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Wyatt TD. The search for human pheromones: the lost decades and the necessity of returning to first principles. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:20142994. [PMID: 25740891 PMCID: PMC4375873 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2014.2994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2014] [Accepted: 02/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
As humans are mammals, it is possible, perhaps even probable, that we have pheromones. However, there is no robust bioassay-led evidence for the widely published claims that four steroid molecules are human pheromones: androstenone, androstenol, androstadienone and estratetraenol. In the absence of sound reasons to test the molecules, positive results in studies need to be treated with scepticism as these are highly likely to be false positives. Common problems include small sample sizes, an overestimate of effect size (as no effect can be expected), positive publication bias and lack of replication. Instead, if we are to find human pheromones, we need to treat ourselves as if we were a newly discovered mammal, and use the rigorous methods already proven successful in pheromone research on other species. Establishing a pheromone relies on demonstration of an odour-mediated behavioural or physiological response, identification and synthesis of the bioactive molecule(s), followed by bioassay confirmation of activity. Likely sources include our sebaceous glands. Comparison of secretions from adult and pre-pubertal humans may highlight potential molecules involved in sexual behaviour. One of the most promising human pheromone leads is a nipple secretion from the areola glands produced by all lactating mothers, which stimulates suckling by any baby not just their own.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tristram D Wyatt
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Tinbergen Building, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PS, UK
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302
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Pellegrino R, Crandall PG, O'Bryan CA, Seo HS. A review of motivational models for improving hand hygiene among an increasingly diverse food service workforce. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2014.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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303
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Mahmut MK, Stevenson RJ. Failure to Obtain Reinstatement of an Olfactory Representation. Cogn Sci 2015; 39:1940-9. [DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Revised: 10/16/2014] [Accepted: 10/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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304
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Woolley JD, Lam O, Chuang B, Ford JM, Mathalon DH, Vinogradov S. Oxytocin administration selectively improves olfactory detection thresholds for lyral in patients with schizophrenia. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2015; 53:217-22. [PMID: 25637811 PMCID: PMC4503321 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2014] [Revised: 11/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Olfaction plays an important role in mammalian social behavior. Olfactory deficits are common in schizophrenia and correlate with negative symptoms and low social drive. Despite their prominence and possible clinical relevance, little is understood about the pathological mechanisms underlying olfactory deficits in schizophrenia and there are currently no effective treatments for these deficits. The prosocial neuropeptide oxytocin may affect the olfactory system when administered intranasally to humans and there is growing interest in its therapeutic potential in schizophrenia. METHODS To examine this model, we administered 40IU of oxytocin and placebo intranasally to 31 patients with a schizophrenia spectrum illness and 34 age-matched healthy control participants in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study. On each test day, participants completed an olfactory detection threshold test for two different odors: (1) lyral, a synthetic fragrance compound for which patients with schizophrenia have specific olfactory detection threshold deficits, possibly related to decreased cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) signaling; and (2) anise, a compound for which olfactory detection thresholds change with menstrual cycle phase in women. RESULTS On the placebo test day, patients with schizophrenia did not significantly differ from healthy controls in detection of either odor. We found that oxytocin administration significantly and selectively improved olfactory detection thresholds for lyral but not for anise in patients with schizophrenia. In contrast, oxytocin had no effect on detection of either odor in healthy controls. DISCUSSION Our data indicate that oxytocin administration may ameliorate olfactory deficits in schizophrenia and suggest the effects of intranasal oxytocin may extend to influencing the olfactory system. Given that oxytocin has been found to increase cAMP signaling in vitro a possible mechanism for these effects is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Woolley
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - O Lam
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - B Chuang
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - J M Ford
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - D H Mathalon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - S Vinogradov
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; San Francisco Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA
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305
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de Groot JHB, Smeets MAM, Semin GR. Rapid stress system drives chemical transfer of fear from sender to receiver. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118211. [PMID: 25723720 PMCID: PMC4344325 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans can register another person's fear not only with their eyes and ears, but also with their nose. Previous research has demonstrated that exposure to body odors from fearful individuals elicited implicit fear in others. The odor of fearful individuals appears to have a distinctive signature that can be produced relatively rapidly, driven by a physiological mechanism that has remained unexplored in earlier research. The apocrine sweat glands in the armpit that are responsible for chemosignal production contain receptors for adrenalin. We therefore expected that the release of adrenalin through activation of the rapid stress response system (i.e., the sympathetic-adrenal medullary system) is what drives the release of fear sweat, as opposed to activation of the slower stress response system (i.e., hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis). To test this assumption, sweat was sampled while eight participants prepared for a speech. Participants had higher heart rates and produced more armpit sweat in the fast stress condition, compared to baseline and the slow stress condition. Importantly, exposure to sweat from participants in the fast stress condition induced in receivers (N = 31) a simulacrum of the state of the sender, evidenced by the emergence of a fearful facial expression (facial electromyography) and vigilant behavior (i.e., faster classification of emotional facial expressions).
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Affiliation(s)
- Jasper H. B. de Groot
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Monique A. M. Smeets
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Gün R. Semin
- Department of Social and Organizational Psychology, Faculty of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Psychology, Koç University, Istanbul, Turkey
- Instituto Superior de Psicologia Aplicada (ISPA), Instituto Universitário, Lisbon, Portugal
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306
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Sorokowska A, Sorokowski P, Frackowiak T. Determinants of human olfactory performance: a cross-cultural study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2015; 506-507:196-200. [PMID: 25460952 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.11.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Revised: 11/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Olfaction allows us to detect subtle changes in our environment, but sensitivity of the sense of smell varies among individuals. Although a significant number of research papers discuss the relationship between olfactory abilities and environmental factors, most studies have been conducted on Western populations or in developed Asian societies. The potential environmental and cultural determinants of olfactory acuity warrant further exploration. In the current study, we compared previously published data on olfaction in an industrialized, modern society (i.e., Europeans) and an indigenous society living in unpolluted, natural environmental conditions (i.e., Tsimane'), with novel data on the olfactory acuity of inhabitants of the Cook Islands. Like the European population (and contrary to the Tsimane'), the Cook Islands people form a modern society, and like the Tsimane' population (and contrary to the Europeans), they live in an unpolluted region. Thus, these comparisons enabled us to independently assess the importance of both air pollution and changes in lifestyle for olfactory abilities in modern societies. Our results indicate that people from the Cook Islands had significantly higher olfactory acuity (i.e., lower thresholds of odor detection) than did Europeans and Tsimane' people. Interestingly, the olfactory sensitivity of Europeans was significantly lower than the olfactory sensitivity of the remaining two groups. Our data suggest that air pollution is an important factor in the deterioration of the sense of smell. However, it is also possible that factors such as agricultural and/or cooking practices, alcohol consumption, and access to medical service may also influence olfactory acuity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Dresden, Germany; Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland.
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307
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Guarneros M, Hudson R, López-Palacios M, Drucker-Colín R. Reference Values of Olfactory Function for Mexico City Inhabitants. Arch Med Res 2015; 46:84-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2014.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/15/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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308
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Croy I, Zehner C, Larsson M, Zucco GM, Hummel T. Test-retest reliability and validity of the Sniffin' TOM odor memory test. Chem Senses 2014; 40:173-9. [PMID: 25550307 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bju069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Few attempts have been made to develop an olfactory test that captures episodic retention of olfactory information. Assessment of episodic odor memory is of particular interest in aging and in the cognitively impaired as both episodic memory deficits and olfactory loss have been targeted as reliable hallmarks of cognitive decline and impending dementia. Here, 96 healthy participants (18-92 years) and an additional 19 older people with mild cognitive impairment were tested (73-82 years). Participants were presented with 8 common odors with intentional encoding instructions that were followed by a yes-no recognition test. After recognition completion, participants were asked to identify all odors by means of free or cued identification. A retest of the odor memory test (Sniffin' TOM = test of odor memory) took place 17 days later. The results revealed satisfactory test-retest reliability (0.70) of odor recognition memory. Both recognition and identification performance were negatively affected by age and more pronounced among the cognitively impaired. In conclusion, the present work presents a reliable, valid, and simple test of episodic odor recognition memory that may be used in clinical groups where both episodic memory deficits and olfactory loss are prevalent preclinically such as Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Croy
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Fetschertstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Cora Zehner
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Fetschertstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany
| | - Maria Larsson
- Gösta Ekman Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Frescati Hagväg 9A, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden and
| | - Gesualdo M Zucco
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia 8, 35100 Padova, Italy
| | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, TU Dresden, Fetschertstrasse 74, 01307 Dresden, Germany,
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309
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Endevelt-Shapira Y, Shushan S, Roth Y, Sobel N. Disinhibition of olfaction: human olfactory performance improves following low levels of alcohol. Behav Brain Res 2014; 272:66-74. [PMID: 24973535 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2014.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2014] [Revised: 05/07/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesize that true human olfactory abilities are obscured by cortical inhibition. Alcohol reduces inhibition. We therefore tested the hypothesis that olfactory abilities will improve following alcohol consumption. We measured olfaction in 85 subjects, 45 in a between-subjects design, and 40 in a repeated-measures within-subjects design before and after consumption of alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverages. Subjects were also assessed using neurocognitive measures of inhibition. Following alcohol consumption, blood alcohol levels ranged from 0.005% to 0.11%. Across subjects, before any consumption of alcohol, we found that individuals who were less inhibited had lower (better) olfactory detection thresholds (r=0.68, p<0.005). Moreover, after alcohol consumption, subjects with low alcohol levels could make olfactory discriminations that subjects with 0% alcohol could not make (chance=33%, alcohol=51.3±22.7%, control=34.7±31.6%, t(43)=2.03, p<0.05). Within subjects, we found correlations between levels of alcohol and olfactory detection (r=0.63, p<0.005) and discrimination (r=-0.50, p<0.05), such that performance was improved at low levels of alcohol (significantly better than baseline for detection) and deteriorated at higher levels of alcohol. Finally, levels of alcohol-induced improved olfactory discrimination were correlated with levels of alcohol-induced cognitive disinhibition (r=0.48, p<0.05). Although we cannot rule out alternative non-inhibitory alcohol-induced routes of influence, we conclude that improved olfaction at low levels of alcohol supports the notion of an inhibitory mechanism obscuring true olfactory abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sagit Shushan
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel; Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Edith Wolfson Medical Center, Holon 58100, Israel
| | - Yehudah Roth
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Edith Wolfson Medical Center, Holon 58100, Israel
| | - Noam Sobel
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
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310
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Changes of olfactory abilities in relation to age: odor identification in more than 1400 people aged 4 to 80 years. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2014; 272:1937-44. [PMID: 25238811 PMCID: PMC4473282 DOI: 10.1007/s00405-014-3263-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The currently presented large dataset (n = 1,422) consists of results that have been assembled over the last 8 years at science fairs using the 16-item odor identification part of the “Sniffin’ Sticks”. In this context, the focus was on olfactory function in children; in addition before testing, we asked participants to rate their olfactory abilities and the patency of the nasal airways. We reinvestigated some simple questions, e.g., differences in olfactory odor identification abilities in relation to age, sex, self-ratings of olfactory function and nasal patency. Three major results evolved: first, consistent with previously published reports, we found that identification scores of the youngest and the oldest participants were lower than the scores obtained by people aged 20–60. Second, we observed an age-related increase in the olfactory abilities of children. Moreover, the self-assessed olfactory abilities were related to actual performance in the smell test, but only in adults, and self-assessed nasal patency was not related to the “Sniffin’ Sticks” identification score.
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311
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Brüning T, Bartsch R, Bolt HM, Desel H, Drexler H, Gundert-Remy U, Hartwig A, Jäckh R, Leibold E, Pallapies D, Rettenmeier AW, Schlüter G, Stropp G, Sucker K, Triebig G, Westphal G, van Thriel C. Sensory irritation as a basis for setting occupational exposure limits. Arch Toxicol 2014; 88:1855-79. [PMID: 25182421 PMCID: PMC4161939 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-014-1346-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
There is a need of guidance on how local irritancy data should be incorporated into risk assessment procedures, particularly with respect to the derivation of occupational exposure limits (OELs). Therefore, a board of experts from German committees in charge of the derivation of OELs discussed the major challenges of this particular end point for regulatory toxicology. As a result, this overview deals with the question of integrating results of local toxicity at the eyes and the upper respiratory tract (URT). Part 1 describes the morphology and physiology of the relevant target sites, i.e., the outer eye, nasal cavity, and larynx/pharynx in humans. Special emphasis is placed on sensory innervation, species differences between humans and rodents, and possible effects of obnoxious odor in humans. Based on this physiological basis, Part 2 describes a conceptual model for the causation of adverse health effects at these targets that is composed of two pathways. The first, “sensory irritation” pathway is initiated by the interaction of local irritants with receptors of the nervous system (e.g., trigeminal nerve endings) and a downstream cascade of reflexes and defense mechanisms (e.g., eyeblinks, coughing). While the first stages of this pathway are thought to be completely reversible, high or prolonged exposure can lead to neurogenic inflammation and subsequently tissue damage. The second, “tissue irritation” pathway starts with the interaction of the local irritant with the epithelial cell layers of the eyes and the URT. Adaptive changes are the first response on that pathway followed by inflammation and irreversible damages. Regardless of these initial steps, at high concentrations and prolonged exposures, the two pathways converge to the adverse effect of morphologically and biochemically ascertainable changes. Experimental exposure studies with human volunteers provide the empirical basis for effects along the sensory irritation pathway and thus, “sensory NOAEChuman” can be derived. In contrast, inhalation studies with rodents investigate the second pathway that yields an “irritative NOAECanimal.” Usually the data for both pathways is not available and extrapolation across species is necessary. Part 3 comprises an empirical approach for the derivation of a default factor for interspecies differences. Therefore, from those substances under discussion in German scientific and regulatory bodies, 19 substances were identified known to be human irritants with available human and animal data. The evaluation started with three substances: ethyl acrylate, formaldehyde, and methyl methacrylate. For these substances, appropriate chronic animal and a controlled human exposure studies were available. The comparison of the sensory NOAEChuman with the irritative NOAECanimal (chronic) resulted in an interspecies extrapolation factor (iEF) of 3 for extrapolating animal data concerning local sensory irritating effects. The adequacy of this iEF was confirmed by its application to additional substances with lower data density (acetaldehyde, ammonia, n-butyl acetate, hydrogen sulfide, and 2-ethylhexanol). Thus, extrapolating from animal studies, an iEF of 3 should be applied for local sensory irritants without reliable human data, unless individual data argue for a substance-specific approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Brüning
- Institute for Prevention and Occupational Medicine of the German Social Accident Insurance (IPA), Bochum, Germany,
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312
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Gur R, Tendler A, Wagner S. Long-term social recognition memory is mediated by oxytocin-dependent synaptic plasticity in the medial amygdala. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 76:377-86. [PMID: 24787950 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recognition of specific individuals is fundamental to mammalian social behavior and is mediated in most mammals by the main and accessory olfactory systems. Both these systems innervate the medial amygdala (MeA), where activity of the neuropeptide oxytocin is thought to mediate social recognition memory (SRM). The specific contribution of the MeA to SRM formation and the specific actions of oxytocin in the MeA are unknown. METHODS We used the social discrimination test to evaluate short-term and long-term SRM in adult Sprague-Dawley male rats (n = 38). The role of protein synthesis in the MeA was investigated by local application of the protein synthesis blocker anisomycin (n = 11). Synaptic plasticity was assessed in vivo by recording the MeA evoked field potential responses to stimulation of the main (n = 21) and accessory (n = 56) olfactory bulbs before and after theta burst stimulation. Intracerebroventricular administration of saline, oxytocin, or oxytocin receptor antagonist was used to measure the effect of oxytocin on synaptic plasticity. RESULTS Anisomycin application to the MeA prevented the formation of long-term SRM. In addition, the responses of MeA neurons underwent long-term depression (LTD) after theta burst stimulation of the accessory olfactory bulb, but not the main accessory bulb, in an oxytocin-dependent manner. No LTD was found in socially isolated rats, which are known to lack long-term SRM. Finally, accessory olfactory bulb stimulation before SRM acquisition blocked long-term SRM, supporting the involvement of LTD in the MeA in formation of long-term SRM. CONCLUSIONS Our results indicate that long-term SRM in rats involves protein synthesis and oxytocin-dependent LTD in the MeA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rotem Gur
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Alex Tendler
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
| | - Shlomo Wagner
- Sagol Department of Neurobiology, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
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313
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[Polish version of the Sniffin' Sticks Test - adaptation and normalization]. Otolaryngol Pol 2014; 68:308-14. [PMID: 25168274 DOI: 10.1016/j.otpol.2014.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2014] [Revised: 07/29/2014] [Accepted: 08/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Sniffin' Sticks Test (SST) is a complex smell test, enabling the diagnosis of various aspects of olfactory sensitivity. It is one of the most popular tools for olfactory testing all over the world; however, so far it has not been commonly used in Poland. AIM The presented study had the following aims: assessment of the applicability of the SST in Poland, adaptation of the identification subtest, normalization of the whole battery and comparison of the Polish results to the norms in the original tool. MATERIALS AND METHODS We tested olfactory sensitivity of 281 healthy volunteers aged 18-87 years. We used the full version of the SST (threshold, discrimination and identification subtests). RESULTS The results of the presented study are the modified version of the identification test response questionnaire and clearly defined normative values for the Polish people of different ages. Normative values and results in Poland were not significantly different from the previously reported findings for the original, German tool. Additionally, consistent with previous reports, olfactory sensitivity of the eldest group of the Polish people was lower than performance in younger age groups. CONCLUSIONS The presented findings suggest that the adapted version of the Sniffin' Sticks Test might be used for both medical and research purposes in Poland.
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314
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Krajnik J, Kollndorfer K, Notter LA, Mueller CA, Schöpf V. The impact of olfactory dysfunction on interoceptive awareness. Psychophysiology 2014; 52:263-8. [PMID: 25109393 PMCID: PMC4594750 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.12316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate how the impairment of the olfactory system influences interoception. Interoception is known as the awareness of one's body or the sense of the condition of the body; more precisely, this construct is defined as the processing, representation, and perception of the internal physical state. Interoceptive sensitivity and chemosensory performance were assessed in 77 subjects, including 43 functional anosmics, 18 hyposmics, and 16 healthy controls. Interoceptive awareness was predicted by odor detection threshold, as well as the duration of olfactory loss in patients who suffered from reduced olfactory function-the longer the olfactory impairment, the worse the perception of bodily signals. The results of this study will significantly contribute to the basic understanding of the multifaceted effects of olfactory alterations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Krajnik
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Image-guided Therapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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315
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Characteristics of chemosensory disorders—results from a survey. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2014; 272:1403-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s00405-014-3210-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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316
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Dunkel A, Steinhaus M, Kotthoff M, Nowak B, Krautwurst D, Schieberle P, Hofmann T. Nature's chemical signatures in human olfaction: a foodborne perspective for future biotechnology. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014; 53:7124-43. [PMID: 24939725 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201309508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2013] [Revised: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The biocatalytic production of flavor naturals that determine chemosensory percepts of foods and beverages is an ever challenging target for academic and industrial research. Advances in chemical trace analysis and post-genomic progress at the chemistry-biology interface revealed odor qualities of nature's chemosensory entities to be defined by odorant-induced olfactory receptor activity patterns. Beyond traditional views, this review and meta-analysis now shows characteristic ratios of only about 3 to 40 genuine key odorants for each food, from a group of about 230 out of circa 10 000 food volatiles. This suggests the foodborn stimulus space has co-evolved with, and roughly match our circa 400 olfactory receptors as best natural agonists. This perspective gives insight into nature's chemical signatures of smell, provides the chemical odor codes of more than 220 food samples, and beyond addresses industrial implications for producing recombinants that fully reconstruct the natural odor signatures for use in flavors and fragrances, fully immersive interactive virtual environments, or humanoid bioelectronic noses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Dunkel
- Chair of Food Chemistry and Molecular Sensory Science, Technische Universität München, Lise-Meitnerstrasse 34, 85354 Freising-Weihenstephan (Germany)
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317
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Dunkel A, Steinhaus M, Kotthoff M, Nowak B, Krautwurst D, Schieberle P, Hofmann T. Genuine Geruchssignaturen der Natur – Perspektiven aus der Lebensmittelchemie für die Biotechnologie. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201309508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Dunkel
- Lehrstuhl für Lebensmittelchemie und molekulare Sensorik, Technische Universität München, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Martin Steinhaus
- Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie – Leibniz Institut, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Matthias Kotthoff
- Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie – Leibniz Institut, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Bettina Nowak
- Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie – Leibniz Institut, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Dietmar Krautwurst
- Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie – Leibniz Institut, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Peter Schieberle
- Deutsche Forschungsanstalt für Lebensmittelchemie – Leibniz Institut, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
| | - Thomas Hofmann
- Lehrstuhl für Lebensmittelchemie und molekulare Sensorik, Technische Universität München, Lise‐Meitner‐Straße 34, 85354 Freising‐Weihenstephan (Deutschland)
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318
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Sorokowska A, Sorokowski P, Hummel T. Cross-Cultural Administration of an Odor Discrimination Test. CHEMOSENS PERCEPT 2014; 7:85-90. [PMID: 24883170 PMCID: PMC4037584 DOI: 10.1007/s12078-014-9169-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Olfactory sensitivity can be evaluated by various tests, with "Sniffin' Sticks" test (SST) being one of the most popular. SST consists of tests for odor threshold, discrimination, and identification. It seems relatively straightforward to administer threshold tests in different groups and societies and it has been shown that odor identification tests requires special adaptation before they can be administered to various populations. However, few studies have investigated the application of an odor discrimination task in various regions/cultures. In the present study, we compared the discrimination scores of 169 Polish people with the scores of 99 Tsimane', Bolivian Amerindians. The Tsimane' participants scored very low in the discrimination task, despite their general high olfactory sensitivity. This result suggests that when a discrimination task is chosen as the form of olfactory testing, some additional variables need to be controlled. We suggest three sources of low scores of our participants-their cognitive profile, the cultural background, i.e., little knowledge of the odors used in the discrimination test and problems associated with testing environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Dawida 1, 50-527 Wroclaw, Poland
- TU Dresden, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Smell & Taste Clinic, Dresden, Germany
| | - Piotr Sorokowski
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, ul. Dawida 1, 50-527 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Thomas Hummel
- TU Dresden, Medical Faculty Carl Gustav Carus, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Smell & Taste Clinic, Dresden, Germany
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319
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Wnuk E, Majid A. Revisiting the limits of language: The odor lexicon of Maniq. Cognition 2014; 131:125-38. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2013.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2013] [Revised: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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320
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Croy I, Angelo SD, Olausson H. Reduced pleasant touch appraisal in the presence of a disgusting odor. PLoS One 2014; 9:e92975. [PMID: 24664177 PMCID: PMC3963971 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0092975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Odors are powerful emotional stimuli influencing mood, attention and behavior. Here we examined if odors change the perception of pleasant touch. In line with the warning function of the olfactory system, we proposed that especially unpleasant odors will reduce touch pleasantness, presumably through a disgust-related mechanism. METHODS Forty-five healthy participants (mean age 23.3 +/- 3years SD, 24 females) were presented to slow (3 cm/s) and fast (30 cm/s) brush stroking delivered by a robot to the forearm. Touch pleasantness under the influence of an unpleasant odor (Civette, smelling like feces) and an intensity matched pleasant odor (Rose) was compared to an odorless control condition. In a pilot study with 30 participants (mean age 25.9 +/-6 years, 21 females), the odors were matched according to their intensity, and we studied the influence of disgust sensitivity on the perception of 4 different odor qualities. RESULTS The unpleasant odor decreased touch pleasantness for both stroking velocities compared to the odorless control (p<0.005) whereas the rose odor did not change touch pleasantness significantly. Disgust sensitivity was correlated with the modulation of touch pleasantness. The pilot study revealed a significant correlation between disgust sensitivity and the perception of the unpleasant odor qualities (r = -0.56; p = 0.007), but not with any of the other odors. CONCLUSION Unpleasant odors are powerful in modulating touch pleasantness, and disgust might be a moderating variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Croy
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- * E-mail:
| | - Silvia D' Angelo
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Håkan Olausson
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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321
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Smeets MAM, Dijksterhuis GB. Smelly primes - when olfactory primes do or do not work. Front Psychol 2014; 5:96. [PMID: 24575071 PMCID: PMC3921890 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In applied olfactory cognition the effects that olfactory stimulation can have on (human) behavior are investigated. To enable an efficient application of olfactory stimuli a model of how they may lead to a change in behavior is proposed. To this end we use the concept of olfactory priming. Olfactory priming may prompt a special view on priming as the olfactory sense has some unique properties which make odors special types of primes. Examples of such properties are the ability of odors to influence our behavior outside of awareness, to lead to strong affective evaluations, to evoke specific memories, and to associate easily and quickly to other environmental stimuli. Opportunities and limitations for using odors as primes are related to these properties, and alternative explanations for reported findings are offered. Implications for olfactory semantic, construal, behavior and goal priming are given based on a brief overview of the priming literature from social psychology and from olfactory perception science. We end by formulating recommendations and ideas for a future research agenda and applications for olfactory priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A M Smeets
- Unilever R&D, Vlaardingen Netherlands ; Faculty of Social and Behavioural Sciences, Utrecht University Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - G B Dijksterhuis
- Unilever R&D, Vlaardingen Netherlands ; Section for Sensory and Consumer Science, Faculty of Science (FOOD), University of Copenhagen Copenhagen, Denmark
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322
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Keller A. The evolutionary function of conscious information processing is revealed by its task-dependency in the olfactory system. Front Psychol 2014; 5:62. [PMID: 24550876 PMCID: PMC3913989 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Although many responses to odorous stimuli are mediated without olfactory information being consciously processed, some olfactory behaviors require conscious information processing. I will here contrast situations in which olfactory information is processed consciously to situations in which it is processed non-consciously. This contrastive analysis reveals that conscious information processing is required when an organism is faced with tasks in which there are many behavioral options available. I therefore propose that it is the evolutionary function of conscious information processing to guide behaviors in situations in which the organism has to choose between many possible responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Keller
- Philosophy Program, Graduate Center, The City University of New York New York, NY, USA
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323
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Abstract
Ample evidence suggests that social chemosignaling plays a significant role in human behavior. Processing of odors and chemosignals depends on sniffing. Given this, we hypothesized that humans may have evolved an automatic mechanism driving sniffs in response to conspecific sniffing. To test this, we measured sniffing behavior of human subjects watching the movie Perfume, which contains many olfactory sniffing events. Despite the total absence of odor, observers sniffed when characters in the movie sniffed. Moreover, this effect was most pronounced in scenes where subjects heard the sniff but did not see the sniffed-at object. We liken this response to the orienting towards conspecific gaze in vision and argue that its robustness further highlights the significance of olfactory information processing in human behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anat Arzi
- Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, 234 Herzl street, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
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324
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Abstract
Olfactory disorders are common and affect about one-fifth of the general population. The main causes of olfactory loss are post viral upper respiratory infection, nasal/sinus disease, and head trauma and are therefore very frequent among patients in ear, nose, and throat clinics. We have systematically reviewed the impact of quantitative, qualitative, and congenital olfactory disorders on daily life domains as well as on general quality of life and depression. From the extensive body of literature, it can be concluded that loss of the sense of smell leads to disturbances in important areas, mainly in food enjoyment, detecting harmful food and smoke, and to some extent in social situations and working life. Most patients seem to deal well and manage those restrictions. However, a smaller proportion has considerable problems and expresses a noticeable reduction in general quality of life and enhanced depression. The impact of coping strategies is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Croy
- Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Medicinaregatan 16, University of Gothenburg, Box 414, 40530 Göteborg, Sweden.
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325
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Maurage P, Rombaux P, de Timary P. Olfaction in alcohol-dependence: a neglected yet promising research field. Front Psychol 2014; 4:1007. [PMID: 24550850 PMCID: PMC3879530 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.01007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfaction research deeply renewed the knowledge of the pathophysiological mechanisms involved in various psychopathological states and showed that olfactory deficits might constitute an onset or trait marker in psychiatry. However, while alcohol-dependence is the most wide spread psychiatric disorder and while olfaction might be involved in its development and maintenance, olfactory abilities have been little explored in this population. The central aim of this paper is thus to underline the usefulness of olfaction research in alcohol-dependence. After reviewing the few olfaction studies available, a research agenda will be proposed, identifying the major challenges for future research, and particularly: (1) the identification of the origin, extent and cerebral correlates of olfaction deficits; (2) the links between olfaction and emotional-cognitive deficits, and the use of olfaction to understand the pathomechanisms of alcohol-dependence; (3) the interactions between olfaction and other sensory modalities; (4) the use of olfaction to predict the appearance and intensity of cognitive impairments; (5) the impact of olfaction deficits on everyday life in alcohol-dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Maurage
- Laboratory for Experimental Psychopathology, Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium
| | - Philippe Rombaux
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, St Luc Hospital and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
| | - Philippe de Timary
- Laboratory for Experimental Psychopathology, Psychological Sciences Research Institute, Université catholique de Louvain Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium ; Department of Adult Psychiatry, St Luc Hospital and Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain Brussels, Belgium
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326
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Postmes L, Sno HN, Goedhart S, van der Stel J, Heering HD, de Haan L. Schizophrenia as a self-disorder due to perceptual incoherence. Schizophr Res 2014; 152:41-50. [PMID: 23973319 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2013.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this review is to describe the potential relationship between multisensory disintegration and self-disorders in schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Sensory processing impairments affecting multisensory integration have been demonstrated in schizophrenia. From a developmental perspective multisensory integration is considered to be crucial for normal self-experience. An impairment of multisensory integration is called 'perceptual incoherence'. We theorize that perceptual incoherence may evoke incoherent self-experiences including depersonalization, ambivalence, diminished sense of agency, and 'loosening of associations' between thoughts, feelings and actions that lie within the framework of 'self-disorders' as described by Sass and Parnas (2003). We postulate that subconscious attempts to restore perceptual coherence may induce hallucinations and delusions. Increased insight into mechanisms underlying 'self-disorders' may enhance our understanding of schizophrenia, improve recognition of early psychosis, and extend the range of therapeutic possibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Postmes
- GGZ Leiden, Department Early Psychosis (KEP) Leiden, Sandifortdreef 19, 2333 ZZ Leiden, the Netherlands.
| | - H N Sno
- ZMC, Zaans Medical Centre, the Netherlands
| | - S Goedhart
- ZMC, Zaans Medical Centre, the Netherlands
| | | | - H D Heering
- AMC, Academic Psychiatric Centre, Department Early Psychosis, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - L de Haan
- AMC, Academic Psychiatric Centre, Department Early Psychosis, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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327
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Camps J, Stouten J, Tuteleers C, van Son K. Smells like cooperation? Unpleasant body odor and people's perceptions and helping behaviors. JOURNAL OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/jasp.12203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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328
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Coppin G, Delplanque S, Bernard C, Cekic S, Porcherot C, Cayeux I, Sander D. Choice both affects and reflects preferences. Q J Exp Psychol (Hove) 2013; 67:1415-27. [PMID: 24215611 DOI: 10.1080/17470218.2013.863953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The free-choice paradigm is a widely used paradigm in psychology. It has been used to show that after a choice between two similarly pleasant stimuli, the pleasantness of the chosen one tends to increase, whereas the pleasantness of the rejected one tends to decrease-a spreading of alternatives. However, the methodological validity of the free-choice paradigm to study choice-induced preference change has recently been seriously questioned [Chen, K. M., & Risen, J. L. (2010). How choice affects and reflects preferences: Revisiting the free-choice paradigm. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 99, 573-594. doi:10.1037/a0020217]. According to this criticism, the classically reported spreading of alternatives between the first and second rating sessions cannot be unambiguously interpreted to reflect a true change in preferences and can be observed even for completely static preferences. Here, we used two measurement sequences, a classical Rating 1-choice-Rating 2 sequence and a control Rating 1-Rating 2-choice sequence, to disentangle the spreading of alternatives driven by the effect of choice from the artefactual effect highlighted by Chen and Risen. In two studies using different stimulus material (faces and odours), we find that choice has a robust modulatory impact on preferences for rejected odours, but not for chosen odours and not for faces.
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329
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Ferdenzi C, Delplanque S, Barbosa P, Court K, Guinard JX, Guo T, Craig Roberts S, Schirmer A, Porcherot C, Cayeux I, Sander D, Grandjean D. Affective semantic space of scents. Towards a universal scale to measure self-reported odor-related feelings. Food Qual Prefer 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2013.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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330
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Schreiber T, White TL. Detect, Reject, Focus: The Role of Satiation and Odor Relevance in Cross-Modal Attention. CHEMOSENS PERCEPT 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12078-013-9158-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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331
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Harker M, Carvell AM, Marti VPJ, Riazanskaia S, Kelso H, Taylor D, Grimshaw S, Arnold DS, Zillmer R, Shaw J, Kirk JM, Alcasid ZM, Gonzales-Tanon S, Chan GP, Rosing EAE, Smith AM. Functional characterisation of a SNP in the ABCC11 allele - effects on axillary skin metabolism, odour generation and associated behaviours. J Dermatol Sci 2013; 73:23-30. [PMID: 24076068 DOI: 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2013.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 08/30/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP), 538G→A, leading to a G180R substitution in the ABCC11 gene results in reduced concentrations of apocrine derived axillary odour precursors. OBJECTIVE Determine the axillary odour levels in the SNP ABCC11 genotype variants and to investigate if other parameters associated with odour production are affected. METHODS Axillary odour was assessed by subjective quantification and gas chromatography headspace analysis. Metabolite profiles, microbiome diversity and personal hygiene habits were also assessed. RESULTS Axillary odour in the A/A homozygotes was significantly lower compared to the G/A and G/G genotypes. However, the perception-based measures still detected appreciable levels of axillary odour in the A/A subjects. Metabolomic analysis highlighted significant differences in axillary skin metabolites between A/A subjects compared to those carrying the G allele. These differences resulted in A/A subjects lacking specific volatile odourants in the axillary headspace, but all genotypes produced odoriferous short chain fatty acids. Microbiomic analysis revealed differences in the relative abundance of key bacterial genera associated with odour generation between the different genotypes. Deodorant usage indicated a high level of self awareness of axillary odour levels with A/A individuals less likely to adopt personal hygiene habits designed to eradicate/mask its presence. CONCLUSIONS The SNP in the ABCC11 gene results in lower levels of axillary odour in the A/A homozygotes compared to those carrying the G allele, but A/A subjects still produce noticeable amounts of axillary odour. Differences in axillary skin metabolites, bacterial genera and personal hygiene behaviours also appear to be influenced by this SNP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Harker
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom.
| | - Ann-Marie Carvell
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Vernon P J Marti
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Svetlana Riazanskaia
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Hailey Kelso
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - David Taylor
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Sally Grimshaw
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - David S Arnold
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Ruediger Zillmer
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Jane Shaw
- Unilever Research & Development, Quarry Road East, Port Sunlight, United Kingdom
| | - Jayne M Kirk
- Waters Corporation, MS Technologies Centre, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Zee M Alcasid
- Unilever Philippines Inc., 1351 United Nations Avenue, Paco, 1007 Manila, Philippines
| | - Sheila Gonzales-Tanon
- Unilever Philippines Inc., 1351 United Nations Avenue, Paco, 1007 Manila, Philippines
| | - Gertrude P Chan
- Clinical Trial Management & Testing Associates, Inc., Unit 1207, 2301 Civic Place, Civic Drive, Filinvest Corporate City, Alabang, Muntinlupa City, Philippines
| | - Egge A E Rosing
- Unilever Research Laboratory, Oliver van Noortlaan 120, 3133 AT Vlaardingen, The Netherlands
| | - Adrian M Smith
- Unilever Discover, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, United Kingdom
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332
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Croy I, Laqua K, Süß F, Joraschky P, Ziemssen T, Hummel T. The sensory channel of presentation alters subjective ratings and autonomic responses toward disgusting stimuli-Blood pressure, heart rate and skin conductance in response to visual, auditory, haptic and olfactory presented disgusting stimuli. Front Hum Neurosci 2013; 7:510. [PMID: 24027509 PMCID: PMC3759797 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2013.00510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/08/2013] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Disgust causes specific reaction patterns, observable in mimic responses and body reactions. Most research on disgust deals with visual stimuli. However, pictures may cause another disgust experience than sounds, odors, or tactile stimuli. Therefore, disgust experience evoked by four different sensory channels was compared. A total of 119 participants received 3 different disgusting and one control stimulus, each presented through the visual, auditory, tactile, and olfactory channel. Ratings of evoked disgust as well as responses of the autonomic nervous system (heart rate, skin conductance level, systolic blood pressure) were recorded and the effect of stimulus labeling and of repeated presentation was analyzed. Ratings suggested that disgust could be evoked through all senses; they were highest for visual stimuli. However, autonomic reaction toward disgusting stimuli differed according to the channel of presentation. In contrast to the other, olfactory disgust stimuli provoked a strong decrease of systolic blood pressure. Additionally, labeling enhanced disgust ratings and autonomic reaction for olfactory and tactile, but not for visual and auditory stimuli. Repeated presentation indicated that participant's disgust rating diminishes to all but olfactory disgust stimuli. Taken together we argue that the sensory channel through which a disgust reaction is evoked matters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Croy
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Smell and Taste Clinic, University of Dresden Medical School Dresden, Germany ; Department of Psychosomatic Medicine, University of Dresden Medical School Dresden, Germany
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333
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Semin GR, Groot JHD. The chemical bases of human sociality. Trends Cogn Sci 2013; 17:427-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2013.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2012] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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334
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Sorokowska A, Sorokowski P, Hummel T, Huanca T. Olfaction and environment: Tsimane' of Bolivian rainforest have lower threshold of odor detection than industrialized German people. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69203. [PMID: 23922693 PMCID: PMC3726727 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 06/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Olfactory sensitivity varies between individuals. However, data regarding cross-cultural and inter-group differences are scarce. We compared the thresholds of odor detection of the traditional society of Tsimane' (native Amazonians of the Bolivian rainforest; n = 151) and people living in Dresden (Germany; n = 286) using "Sniffin' Sticks" threshold subtest. Tsimane' detected n-butanol at significantly lower concentrations than the German subjects. The distribution of thresholds of the Tsimane' was very specific, with 25% of Tsimane' obtaining better results in the olfactory test than any member of the German group. These data suggest that differences in olfactory sensitivity seem to be especially salient between industrialized and non-industrialized populations inhabiting different environmental conditions. We hypothesize that the possible sources of such differences are: (i) the impact of pollution which impairs the olfactory abilities of people from industrialized countries; (ii) better training of olfaction because of the higher importance of smell in traditional populations; (iii) environmental pressures shaping olfactory abilities in these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Thomas Hummel
- Smell & Taste Clinic, Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Technical University of Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Tomas Huanca
- Centro boliviano de Investigación y de Desarrollo Socio Integral, Correo Central, San Borja, Beni, Bolivia
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335
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Olofsson JK, Bowman NE, Gottfried JA. High and low roads to odor valence? A choice response-time study. J Exp Psychol Hum Percept Perform 2013; 39:1205-11. [PMID: 23875569 DOI: 10.1037/a0033682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Valence and edibility are two important features of olfactory perception, but it remains unclear how they are read out from an olfactory input. For a given odor object (e.g., the smell of rose or garlic), does perceptual identification of that object necessarily precede retrieval of information about its valence and edibility, or alternatively, are these processes independent? In the present study, we studied rapid, binary perceptual decisions regarding odor detection, object identity, valence, and edibility for a set of common odors. We found that decisions regarding odor-object identity were faster than decisions regarding odor valence or edibility, but slower than detection. Mediation analysis revealed that odor valence and edibility decision response times were predicted by a model in which odor-object identity served as a mediator along the perceptual pathway from detection to both valence and edibility. According to this model, odor valence is determined through both a "low road" that bypasses odor objects and a "high road" that utilizes odor-object information. Edibility evaluations are constrained to processing via the high road. The results outline a novel causal framework that explains how major perceptual features might be rapidly extracted from odors through engagement of odor objects early in the processing stream.
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336
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Nordin S, Claeson AS, Andersson M, Sommar L, Andrée J, Lundqvist K, Andersson L. Impact of Health-Risk Perception on Odor Perception and Cognitive Performance. CHEMOSENS PERCEPT 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s12078-013-9153-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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337
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Sorokowska A. Assessing Personality Using Body Odor: Differences Between Children and Adults. JOURNAL OF NONVERBAL BEHAVIOR 2013; 37:153-163. [PMID: 23894217 PMCID: PMC3719001 DOI: 10.1007/s10919-013-0152-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have demonstrated that smell is an important sense in social interactions, and recently it was determined that olfactory cues might also convey information concerning certain personality traits. The present study investigated whether personality traits might be recognized using olfactory cues in contexts other than male–female interactions. 75 children (35 girls and 40 boys, M = 8.29 years) and 75 young adults (41 women and 34 men, M = 20.5 years) rated the personality traits of 50 unknown individuals (24 women and 26 men, M = 24.02 years) based on their body odor. The correlations between scent ratings and the self-assessed personality dimensions of odor donors were analyzed. The results show that both children and adults assess neuroticism relatively accurately, whereas only adults recognized dominance. These results suggest that olfaction supplements visual and auditory cues throughout our whole lives, contributing to the first impression accuracy of certain personality traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Sorokowska
- Institute of Psychology, University of Wroclaw, Ul. Dawida 1, 50-527 Wrocław, Poland
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338
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Rigaill L, Higham JP, Lee PC, Blin A, Garcia C. Multimodal sexual signaling and mating behavior in olive baboons (Papio anubis). Am J Primatol 2013; 75:774-87. [PMID: 23592393 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.22154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2012] [Revised: 03/04/2013] [Accepted: 03/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
In primate species, mating decisions seem to be based on multiple signal elements with different roles in the signaling of female reproductive status. Whereas some primate signals are relatively well described (e.g., sexual swellings and copulation calls), studies that simultaneously assess visual, auditory, behavioral, and olfactory cues as signals of reproductive state are rarely undertaken. We used data on variation in sexual behaviors and sexual swellings in relation to the fertile period (estimated from the date of swelling detumescence) from a troop of semi-free ranging olive baboons (Papio anubis) to assess how different signals influence patterns of mate choice. Using an objective and quantitative measure of swelling size and color, along with detailed data on sexual behaviors from 13 cycles of nine adult females, we found that fine-scale variation in sexual swelling size, female behavior and copulation call rates could advertise the beginning of the fertile phase whereas swelling color did not. Rates of olfactory inspections by males also increased during the fertile phase, suggesting that olfactory signals were of interest to males and may contain information about ovulation. There was no relationship between female characteristics (age and rank) and the expression of sexual signals, except for proceptive behaviors which increased with female rank. Males displayed more sexual behaviors such as approaches and holding and tended to direct more ejaculatory mounts during the fertile phase. All together, we suggest that whereas all males could have information concerning the timing of ovulation through female proceptive behaviors and swelling size, consorting males may have access to additional signals (olfactory cues). Sexual communication in olive baboons is consistent with a multimodal framework for fertility signaling, potentially allowing males and females to establish different mating strategies. The possible selective pressures leading to multi-modal signaling are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucie Rigaill
- Laboratoire de Dynamique de l'Evolution Humaine, CNRS UPR 2147, Paris, France
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339
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Havlícek J, Nováková L, Vondrová M, Kubena AA, Valentová J, Roberts SC. Olfactory perception is positively linked to anxiety in young adults. Perception 2013; 41:1246-61. [PMID: 23469704 DOI: 10.1068/p7244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Olfactory abilities show a high degree of inter-individual variability and this could be partly related to personality differences. Here, in two studies, we tested a potential link between personality dimensions and olfactory perception. Sixty-eight (study 1) and a hundred and fifty-six (study 2) young adults completed the Big Five questionnaire and performed the Sniffin' Sticks test for assessing odour threshold, identification, and (in study 2) discrimination. In neither study did we find a significant link between personality dimensions and olfactory identification scores. However, in study 1, we found a significant positive correlation between the neuroticism dimension and olfactory sensitivity. This was mainly due to the anxiety and self-consciousness subscales, which load onto the neuroticism dimension. In a follow-up study, we again found a significant association between anxiety and odour perception, specifically in odour discrimination. Our results indicate that variability in anxiety could partly explain the high inter-individual variation in olfactory perception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Havlícek
- Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, U Kríze 8, 158 00 Prague 5, Czech Republic.
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340
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Croy I, Maboshe W, Hummel T. Habituation effects of pleasant and unpleasant odors. Int J Psychophysiol 2013; 88:104-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2013.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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341
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Men without a sense of smell exhibit a strongly reduced number of sexual relationships, women exhibit reduced partnership security – A reanalysis of previously published data. Biol Psychol 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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342
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Stevenson RJ. Olfactory perception, cognition, and dysfunction in humans. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2013; 4:273-284. [PMID: 26304205 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The main functions of olfaction relate to finding food, avoiding predators and disease, and social communication. Its role in detecting food has resulted in a unique dual mode sensory system. Environmental odorants are 'smelled' via the external nostrils, while volatile chemicals in food-detected by the same receptors-arrive via the nasopharynx, contributing to flavor. This arrangement allows the brain to link the consequences of eating with a food's odor, and then later to use this information in the search for food. Recognizing an odorant-a food, mate, or predator-requires the detection of complex chemical blends against a noisy chemical background. The brain solves this problem in two ways. First, by rapid adaptation to background odorants so that new odorants stand out. Second, by pattern matching the neural representation of an odorant to prior olfactory experiences. This account is consistent with olfactory sensory physiology, anatomy, and psychology. Odor perception, and its products, may be subject to further processing-olfactory cognition. While olfactory cognition has features in common with visual or auditory cognition, several aspects are unique, and even those that are common may be instantiated in different ways. These differences can be productively used to evaluate the generality of models of cognition and consciousness. Finally, the olfactory system can breakdown, and this may be predictive of the onset of neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's, as well as having prognostic value in other disorders such as schizophrenia. WIREs Cogn Sci 2013, 4:273-284. doi: 10.1002/wcs.1224 For further resources related to this article, please visit the WIREs website.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Stevenson
- Department of Psychology, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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343
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Stevenson RJ, Mahmut MK. Using response consistency to probe olfactory knowledge. Chem Senses 2013; 38:237-49. [PMID: 23302937 DOI: 10.1093/chemse/bjs139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although we know much about familiar faces or objects that we temporarily cannot name, what do we know about familiar odors that we cannot name? Two experiments here examined this issue, by comparing the reliability of responses to various questions using 2 tests, with odors that were consistently named or given similar or very different names on each test occasion. Reliability estimates for various types of questions were then compared against each other and with a random baseline control, which reflected response consistency among the different odors on each test occasion. Experiment 1 probed response consistency for the core olfactory attributes-familiarity, edibility, and intensity-and for the components of the semantic differential (liking, activity, and potency). Experiment 2 probed response consistency for these latter items, as well as conceptual questions relating to the odors' source (e.g., solid or liquid?) and its similarity to other odors (e.g., how fruity?). In both experiments, when an odor was named very differently on each test occasion, the only response to remain consistent was "liking." We suggest that liking reflects the most basic form of information conveyed by the olfactory system.
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344
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Hüttenbrink KB, Hummel T, Berg D, Gasser T, Hähner A. Olfactory dysfunction: common in later life and early warning of neurodegenerative disease. DEUTSCHES ARZTEBLATT INTERNATIONAL 2013; 110:1-7, e1. [PMID: 23450985 DOI: 10.3238/arztebl.2013.0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Disturbances of smell and taste are common. About 5% of the general population have anosmia (absence of the sense of smell). Olfactory dysfunction can markedly impair the quality of life. METHODS Review of pertinent literature retrieved by a selective search. RESULTS In recent years, simple and reliable tests of the sense of smell have been introduced in otorhinolaryngology. Olfactory testing has become a new focus of attention in neurology as well, mainly because many patients with neurodegenerative diseases-including the majority of those with Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease-have olfactory loss early on in the course of their disorder. Olfactory dysfunction is thus regarded as an early sign of neurodegenerative disease that may allow a tentative diagnosis to be made years before the motor or cognitive disturbances become evident. As for the treatment of olfactory loss, anti-inflammatory drugs and surgery can help in some cases, and olfactory training can lead to significant improvement of post-viral olfactory deficits. CONCLUSION Olfactory dysfunction is common and becomes more common with advancing age. It is increasingly receiving attention as an important sign for the early diagnosis and the differential diagnosis of neurodegenerative disorders.
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345
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Delplanque S, Chrea C, Grandjean D, Ferdenzi C, Cayeux I, Porcherot C, Le Calvé B, Sander D, Scherer KR. How to map the affective semantic space of scents. Cogn Emot 2012; 26:885-98. [DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2011.628301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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346
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Hummel T, Landis BN, Hüttenbrink KB. Smell and taste disorders. GMS CURRENT TOPICS IN OTORHINOLARYNGOLOGY, HEAD AND NECK SURGERY 2012; 10:Doc04. [PMID: 22558054 PMCID: PMC3341581 DOI: 10.3205/cto000077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Smell and taste disorders can markedly affect the quality of life. In recent years we have become much better in the assessment of the ability to smell and taste. In addition, information is now available to say something about the prognosis of individual patients. With regard to therapy there also seems to be low but steady progress. Of special importance for the treatment is the ability of the olfactory epithelium to regenerate.
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347
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Novakova L, Bojanowski V, Havlíček J, Croy I. Differential patterns of food appreciation during consumption of a simple food in congenitally anosmic individuals: an explorative study. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33921. [PMID: 22529901 PMCID: PMC3329520 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2011] [Accepted: 02/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Food is evaluated for various attributes. One of the key food evaluation domains is hedonicity. As food is consumed, its hedonic valence decreases (due to prolonged sensory stimulation) and hedonic habituation results. The aim of the present study was to investigate changes in food pleasantness ratings during consumption of a simple food by individuals without olfactory experience with food as compared to normosmics. 15 congenital anosmics and 15 normosmic controls were each presented with ten 10 g banana slices. Each was visually inspected, then smelled and chewed for ten seconds and subsequently rated for hedonicity on a 21-point scale. There was a significant difference in pleasantness ratings between congenital anosmics and controls (F(1, 26) = 6.71, p = .02) with the anosmics exhibiting higher ratings than the controls, a significant main repeated-measures effect on the ratings (F(1.85, 48) = 12.15, p<.001), which showed a decreasing trend over the course of consumption, as well as a significant portion*group interaction (F(1.85, 48) = 3.54, p = .04), with the anosmic participants experiencing a less pronounced decline. The results of the present explorative study suggest that over the course of consumption of a simple food, congenitally anosmic individuals experience differential patterns of appreciation of food as compared to normosmics. In this particular case, the decrease of hedonic valence was less pronounced in congenital anosmics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lenka Novakova
- Department of Anthropology, Faculty of Humanities, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic.
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348
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Learning about the functions of the olfactory system from people without a sense of smell. PLoS One 2012; 7:e33365. [PMID: 22457756 PMCID: PMC3310072 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0033365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2011] [Accepted: 02/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The olfactory system provides numerous functions to humans, influencing ingestive behavior, awareness of environmental hazards and social communication. Approximately 1/5 of the general population exhibit an impaired sense of smell. However, in contrast to the many affected, only few patients complain of their impairment. So how important is it for humans to have an intact sense of smell? Or is it even dispensable, at least in the Western world? To investigate this, we compared 32 patients, who were born without a sense of smell (isolated congenital anosmia--ICA) with 36 age-matched controls. A broad questionnaire was used, containing domains relevant to olfaction in daily life, along with a questionnaire about social relationships and the BDI-questionnaire. ICA-patients differed only slightly from controls in functions of daily life related to olfaction. These differences included enhanced social insecurity, increased risk for depressive symptoms and increased risk for household accidents. In these domains the sense of olfaction seems to play a key role.
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349
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A dynamic cortical network encodes violations of expectancy during taste perception. J Neurosci 2012; 32:1918-9. [PMID: 22323704 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.6159-11.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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350
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Mostafa T, Khouly GE, Hassan A. Pheromones in sex and reproduction: Do they have a role in humans? J Adv Res 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
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