduce RyR activity are potentially useful in conditions where excess RyR activity initiates arrhythmias, or depletes the Ca(2+) store, as in end stage HF. It has recently been discovered that the cardio-protective action of the drug JTV519 can be attributed partly to its ability to stabilise the interaction between the RyR and the 12.6 kDa binding protein for the commonly used immunosuppressive drug FK506 (FKBP12.6, known as tacrolimus). This has established the credibility of the RyR as a therapeutic target. We explore the possibility that mutations causing the rare RyR-linked arrhythmias will open the door to identification of novel RyR-based therapeutic agents. The use of regulatory binding sites within the RyR complex or on its associated proteins as templates for drug design is discussed.

Altered cardiac myocyte Ca regulation in heart failure

Ca is critical in both the electrical and mechanical properties of cardiac myocytes, and much is known about ionic currents and the normal excitation-contraction coupling process. In heart failure, there are significant alterations in how myocyte Ca is regulated, and these alterations are critical in dictating both contractile dysfunction and certain cardiac arrhythmias that are characteristic of heart failure.

Diseases associated with altered ryanodine receptor activity

Mutations in two intracellular Ca2+ release channels or ryanodine receptors (RyR1 and RyR2) are associated with a number of human skeletal and cardiac diseases. This chapter discusses these diseases in terms of known mechanisms, controversies, and unanswered questions. We also compare the cardiac and skeletal muscle diseases to explore common mechanisms.

Cyclic AMP Imaging in Adult Cardiac Myocytes Reveals Far-Reaching β 1 -Adrenergic but Locally Confined β 2 -Adrenergic Receptor–Mediated Signaling

β 1 - and β 2 -adrenergic receptors (βARs) are known to differentially regulate cardiomyocyte contraction and growth. We tested the hypothesis that these differences are attributable to spatial compartmentation of the second messenger cAMP. Using a fluorescent resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based approach, we directly monitored the spatial and temporal distribution of cAMP in adult cardiomyocytes. We developed a new cAMP-FRET sensor (termed HCN2-camps) based on a single cAMP binding domain of the hyperpolarization activated cyclic nucleotide-gated potassium channel 2 (HCN2). Its cytosolic distribution, high dynamic range, and sensitivity make HCN2-camps particularly well suited to monitor subcellular localization of cardiomyocyte cAMP. We generated HCN2-camps transgenic mice and performed single-cell FRET imaging on freshly isolated cardiomyocytes. Whole-cell superfusion with isoproterenol showed a moderate elevation of cAMP. Application of various phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitors revealed stringent control of cAMP through PDE4>PDE2>PDE3. The β 1 AR-mediated cAMP signals were entirely dependent on PDE4 activity, whereas β 2 AR-mediated cAMP was under control of multiple PDE isoforms. β 1 AR subtype–specific stimulation yielded ≈2-fold greater cAMP responses compared with selective β 2 -subtype stimulation, even on treatment with the nonselective PDE inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) (ΔFRET, 17.3±1.3% [β 1 AR] versus 8.8±0.4% [β 2 AR]). Treatment with pertussis toxin to inactivate G i did not affect cAMP production. Localized β 1 AR stimulation generated a cAMP gradient propagating throughout the cell, whereas local β 2 AR stimulation did not elicit marked cAMP diffusion. Our data reveal that in adult cardiac myocytes, β 1 ARs induce far-reaching cAMP signals, whereas β 2 AR-induced cAMP remains locally confined.

New perspectives on the role of SERCA2's Ca2+ affinity in cardiac function

Cardiomyocyte relaxation and contraction are tightly controlled by the activity of the cardiac sarco(endo)plasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ transport ATPase (SERCA2a). The SR Ca2+ -uptake activity not only determines the speed of Ca(2+) removal during relaxation, but also the SR Ca2+ content and therefore the amount of Ca2+ released for cardiomyocyte contraction. The Ca2+ affinity is the major determinant of the pump's activity in the physiological Ca2+ concentration range. In the heart, the affinity of the pump for Ca2+ needs to be controlled between narrow borders, since an imbalanced affinity may evoke hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Several small proteins (phospholamban, sarcolipin) adjust the Ca2+ affinity of the pump to the physiological needs of the cardiomyocyte. It is generally accepted that a chronically reduced Ca2+ affinity of the pump contributes to depressed SR Ca2+ handling in heart failure. Moreover, a persistently lower Ca2+ affinity is sufficient to impair cardiomyocyte SR Ca2+ handling and contractility inducing dilated cardiomyopathy in mice and humans. Conversely, the expression of SERCA2a, a pump with a lower Ca2+ affinity than the housekeeping isoform SERCA2b, is crucial to maintain normal cardiac function and growth. Novel findings demonstrated that a chronically increased Ca2+ affinity also may trigger cardiac hypertrophy in mice and humans. In addition, recent studies suggest that some models of heart failure are marked by a higher affinity of the pump for Ca2+, and hence by improved cardiomyocyte relaxation and contraction. Depressed cardiomyocyte SR Ca2+ uptake activity may therefore not be a universal hallmark of heart failure.

Ryanodine receptors and ventricular arrhythmias: emerging trends in mutations, mechanisms and therapies

It has been six years since the first reported link between mutations in the cardiac ryanodine receptor Ca(2+) release channel (RyR2) and catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (CPVT), a malignant stress-induced arrhythmia. In this time, rapid advances have been made in identifying new mutations, and in understanding how these mutations disrupt normal channel function to cause VT that frequently degenerates into ventricular fibrillation (VF) and sudden death. Functional characterisation of these RyR2 Ca(2+) channelopathies suggests that mutations alter the ability of RyR2 to sense its intracellular environment, and that channel modulation via covalent modification, Ca(2+)- and Mg(2+)-dependent regulation and structural feedback mechanisms are catastrophically disturbed. This review reconciles the current status of RyR2 mutation-linked etiopathology, the significance of mutational clustering within the RyR2 polypeptide and the mechanisms underlying channel dysfunction. We will also review new data that explores the link between abnormal Ca(2+) release and the resultant cardiac electrical instability in VT and VF, and how these recent developments impact on novel anti-arrhythmic therapies. Finally, we evaluate the concept that mechanistic differences between CPVT and other arrhythmogenic disorders may preclude a common therapeutic strategy to normalise RyR2 function in cardiac disease.