Noncovalent sidewall functionalization of single-walled carbon nanotubes for protein immobilization

A label-free aptasensor based on polyethyleneimine wrapped carbon nanotubes in situ formed gold nanoparticles as signal probe for highly sensitive detection of dopamine

Herein, a highly sensitive and selective aptamer biosensor for quantitative detection of a model target, dopamine (DA), was developed by using a gold (Au) electrode modified with highly dispersed gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and acid-oxidized carbon nanotubes (CNTs-COOH) functionalized with polyethyleneimine (PEI). Amine-terminated12-mercaptureprobe (ssDNA1) as a capture probe and specific DA-aptamer (ssDNA2) as a detection probe was immobilized on the surface of a modified electrode via the formation of covalent amide bond and hybridization, respectively. Methylene blue (MB) was used as the redox probe, which was intercalated into the aptamer through the specific interaction with its guanine bases. In the presence of DA, the interaction between aptamer and DA displaced the MB from the electrode surface, rendering a lowered electrochemical signal attributed to decreased amount of adsorbed MB. The developed electrochemical DA aptasensor showed a good linear response to DA from 5 to 300nM with detection limit of 2.1nM. The biosensor also exhibited satisfactory selectivity and could be successfully used to detect DA in blood serum sample.

A novel electrochemical DNA biosensor based on a modified magnetic bar carbon paste electrode with Fe3O4NPs-reduced graphene oxide/PANHS nanocomposite

In this study, we have designed a label free DNA biosensor based on a magnetic bar carbon paste electrode (MBCPE) modified with nanomaterial of Fe3O4/reduced graphene oxide (Fe3O4NP-RGO) as a composite and 1- pyrenebutyric acid-N- hydroxysuccinimide ester (PANHS) as a linker for detection of DNA sequences. Probe (BRCA1 5382 insC mutation detection) strands were immobilized on the MBCPE/Fe3O4-RGO/PANHS electrode for the exact incubation time. The characterization of the modified electrode was studied using different techniques such as scanning electron microscopy (SEM), infrared spectroscopy (IR), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and cyclic voltammetry methods. Some experimental parameters such as immobilization time of probe DNA, time and temperature of hybridization process were investigated. Under the optimum conditions, the immobilization of the probe and its hybridization with the target DNA (Complementary DNA) were tested. This DNA biosensor revealed a good linear relationship between ∆Rct and logarithm of the complementary target DNA concentration ranging from 1.0×10(-18)molL(-1) to 1.0×10(-8)molL(-1) with a correlation coefficient of 0.9935 and a detection limit of 2.8×10(-19)molL(-1). In addition, the mentioned biosensor was satisfactorily applied for discriminating of complementary sequences from non-complementary sequences. The constructed biosensor (MBCPE/Fe3O4-RGO/PANHS/ssDNA) with high sensitivity, selectivity, stability, reproducibility and low cost can be used for detection of BRCA1 5382 insC mutation.

Design and characterization of electrochemical dopamine-aptamer as convenient and integrated sensing platform

Here, an ultrasensitive label-free electrochemical aptasensor was developed for dopamine (DA) detection. Construction of the aptasensor was carried out by electrodeposition of gold-platinum nanoparticles (Au-PtNPs) on glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with acid-oxidized carbon nanotubes (CNTs-COOH). A designed complementary amine-capped capture probe (ssDNA1) was immobilized at the surface of PtNPs/CNTs-COOH/GC electrode through the covalent amide bonds formed by the carboxyl groups on the nanotubes and the amino groups on the oligonucleotides. DA-specific aptamer was attached onto the electrode surface through hybridization with the ssDNA1. Methylene blue (MB) was used as an electrochemical indicator that was intercalated into the aptamer through the specific interaction with its guanine bases. In the presence of DA, the interaction between aptamer and DA displaced the MB from the electrode surface, rendering a lowered electrochemical signal attributed to a decreased amount of adsorbed MB. This phenomenon can be applied for DA detection. The peak current of probe (MB) linearly decreased over a DA concentration range of 1-30 nM with a detection limit of 0.22 nM.

Controlling the Adsorption of Ruthenium Complexes on Carbon Surfaces through Noncovalent Bonding with Pyrene Anchors: An Electrochemical Study

Surface modifications of carbon nanomaterials, such as graphene or carbon nanotubes, through noncovalent π-π interactions between π-conjugated carbon surfaces and pyrene anchors have received much attention on account of the applications of these materials in organic electronic and sensor devices. Despite the rapidly expanding use of pyrene anchors, little is known about the number of pyrene groups required in order to achieve a stable attachment of molecules on nanocarbon surfaces. So far, systematic studies on such surface modifications through adsorption isotherms and desorption behavior of molecules still remain scarce. In this study, we have investigated the effect of the number of pyrene anchors in redox-active Ru complexes on their adsorption on carbon nanomaterials through noncovalent π-π interactions. The Ru(II/III) couple was used as a redox marker in order to determine the surface coverage on nanocarbon surfaces such as highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG), single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), and multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). The amount of surface coverage as well as the kinetic stability of the Ru complexes was thereby observed to be directly proportional to the number of pyrene groups present in the ligands. The desorption rate from HOPG electrode increased in the order Ru-1 with eight pyrene groups (k = 2.0 × 10(-5) s(-1)) < Ru-2 with four pyrenes (4.1 × 10(-5) s(-1)) < Ru-3 with two pyrenes (6.8 × 10(-5) s(-1)) ≪ Ru-4 with one pyrene (4.1 × 10(-3) s(-1)). Furthermore, the electrochemical polymerization of the Ru complex with four pyrene groups proceeded more efficiently compared to complexes with one or two pyrene groups. As a consequence, compounds having more than two and/or optimally four pyrene groups revealed a stable adsorption on the nanocarbon surfaces. The heterogeneous electron transfer rate between the Ru complex, Ru-2, and the carbon nanomaterials increased in the order SWCNTs (kET = 1.3 s(-1)) < MWCNTs (ϕ = 5-9 nm) (kET = 4.0 s(-1)) < MWCNTs (ϕ = 110-170 nm) (kET = 14.9 s(-1)) < HOPG (kET = 110 s(-1)).

Protein-Support Interactions for Rationally Designed Bilirubin Oxidase Based Cathode: A Computational Study

An example of biocathode based on bilirubin oxidase (BOx) was used to demonstrate how density functional theory can be combined with docking simulations in order to study the interface interactions between the enzyme and specifically designed electrode surface. The electrode surface was modified through the adsorption of bilirubin, the natural substrate for BOx, and the prepared electrode was electrochemically characterized using potentiostatic measurements. The experimentally determined current densities showed that the presence of bilirubin led to significant improvement of the cathode operation. On the basis of the computationally calculated binding energies of bilirubin to the graphene support and BOx and the analysis of the positioning of bilirubin relative to the support and T1 Cu atom of the enzyme, we hypothesize that the bilirubin serves as a geometric and electronic extension of the support. The computational results further confirm that the modification of the electrode surface with bilirubin provides an optimal orientation of BOx toward the support but also show that bilirubin facilitates the interfacial electron transfer by decreasing the distance between the electrode surface and the T1 Cu atom.

A Poly(cobaloxime)/Carbon Nanotube Electrode: Freestanding Buckypaper with Polymer-Enhanced H2-Evolution Performance

A freestanding H2-evolution electrode consisting of a copolymer-embedded cobaloxime integrated into a multiwall carbon nanotube matrix by π-π interactions is reported. This electrode is straightforward to assemble and displays high activity towards hydrogen evolution in near-neutral pH solution under inert and aerobic conditions, with a cobalt-based turnover number (TON(Co)) of up to 420. An analogous electrode with a monomeric cobaloxime showed less activity with a TON(Co) of only 80. These results suggest that, in addition to the high surface area of the porous network of the buckypaper, the polymeric scaffold provides a stabilizing environment to the catalyst, leading to further enhancement in catalytic performance. We have therefore established that the use of a multifunctional copolymeric architecture is a viable strategy to enhance the performance of molecular electrocatalysts.

On the vibrational behavior of single- and double-walled carbon nanotubes under the physical adsorption of biomolecules in the aqueous environment: a molecular dynamics study

The adsorption of biomolecules on the walls of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in an aqueous environment is of great importance in the field of nanobiotechnology. In this study, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were performed to understand the mechanical vibrational behavior of single- and double-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs and DWCNTs) under the physical adsorption of four important biomolecules (L-alanine, guanine, thymine, and uracil) in vacuum and an aqueous environment. It was observed that the natural frequencies of these CNTs in vacuum reduce under the physical adsorption of biomolecules. In the aqueous environment, the natural frequency of each pure CNT decreased as compared to its natural frequency in vacuum. It was also found that the frequency shift for functionalized CNTs as compared to pure CNTs in the aqueous environment was dependent on the radius and the number of walls of the CNT, and could be positive or negative.

Nano-Bioelectronics

Nano-bioelectronics represents a rapidly expanding interdisciplinary field that combines nanomaterials with biology and electronics and, in so doing, offers the potential to overcome existing challenges in bioelectronics. In particular, shrinking electronic transducer dimensions to the nanoscale and making their properties appear more biological can yield significant improvements in the sensitivity and biocompatibility and thereby open up opportunities in fundamental biology and healthcare. This review emphasizes recent advances in nano-bioelectronics enabled with semiconductor nanostructures, including silicon nanowires, carbon nanotubes, and graphene. First, the synthesis and electrical properties of these nanomaterials are discussed in the context of bioelectronics. Second, affinity-based nano-bioelectronic sensors for highly sensitive analysis of biomolecules are reviewed. In these studies, semiconductor nanostructures as transistor-based biosensors are discussed from fundamental device behavior through sensing applications and future challenges. Third, the complex interface between nanoelectronics and living biological systems, from single cells to live animals, is reviewed. This discussion focuses on representative advances in electrophysiology enabled using semiconductor nanostructures and their nanoelectronic devices for cellular measurements through emerging work where arrays of nanoelectronic devices are incorporated within three-dimensional cell networks that define synthetic and natural tissues. Last, some challenges and exciting future opportunities are discussed.

Effect of ionic liquid-containing poly(ε-caprolactone) on the dispersion and dielectric properties of polymer/carbon nanotube composites

A compatilizer containing imidazolium segment was used to improve the compatibility of CNTs with PCL matrix.

Chirality transfer from graphene quantum dots

Graphene quantum dots covalently modified with enantiomerically pure R/S units provide chiral graphene quantum dots that, upon assembly with pyrene molecules, show a strong chiroptical response.

Surface Modification Chemistries of Materials Used in Diagnostic Platforms with Biomolecules

Biomolecules including DNA, protein, and enzymes are of prime importance in biomedical field. There are several reports on the technologies for the detection of these biomolecules on various diagnostic platforms. It is important to note that the performance of the biosensor is highly dependent on the substrate material used and its meticulous modification for particular applications. Therefore, it is critical to understand the principles of a biosensor to identify the correct substrate material and its surface modification chemistry. The imperative surface modification for the attachment of biomolecules without losing their bioactivity is a key to sensitive detection. Therefore, finding of a modification method which gives minimum damage to the surface as well as biomolecule is highly inevitable. Different surface modification technologies are invented according to the type of a substrate used. Surface modification techniques of the materials used as platforms in the fabrication of biosensors are reviewed in this paper.

Direct energy harvesting from starch by hybrid enzymatic and non-enzymatic cascade bioanode

A hybrid anode integrating enzymatic hydrolysis of starch by glucoamylase and non-enzymatic oxidation of glucose by gold nanoparticles is presented to achieve an efficient cascade energy conversion from starch.

Carbon nanomaterial-based electrochemical biosensors for label-free sensing of environmental pollutants

Carbon allotropes such as graphene and carbon nanotubes, have been incorporated in electrochemical biosensors for highly sensitive and selective detection of various analytes. The superior physical and electrical properties like high carrier mobility, ambipolar electric field effect, high surface area, flexibility and their compatibility with microfabrication techniques makes these carbon nanomaterials easy to integrate in field-effect transistor (FET)/chemiresistor type configuration which is suitable for portable and point-of-use/field-deployable sensors. This review covers the synthesis of carbon nanostructures (graphene and CNTs) and their integration into devices using various fabrication methods. Finally, we discuss the recent reports showing different sensing platforms that incorporate biomolecules like enzymes, antibodies and aptamers as recognition elements for fabrication of simple, low cost, compact biosensors that can be used for on-site, rapid environmental monitoring of environmental pollutants like pathogens, heavy metals, pesticides and explosives.

Sulfhydrylated graphene-encapsulated iron nanoparticles directly aminated with polyethylenimine: a novel magnetic nanoplatform for bioconjugation of gamma globulins and polyclonal antibodies

A graphene layer was directly aminated with polyethylenimine and a novel magnetic nanoplatform for bioconjugation of biologically active compounds was obtained.

HF radiofrequency exposure partially restores the dynamics of model membranes containing carbon nanotubes

We studied the changes in the structure and dynamics of model membranes induced by HF radio frequency exposure and/or the presence of carbon nanotubes.

Edge-to-edge interaction between carbon nanotube-pyrene complexes and electrodes for biosensing and electrocatalytic applications

We demonstrate here that the edge-to-edge interaction between carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and edge plane electrodes plays an important role in exposing a large proportion of the basal planes of the CNTs to allow enhanced π-π stacking of a pyrenyl compound and subsequent high density protein immobilization yielding large electrocatalytic currents.

Preparation and characterization of a chitin/platelet-poor plasma composite as a hemostatic material

The development of life-saving hemostatic materials for emergencies can reduce death caused by uncontrolled hemorrhaging.

Sugar-functionalized triptycenes used for dispersion of single-walled carbon nanotubes in aqueous solution by supramolecular interaction

Two water-soluble sugar-functionalized triptycene derivatives were synthesized and used for dispersion of SWCNTs in aqueous solution via supramolecular interaction.

A review on protein functionalized carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have been widely recognized and used for controlled drug delivery and in various other fields due to their unique properties and distinct advantages. Both single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and multiwalled (MWCNTs) carbon nanotubes are used and/or studied for potential applications in medical, energy, textile, composite, and other areas. Since CNTs are chemically inert and are insoluble in water or other organic solvents, they are functionalized or modified to carry payloads or interact with biological molecules. CNTs have been preferably functionalized with proteins because CNTs are predominantly used for medical applications such as delivery of drugs, DNA and genes, and also for biosensing. Extensive studies have been conducted to understand the interactions, cytotoxicity, and potential applications of protein functionalized CNTs but contradicting results have been published on the cytotoxicity of the functionalized CNTs. This paper provides a brief review of CNTs functionalized with proteins, methods used to functionalize the CNTs, and their potential applications.

Quantifying the effect of ionic screening with protein-decorated graphene transistors

Liquid-based applications of biomolecule-decorated field-effect transistors (FETs) range from biosensors to in vivo implants. A critical scientific challenge is to develop a quantitative understanding of the gating effect of charged biomolecules in ionic solution and how this influences the readout of the FETs. To address this issue, we fabricated protein-decorated graphene FETs and measured their electrical properties, specifically the shift in Dirac voltage, in solutions of varying ionic strength. We found excellent quantitative agreement with a model that accounts for both the graphene polarization charge and ionic screening of ions adsorbed on the graphene as well as charged amino acids associated with the immobilized protein. The technique and analysis presented here directly couple the charging status of bound biomolecules to readout of liquid-phase FETs fabricated with graphene or other two-dimensional materials.

Determination of association constants towards carbon nanotubes

We describe a simple procedure for the determination of association constants between soluble molecules and insoluble and heterogeneous carbon nanotube samples.

Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are one of the most promising nanomaterials and their supramolecular chemistry has attracted a lot of attention. However, despite well over a decade of research, there is no standard method for the quantification of their noncovalent chemistry in solution/suspension. Here, we describe a simple procedure for the determination of association constants (K_a) between soluble molecules and insoluble and heterogeneous carbon nanotube samples. To test the scope of the method, we report binding constants between five different hosts and two types of SWNTs in four solvents. We have determined numeric values of K_a in the range of 1–10⁴ M^–1. Solvent effects as well as structural changes in both the host and guest result in noticeable changes of K_a. The results obtained experimentally were validated through state-of-the-art DFT calculations. The generalization of quantitative and comparable association constants data should significantly help advance the supramolecular chemistry of carbon nanotubes.

Carbon nanotubes part I: preparation of a novel and versatile drug-delivery vehicle

INTRODUCTION

It is 23 years since carbon allotrope known as carbon nanotubes (CNT) was discovered by Iijima, who described them as "rolled graphite sheets inserted into each other". Since then, CNTs have been studied in nanoelectronic devices. However, CNTs also possess the versatility to act as drug- and gene-delivery vehicles.

AREAS COVERED

This review covers the synthesis, purification and functionalization of CNTs. Arc discharge, laser ablation and chemical vapor deposition are the principle synthesis methods. Non-covalent functionalization relies on attachment of biomolecules by coating the CNT with surfactants, synthetic polymers and biopolymers. Covalent functionalization often involves the initial introduction of carboxylic acids or amine groups, diazonium addition, 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition or reductive alkylation. The aim is to produce functional groups to attach the active cargo.

EXPERT OPINION

In this review, the feasibility of CNT being used as a drug-delivery vehicle is explored. The molecular composition of CNT is extremely hydrophobic and highly aggregation-prone. Therefore, most of the efforts towards drug delivery has centered on chemical functionalization, which is usually divided in two categories; non-covalent and covalent. The biomedical applications of CNT are growing apace, and new drug-delivery technologies play a major role in these efforts.

Observing lysozyme's closing and opening motions by high-resolution single-molecule enzymology

Single-molecule techniques can monitor the kinetics of transitions between enzyme open and closed conformations, but such methods usually lack the resolution to observe the underlying transition pathway or intermediate conformational dynamics. We have used a 1 MHz bandwidth carbon nanotube transistor to electronically monitor single molecules of the enzyme T4 lysozyme as it processes substrate. An experimental resolution of 2 μs allowed the direct recording of lysozyme's opening and closing transitions. Unexpectedly, both motions required 37 μs, on average. The distribution of transition durations was also independent of the enzyme's state: either catalytic or nonproductive. The observation of smooth, continuous transitions suggests a concerted mechanism for glycoside hydrolysis with lysozyme's two domains closing upon the polysaccharide substrate in its active site. We distinguish these smooth motions from a nonconcerted mechanism, observed in approximately 10% of lysozyme openings and closings, in which the enzyme pauses for an additional 40-140 μs in an intermediate, partially closed conformation. During intermediate forming events, the number of rate-limiting steps observed increases to four, consistent with four steps required in the stepwise, arrow-pushing mechanism. The formation of such intermediate conformations was again independent of the enzyme's state. Taken together, the results suggest lysozyme operates as a Brownian motor. In this model, the enzyme traces a single pathway for closing and the reverse pathway for enzyme opening, regardless of its instantaneous catalytic productivity. The observed symmetry in enzyme opening and closing thus suggests that substrate translocation occurs while the enzyme is closed.

Carbon Nanotropes: A Contemporary Paradigm in Drug Delivery

Discovery of fullerenes and other nanosized carbon allotropes has opened a vast new field of possibilities in nanotechnology and has become one of the most promising research areas. Carbon nanomaterials have drawn interest as carriers of biologically pertinent molecules due to their distinctive physical, chemical and physiological properties. We have assigned the nomenclature “Carbon Nanotropes” to the nanosized carbon allotropes. Carbon nanotropes such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and graphenes, have exhibited wide applicability in drug delivery, owing to their small size and biological activity. The nanotherapeutics/diagnostics will allow a deeper understanding of human ills including cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, genetic disorders and various other complications. Recently, nanomaterials with multiple functions, such as drug carrier, MRI, optical imaging, photothermal therapy, etc., have become more and more popular in the domain of cancer and other areas of research. This review is an endeavor to bring together the usefulness of the carbon nanomaterials in the field of drug delivery. The last section of the review encompasses the recent patents granted on carbon nanotropes at United State Patent Trademark Office (USPTO) in the related field.

Change in Chirality of Semiconducting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Can Overcome Anionic Surfactant Stabilization: A Systematic Study of Aggregation Kinetics

Single-walled carbon nanotubes' (SWNT) effectiveness in applications is enhanced by debundling or stabilization. Anionic surfactants are known to effectively stabilize SWNTs. However, the role of specific chirality on surfactant-stabilized SWNT aggregation has not been studied to date. The aggregation behavior of chirally enriched (6,5) and (7,6) semiconducting SWNTs, functionalized with three anionic surfactants-sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate (SDBS), and sodium deoxycholate (SDOCO)-was evaluated with time-resolved dynamic light scattering. A wide range of mono- (NaCl) and di-valent (CaCl₂) electrolytes as well as a 2.5 mg TOC/L Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) were used as background chemistry. Overall, SDBS showed the most effectiveness in SWNT stability, followed by SDOCO and SDS. However, the relatively larger diameter (7,6) chiral tubes compromised the surfactant stability, compared to (6,5) chiral enrichment, due to enhanced van der Waals interaction. The presence of di-valent electrolytes overshadowed the chirality effects and resulted in similar aggregation behavior for both the SWNT samples. Molecular modeling results enumerated key differences in surfactant conformation on SWNT surfaces and identified interaction energy changes between the two chiralities to delineate aggregation mechanisms. The stability of SWNTs increased in the presence of SRHA under 10 mM monovalent and mixed electrolyte conditions. The results suggest that change in chirality can overcome surfactant stabilization of semiconducting SWNTs. SWNT stability can also be strongly influenced by the anionic surfactant structure.