Long term predictive values of cytology and human papillomavirus testing in cervical cancer screening: joint European cohort study

2012 cervical cancer screening guidelines and the future role of HPV testing

Persistent high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is a necessary precursor for the development of cervical cancer. Recent data demonstrating the sensitivity of HPV testing has led to consensus group updates of how to best screen women in the United States. The newest recommendations incorporate HPV testing for women 30 to 65 years of age, but do not yet recommend primary screening with HPV testing alone. With the advent of HPV vaccination and consequent shift in the prevalence of HPV-related disease, the role of cervical cytology as primary testing in national screening programs will be further called into question.

Challenges in cervical cancer prevention: a survey of U.S. obstetrician-gynecologists

BACKGROUND

Current cervical cancer prevention recommendations include human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination, Pap and HPV co-testing, and Pap testing at 3- to 5-year intervals.

PURPOSE

To examine attitudes, practice patterns, and barriers related to HPV vaccination and cervical cancer screening guidelines among U.S. obstetrician-gynecologists.

METHODS

In 2011-2012, a national sample of members of the American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists responded to a 15-item (some with multiple parts) questionnaire assessing sociodemographic characteristics, clinical practices, and perceived barriers to HPV vaccination and cervical cancer screening. Multivariate logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with guideline adherence. Analyses were conducted in 2012.

RESULTS

A total of 366 obstetrician-gynecologists participated. Ninety-two percent of respondents offered HPV vaccination to patients, but only 27% estimated that most eligible patients received vaccination. Parent and patient refusals were commonly cited barriers to HPV vaccination. Approximately half of respondents followed guidelines to begin cervical cancer screening at age 21 years, discontinue screening at age 70 years or after hysterectomy, and appropriately utilize Pap and HPV co-testing. Most physicians continued to recommend annual Paps (74% aged 21-29 years, 53% aged ≥30 years). Physicians felt that patients were uncomfortable with extended screening intervals and were concerned that patients would not come for annual exams without concurrent Paps. Solo practitioners were less likely to follow both vaccination and screening guidelines than those in group practices.

CONCLUSIONS

This survey of obstetrician-gynecologists indicates persistent barriers to the adoption of HPV vaccination and cervical cancer screening guidelines. Interventions to promote guideline adherence may help improve the quality of cervical cancer prevention.

Primary prophylactic human papillomavirus vaccination programs: future perspective on global impact

Of the 40 types of human papillomavirus that can infect the mucosal epithelium, four types can now be prevented using prophylactic vaccination. Two of these types (high-risk types 16 and 18) cause 70% of cervical cancers, a proportion of other genital cancers and a subset of head and neck cancers. The low-risk types 6 and 11 cause 90% of genital warts and the disease recurrent respiratory papillomatosis. Thus, if primary HPV vaccination programs can be implemented effectively, the potential for a reduction in global disease burden is great. This article considers the current issues and challenges in delivering primary HPV vaccination programs effectively and the likely impact of the vaccines in both the near and more distant future.

Chromosomal gains measured in cytology samples from women with abnormal cervical cancer screening results

OBJECTIVE

Chromosomal gains at 3q26, 5p15 and 20q13 have been described in cervical precancer and cancer. We evaluated a novel fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) assay that detects gains at these three loci simultaneously as a possible biomarker for detecting cervical precancer.

METHODS

Chromosomal copy numbers at 3q26, 5p15, 20q13 and the centromere of chromosome7 (cen7) in liquid-based cytology specimens from 168 women enrolled in the Biopsy Study were determined by FISH. The number of cells with ≥ 3 or ≥ 4 signals for a genomic locus was enumerated and diagnostic test performance measures were calculated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analyses. Sensitivity and specificity values were determined for the detection of CIN2+ and/or HSIL.

RESULTS

The median number of cells with ≥ 3 signals increased with the severity of cervical lesion for each genomic locus (p-trend<0.02 for each locus). ROC analysis for the number of cells with ≥ 3 signals resulted in area under the curve values of 0.70 (95% CI: 0.54-0.86), 0.67 (0.52-0.83), 0.67 (0.51-0.83) and 0.78 (0.64-0.92) for 3q26, 5p15, 20q13 and cen7, respectively, for the detection of CIN2+ and/or HSIL. Positivity for gains at multiple loci resulted in only slightly better test performance measures than those for the individual probes for four distinct combinations of probes.

CONCLUSIONS

Chromosomal gains at 3q26, 5p15, 20q13 and cen7 are associated with severity of cervical lesions. Further studies are required to quantify risk stratification of FISH assays for cervical cancer screening.

Primary hrHPV DNA testing in cervical cancer screening: how to manage screen-positive women? A POBASCAM trial substudy

BACKGROUND

High-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) testing has higher sensitivity but lower specificity than cytology for cervical (pre)-cancerous lesions. Therefore, triage of hrHPV-positive women is needed in cervical cancer screening.

METHODS

A cohort of 1,100 hrHPV-positive women, from a population-based screening trial (POBASCAM: n = 44,938; 29-61 years), was used to evaluate 10 triage strategies, involving testing at baseline and six months with combinations of cytology, HPV16/18 genotyping, and/or repeat hrHPV testing. Clinical endpoint was cervical intraepithelial neoplasia grade 3 or worse (CIN3(+)) detected within four years; results were adjusted for women not attending repeat testing. A triage strategy was considered acceptable, when the probability of no CIN3(+) after negative triage (negative predictive value, NPV) was at least 98%, and the CIN3(+) risk after positive triage (positive predictive value, PPV) was at least 20%.

RESULTS

Triage at baseline with cytology only yielded an NPV of 94.3% [95% confidence interval (CI), 92.0-96.0] and a PPV of 39.7% (95% CI, 34.0-45.6). An increase in NPV, against a modest decrease in PPV, was obtained by triaging women with negative baseline cytology by repeat cytology (NPV 98.5% and PPV 34.0%) or by baseline HPV16/18 genotyping (NPV 98.8% and PPV 28.5%). The inclusion of both HPV16/18 genotyping at baseline and repeat cytology testing provided a high NPV (99.6%) and a moderately high PPV (25.6%).

CONCLUSIONS

Triaging hrHPV-positive women by cytology at baseline and after 6 to 12 months, possibly in combination with baseline HPV16/18 genotyping, seems acceptable for cervical cancer screening.

IMPACT

Implementable triage strategies are provided for primary hrHPV screening in an organized setting.

Results of cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus testing in females with cervical adenocarcinoma in situ

The incidence rates of cervical adenocarcinoma have been increasing over the last two decades, contrary to those of squamous cell carcinoma. This trend is particularly evident among females aged <40 years and has occurred despite extensive cytology-based screening programs. The aim of the present retrospective database study was to investigate adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) with respect to previous cytological results, high-risk (HR) human papillomavirus (HPV) infections and histological results from AIS-adjacent squamous mucosa. Databases were used to identify 32 female patients with AIS treated for various conditions between 2009 and 2012 at the Department of Gynecology, Uppsala University Hospital (Uppsala, Sweden) and previous cytological, HPV and histological results. Of the individuals in the study, 64.3% had a previously recorded cytological result showing squamous cell abnormalities; five had glandular cell abnormalities (18%) and two had AIS (7.1%). Among the patients with available HPV results, 95% were HR-HPV-positive; HPV18/45 predominated (77%), followed by HPV16 (27%). The patients with multiple HPV infections were aged ≤32 years, while patients aged ≥38 years were only infected with HPV18/45. All but three patients had cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) in the AIS-adjacent squamous mucosa, 79% of which was CIN2 or worse. The present retrospective database study suggests that AIS is detected at screening mainly due to simultaneous squamous precursor lesions and that HPV18/45 infection is an increasing cofactor for AIS in older patients. HPV analyses of glandular precursor lesions aid in the identification of female individuals at risk of progression to invasive disease, and thus have a favorable effect on adenocarcinoma prevention, together with vaccination.

New cervical cancer screening guidelines, again

Guidelines for cervical cancer screening have continued to evolve as we have accumulated new information about the pathogenesis of cervical cancer and the role of the human papilloma virus. Most recently, the American Cancer Society, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and the American Society for Clinical Pathology issued revised joint recommendations for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer. In addition, the US Preventative Services Task Force revised its guidelines, and the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists updated its practice bulletin.

Human papillomavirus detection: testing methodologies and their clinical utility in cervical cancer screening

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a well-studied etiologic agent for cervical cancer dysplasia and neoplasia. HPV E6 and E7 viral proteins drive oncogenesis by blocking the activity of pRB and p53, respectively. Consensus screening guidelines focus on appropriate use of both cervical cytology and HPV testing to reduce the morbidity and mortality associated with cervical cancer. HPV testing is indicated for women aged 21 to 64 years with atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) on cytology. In women aged 30 to 64, testing is also indicated for routine screening in conjunction with cervical cytology. Various methods are available for HPV detection and several Food and Drug Administration-approved assays are on the market using either signal or target amplification methodologies. Most of the approved tests target DNA, but tests for mRNA detection are also available. Recently, assays for type specific detection of HPV types 16 and 18 have been Food and Drug Administration approved, and the use of genotyping has been incorporated into management algorithms. HPV testing can be performed on liquid-based cytology samples and options for automation are available making the introduction of HPV testing into many pathology laboratories possible.

Yield and mode of diagnosis of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3 or cancer among women with negative cervical cytology and positive high-risk human papillomavirus test results

OBJECTIVE

In women with negative cervical cytology and positive high-risk human papillomavirus (HR-HPV) test results, we compared the risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia 3 (CIN 3) or cancer (CIN 3+) in women with previous abnormal cervical cytology, CIN, or HR-HPV with that in women without this history, and we determined their cumulative risk of CIN 3+.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed colposcopies for negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results from 2007 to 2009 (colposcopy was done for previous abnormal cytology, HR-HPV, or CIN or if negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results for 20-35 months). Women with negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results in 2007 were reviewed to determine their cumulative risk of CIN 3+.

RESULTS

Of the 513 women with colposcopy for negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results, 367 had previous abnormal cytology, CIN, or HR-HPV greater than 35 months ago and 146 had negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results for 20 to 35 months. Risk of CIN 3+ for women with negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results with previous abnormal cytology, HR-HPV, or CIN who did not have previous colposcopy was 11.9% (8/67); for similar women with previous colposcopy, it was 2.7% (8/300); and for women with positive HR-HPV test result for 20 to 35 months, it was 7.5% (11/146). In 2007 to 2009, risk of CIN 3+ for women with cytology of atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) with positive HR-HPV test result was 3.9% (60/1,540). Of the 1,726 women with negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test result in 2007, 381 (22.1%) were lost to follow-up. Of the 1,345 women with median follow-up of 44 months, 602 (44.8%) had 1 or 2 subsequent negative cytology and negative HR-HPV test results and 180 had subsequent positive HR-HPV test result without biopsy. Of the 563 women with biopsy, there were 711 evaluations. Invasive cancer was found in 4 and CIN 3 in 54 (cumulative CIN 3+ of 4.3%, 58/1,345). Half (29/58) of the cumulative CIN 3+ was diagnosed after subsequent abnormal cytology and positive HR-HPV test result.

CONCLUSIONS

If referral to colposcopy of women with cervical cytology of ASC-US and positive HR-HPV test result (CIN 3+, 3.9%) is justified, referral to colposcopy of women with negative cytology and positive HR-HPV test results is justified if they have previous abnormal cervical cytology, CIN, or HR-HPV greater than 35 months ago but have not had previous colposcopy (CIN 3+=11.9%) or are persistently HR-HPV positive for 20 to 35 months (CIN 3+, 7.5%). The risk of CIN 3+ in women with previous abnormal cytology, CIN, or HR-HPV who have previous colposcopy (2.7%) is lower because these women have incident rather than prevalent CIN 3+.

HPV-based Tests for Cervical Cancer Screening and Management of Cervical Disease

Current cervical cancer screening programs are changing due to the development of tests that detect the presence of human papillomavirus (HPV), the cause of cervical cancer. These tests are more sensitive than cytology-based methods for detecting cervical precancer and a negative test offers long-term assurance that cervical cancer will not develop and therefore longer screening intervals can be achieved. In screening programs, HPV-based tests have been approved to triage women with equivocal cytology results and as a primary testing method in conjunction with cytology. HPV-based tests also have a role in determining risk of recurrence after treatment for cervical precancer as well as in surveillance for vaccine-related changes in HPV genotype prevalence.

HPV testing by cobas HPV test in a population from Catalonia

Background

HPV testing in cervical cancer screening has been proposed as an alternative or complementary to cytology in women older than 30 years. However, adequate clinical sensitivity and specificity are crucial for a new test to be implemented. Hybrid Capture 2 (HC2) has proved good clinical performance in selecting women at risk for high-grade intraepithelial lesions with a high sensitivity and specificity. cobas HPV Test has been recently launched and its performance in different clinical settings needs to be determined.

Objectives

The aim of this study was to evaluate the cobas HPV Test for the detection of cervical HPV infection in a population of women in Catalonia (Spain) using HC2 as a reference.

Materials and Methods

Cervical liquid cytology samples from 958 women have been studied. Sensitivity was analyzed in 60 samples from patients with a high-grade intraepithelial lesion (≥CIN2) on histology and specificity was determined in 898 samples from women with no ≥CIN2. All cases had HC2 and cobas HPV Test performed. Statistical analyses of sensitivity, specificity and comparison between HC2 and cobas HPV Test by a non-inferiority test were applied.

Results

Sensitivity of HC2 and cobas HPV Test for detecting ≥CIN2 proved identical (98.3%) while specificity was 85.3% and 86.2% respectively. The non-inferiority test demonstrated that cobas HPV Test surpassed 90% sensitivity and 98% specificity of HC2.

Conclusion

The cobas HPV Test results fulfilled sensitivity and specificity requirements for HPV based cervical cancer screening and for the triage of minor cytological abnormalities, allowing its introduction in clinical settings.

Assessment of the performance of algorithms for cervical cancer screening: evidence from the Ludwig-McGill cohort study

OBJECTIVE

There are currently multiple tests available for cervical cancer screening and the existing screening policies vary from country to country. No single approach will satisfy the specific needs and variations in risk aversion of all populations, and screening algorithms should be tailored to specific groups. We performed long term risk stratification based on screening test results and compared the accuracy of different tests and their combinations.

METHODS

A longitudinal cohort study of the natural history of HPV infection and cervical neoplasia enrolled 2462 women from a low-income population in Brazil. The interviews and cervical screening with cytology and HPV DNA testing were repeated according to a pre-established protocol and the subjects were referred for colposcopy and biopsy whenever high grade lesions were suspected. We compared the specificity, sensitivity and predictive values of each screening modality. Long term risk stratification was performed through time-to-event analyses using Kaplan-Meier analysis and Cox regression.

RESULTS

The best optimization of sensitivity and specificity was achieved when using dual testing with cytology and HPV DNA testing, whereby the screening test is considered positive if either component yields an abnormal result. However, when allowing 12months for the detection of lesions, cytology alone performed nearly as well. Risk stratification revealed that HPV DNA testing was not beneficial for HSIL cases, whereas it was for ASCUS and, in some combinations, for negative and LSIL cytology.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that some high risk populations may benefit equally from cytology or HPV DNA testing, and may require shorter intervals between repeat testing.

Prognostic value of HPV E6/E7 mRNA assay in women with negative colposcopy or CIN1 histology result: a follow-up study

Pap test, and especially HPV DNA test, identify a large group of women who do not have any clinically relevant lesions, i.e., CIN2+ (Cervical Intraepithelial Neoplasia grade 2 or worse), but who are at greater risk of getting lesions in the future. The follow up of these women needs new biomarkers with prognostic value. The objective of this study is to evaluate the prognostic value of E6/E7 mRNA over-expression assay (PreTect HPV-Proofer, Norchip) for 5 HR-HPV types (16, 18, 31, 33, and 45) for progression to CIN2+ after a negative colposcopy. This prospective study, conducted at four Italian centres, enrolled 673 women with either a negative colposcopy or a negative or CIN1 histology. The clinical end-point was histological confirmation of CIN2+. Women were classified at baseline according to mRNA results and managed according to local colposcopy protocols. At least one conclusive follow-up test was obtained for 347 women (25 months average lapse since recruitment, range 5–74). Only seven CIN2+ were detected during follow up, three among the 82 women positive for mRNA at baseline, two among the 250 negative (Fisher exact test, p = 0.02), and two among the 12 with an invalid test. Absolute CIN2+ risk was 6.7/1,000 person/years in the whole cohort. The absolute CIN2+ risk was 18.4/1,000 person/years and 3.6/1,000 person/years in mRNA-positive and mRNA-negative women, respectively. In conclusion, E6/E7 mRNA over-expression appears to be a good candidate as a prognostic biomarker to manage HR-HPV DNA-positive women with negative colposcopy or histology, particularly in order to decrease follow-up intensity in those who are negative.

Acceptability and usability of self-collected sampling for HPV testing among African-American women living in the Mississippi Delta

BACKGROUND

Human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA testing has been shown to be an effective approach to cervical cancer screening, and self-collection sampling for HPV testing could be a potential alternative to Pap test, provided that women who tested positive by any method get timely follow-up and care. This feasibility study examined acceptability and usability of self-collected sampling for HPV testing among African-American (AA) women in the Mississippi Delta to inform the development of interventions to promote cervical cancer screening in this population.

METHODS

The study consisted of two phases. Phase I consisted of eight focus groups (n = 87) with AA women to explore knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about cervical cancer and HPV infection as well as acceptability of self-collected sampling for HPV testing. In phase II, we examined the usability of this technology through one discussion group (n = 9). The Health Belief Model guided data collection and analysis.

RESULTS

Although participants perceived themselves as susceptible to cervical cancer and acknowledged its severity, there was a lack of knowledge of the link between HPV and cervical cancer, and they expressed a number of misconceptions. The most frequent barriers to screening included embarrassment, discomfort, and fear of the results. Women in both phases were receptive to self-collected sampling for HPV testing. All participants in the usability phase expressed that self-collection was easy and they did not experience any difficulties.

CONCLUSION

Self-collection for HPV testing is an acceptable and feasible method among AA women in the Mississippi Delta to complement current cytology cervical cancer screening programs.

The Peru Cervical Cancer Prevention Study (PERCAPS): the technology to make screening accessible

OBJECTIVE

This study utilized a combination of HPV self-sampling, iFTA elute specimen cards, and long distance transport for centralized processing of specimens to determine the feasibility of large-scale screening in remote and transient populations.

METHODS

This study was performed in two locations in Peru (Manchay and Iquitos). The "Just For Me" cervico-vaginal brush and iFTA elute cards were used for the collection and transport of specimens. Samples were shipped via FedEx to China and tested for 14 types of high-risk HPV using PCR based MALDI-TOF. HPV positive women were treated with cryotherapy after VIA triage, and followed-up with colposcopy, biopsy, ECC, and repeat HPV testing at 6 months.

RESULTS

Six hundred and forty three women registered, and 632 returned a sample over a 10 day period. Within 2 weeks, specimens were shipped, samples tested, and results received by study staff. Sixty-eight women (10.8%) tested positive, and these results were delivered over 4 days. Fifty-nine HPV positive women (87%) returned for evaluation and treatment, and 2 had large lesions not suitable for cryotherapy. At 6 months, 42 women (74%) returned for follow-up, and 3 had CIN 2 (all positive samples from the endocervical canal). Ninety eight percent of participants reported that they would participate in this type of program again.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilizing HPV self-sampling, solid media specimen cards for long distance transport, and centralized high throughput processing, we achieved rapid delivery of results, high satisfaction levels, and low loss to follow-up for cervical cancer screening in remote and transient populations.

Comparing the performance of six human papillomavirus tests in a screening population

Background:

Several new assays have been developed for high-risk HPV testing of cervical samples; we compare six HPV tests in a screening population.

Methods:

Residual material from liquid-based PreservCyt samples was assayed. Four tests (Hybrid Capture 2, Cobas, Abbott and Becton-Dickinson (BD)) measured HPV DNA while two used RNA (APTIMA and NorChip).

Results:

Positivity rates ranged from 13.4 to 16.3% for the DNA-based tests with a significantly lower positivity rate for the Abbott assay. The Gen-Probe APTIMA assay was positive in 10.3% of women, which was significantly lower than all the DNA tests; the NorChip PreTect HPV-Proofer test was much lower at 5.2%. 40 CIN2+ cases were identified, of which 19 were CIN3+. All CIN3+ cases were HPV positive by all tests except for one, which was negative by the Abbott assay and five which were negative by the NorChip test.

Conclusion:

All HPV tests except NorChip showed high sensitivity for high-grade lesions positive by cytology, suggesting co-testing is unnecessary when using HPV tests. Positivity rates in cytology-negative specimens were similar for the DNA-based tests, but lower for the APTIMA test suggesting this maintains the high sensitivity of DNA tests, but with better specificity.

Follow-up outcomes of a large cohort of low-risk women with negative imaged liquid-based cytology and negative HPV test results

Recently updated cervical screening guidelines have proposed a 5-year screening interval for women aged 30 years and older with "double-negative" Papanicolaou (Pap) and high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV) results (DNR); however, published US follow-up data on women with DNR tested with US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) - approved HPV testing are limited to studies from Kaiser Permanente using conventional Pap smear cytology. Between July 2005 and June 2006, 4,112 patients with DNR who were screened with computer-imaged liquid-based cytology (LBC) (ThinPrep) and Hybrid Capture 2 (HC2) hrHPV tests of LBC vial fluid were identified. Cytologic or histopathologic data were available for 3,211 patients who were followed up for a mean 44 months. Among 2,960 patients aged 30 years and older with DNR, follow-up cervical abnormalities of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 3 or more severe (CIN3+) were documented in 5 (0.17%), including 1 endocervical adenocarcinoma. After DNR, CIN+ diagnoses were significantly more likely in women younger than 50 years than in older women. These data are consistent with previously published US and international studies that have consistently documented low rates of histopathologic CIN3+ during years of follow-up after DNR. Large-scale nationwide data are needed to further assess the level of risk of invasive cervical cancer after DNR using different available hrHPV testing methods.

Expenditure and resource utilisation for cervical screening in Australia

Background

The National Cervical Screening Program in Australia currently recommends that women aged 18–69 years are screened with conventional cytology every 2 years. Publicly funded HPV vaccination was introduced in 2007, and partly as a consequence, a renewal of the screening program that includes a review of screening recommendations has recently been announced. This study aimed to provide a baseline for such a review by quantifying screening program resource utilisation and costs in 2010.

Methods

A detailed model of current cervical screening practice in Australia was constructed and we used data from the Victorian Cervical Cytology Registry to model age-specific compliance with screening and follow-up. We applied model-derived rate estimates to the 2010 Australian female population to calculate costs and numbers of colposcopies, biopsies, treatments for precancer and cervical cancers in that year, assuming that the numbers of these procedures were not yet substantially impacted by vaccination.

Results

The total cost of the screening program in 2010 (excluding administrative program overheads) was estimated to be A$194.8M. We estimated that a total of 1.7 million primary screening smears costing $96.7M were conducted, a further 188,900 smears costing $10.9M were conducted to follow-up low grade abnormalities, 70,900 colposcopy and 34,100 histological evaluations together costing $21.2M were conducted, and about 18,900 treatments for precancerous lesions were performed (including retreatments), associated with a cost of $45.5M for treatment and post-treatment follow-up. We also estimated that $20.5M was spent on work-up and treatment for approximately 761 women diagnosed with invasive cervical cancer. Overall, an estimated $23 was spent in 2010 for each adult woman in Australia on cervical screening program-related activities.

Conclusions

Approximately half of the total cost of the screening program is spent on delivery of primary screening tests; but the introduction of HPV vaccination, new technologies, increasing the interval and changing the age range of screening is expected to have a substantial impact on this expenditure, as well as having some impact on follow-up and management costs. These estimates provide a benchmark for future assessment of the impact of changes to screening program recommendations to the costs of cervical screening in Australia.

Detection rates of precancerous and cancerous cervical lesions within one screening round of primary human papillomavirus DNA testing: prospective randomised trial in Finland

OBJECTIVE

To compare the detection rates of precancerous and cancerous cervical lesions by human papillomavirus (HPV) DNA testing and by conventional cytology screening.

DESIGN

Prospective randomised trial. Two cohorts were followed over one screening round of five years, screened initially by primary HPV DNA testing or by primary Pap test.

SETTING

Population based programme for cervical cancer screening in Finland.

PARTICIPANTS

Women aged 25-65 years invited for screening in 2003-07 (101,678 in HPV arm; 101,747 in conventional cytology arm).

INTERVENTION

Women were randomly allocated (1:1) to primary HPV DNA screening followed by cytology triage if they had positive results, or to primary cytology screening. Screening method was disclosed at the screening visit. Trial personnel involved were aware of all test results.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Cumulative detection rates of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS), and invasive cervical cancer before the second screening (after five years) or before 31 December 2008. Lesions detected at screening and during the five year interval were included.

RESULTS

1010 and 701 precancerous or cancerous lesions were detected during an average follow-up of 3.6 years in the HPV and cytology arms, respectively. Among invited women, the hazard ratio was 1.53 (95% confidence interval l.28 to 1.84) for CIN grade 1, 1.54 (1.33 to 1.78) for CIN 2, 1.32 (1.09 to 1.59) for CIN 3 or AIS, and 0.81 (0.48 to 1.37) for cervical cancer. In 25-34 year old participants, the cumulative hazard (or cumulative detection rate) was 0.0057 (0.0045 to 0.0072) for HPV screening versus 0.0046 (0.0035 to 0.0059) for conventional screening; corresponding data for women aged 35 years and older were 0.0022 (0.0019 to 0.0026) and 0.0017 (0.0014 to 0.0021), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Primary HPV DNA screening detects more cervical lesions than primary cytology within one screening round of five years. Even if the detection rate of CIN 3 or AIS increased in the HPV arm in both age groups, the absolute difference in cumulative rates in women aged 35 years or older was small. By carefully selecting age groups and screening intervals, HPV screening could increase the overall detection rate of cervical precancerous lesions only slightly. However, these findings should be interpreted in the context of the high level of opportunistic screening that occurs in Finland.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial ISRCTN23885553.

Updating the natural history of human papillomavirus and anogenital cancers

This chapter addresses the natural history of anogenital human papillomavirus (HPV) infection. Cervical infections are the best understood HPV infection. Cervical HPV persistence is the known necessary event for the development of cervical cancer. New infections appearing at any age are benign unless they persist. Several long-term natural history studies have now shed light on the very low risk of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 3+ in women past the peak of HPV acquisition (e.g., 30 or older) who are HPV-negative or clear their HPV. Although data on transmission of HPV are finally emerging, rates of transmission between heterosexual couples vary widely among studies. Factors that affect the calculations of these rates include a) intervals between testing points, b) rates of concordance or discordance at baseline, and c) difficulty in defining established infections versus contamination. Both cervix to anus and anus to cervix autoinoculation in the same woman appears to be quite common. Whether either site serves as a long-term reservoir is unknown. Studies show that anal infections in women and in men who have sex with men are quite common with cumulative rates up to 70-90%. Similarly, clearance of anal HPV is also common, with few individuals showing persistence unless they are human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected. HIV strongly influences the development of anal intraepithelial neoplasia (AIN). The few studies on the natural history of AIN in HIV-infected men suggest that high-grade AIN is a precursor to invasive anal cancer. Although no natural history studies of AIN are available in women, women with other HPV-associated lesions, including CIN3+ and vulvar cancer, have higher rates of anal cancer. Data on the natural history of HPV of the male genitalia are also emerging, although penile intraepithelial neoplasia is poorly understood. Cumulative rates of HPV are extremely high in men and risks are associated with sexual behavior. Unlike women, prevalence rates are steady across all ages, suggesting that men do not develop protection against reinfection. This article forms part of a special supplement entitled "Comprehensive Control of HPV Infections and Related Diseases" Vaccine Volume 30, Supplement 5, 2012.

Simultaneous detection, typing and quantitation of oncogenic human papillomavirus by multiplex consensus real-time PCR

A consensus multiplex real-time PCR test (PT13-RT) for the oncogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, 51, 52, 56, 58, 59 and 66 is described. The test targets the L1 gene. Analytical sensitivity is between 4 and 400 GU (genomic units) in the presence of 500 ng of human DNA, corresponding to 75,000 human cells. HPV types are grouped into multiplex groups of 3 or 4 resulting in the use of 4 wells per sample and permitting up to 24 samples per run (including controls) in a standard 96-well real-time PCR instrument. False negative results are avoided by (a) measuring sample DNA concentration to control that sufficient cellular material is present and (b) including HPV type 6 as a homologous internal control in order to detect PCR inhibition or competition from other (non-oncogenic) HPV types. Analysis time from refrigerator to report is 8 h, including 2.5 h hands-on time. Relative to the HC2 test, the sensitivity and specificity were respectively 98% and 83%, the lower specificity being attributable to the higher analytical sensitivity of PT13-RT. To assess type determination comparison was made with a reversed line-blot test. Type concordance was high (κ=0.79) with discrepancies occurring mostly in multiple-positive samples.

Primary cervical cancer screening with HPV testing compared with liquid-based cytology: results of round 1 of a randomised controlled trial -- the HPV FOCAL Study

BACKGROUND

Round 1 data of human papillomavirus (HPV) FOCAL, a three-arm, randomised trial, which aims to establish the efficacy of HPV DNA testing as a primary screen for cervical cancer, are presented.

METHODS

The three arms are: Control arm - liquid based cytology with atypical squamous cells of unknown significance (ASC-US) triage with hrHPV testing; Intervention Arm - hrHPV at entry with liquid-based cytology (LBC) triage of hrHPV positives, with exit screen at 4 years; Safety check arm - hrHPV at entry with LBC triage of hrHPV positives with exit screen at 2 years.

RESULTS

A total of 6154 women were randomised to the control arm and 12 494 to the HPV arms (intervention and safety check). In the HPV arm, the baseline cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN)2+ and CIN3+ rate was 9.2/1000 (95%CI; 7.4, 10.9) and 4.8/1000 (95%CI; 3.6, 6.1), which increased to 16.1/1000 (95%CI 13.2, 18.9) for CIN2+ and to 8.0/1000 (95%CI; 5.9, 10.0) for CIN3+ after subsequent screening of HPV-DNA-positive/cytology-negative women. Detection rate in the control arm remained unchanged after subsequent screening of ASC-US-positive/hrHPV DNA-negative women at 11.0/1000 for CIN2+ and 5.0/1000 for CIN3+.

CONCLUSION

After subsequent screening of women who were either hrHPV positive/cytology negative or ASC-US positive/HPV negative, women randomised to the HPV arms had increased CIN2+ detection compared with women randomised to the cytology arm.

Cost effectiveness of human papillomavirus test of cure after treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia in England: economic analysis from NHS Sentinel Sites Study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the cost effectiveness of human papillomavirus testing after treatment for cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN).

DESIGN

Economic analysis using a Markov modelling approach to combine cost and epidemiological data from the NHS Sentinel Sites Study with data from previous studies of post-treatment recurrence rates.

SETTING

English NHS Cervical Cancer Screening Programme.

INTERVENTIONS

Management guidelines after treatment of CIN involving annual cytology follow-up for 10 years, compared with alternative protocols using the human papillomavirus test to reduce the amount of post-treatment surveillance.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Cases of underlying CIN3+ averted at 10 years and costs per 1000 women treated.

RESULTS

Model predictions indicated that, at observed levels of compliance with post-treatment recommendations, management with only cytological follow-up would result in 29 residual cases of recurrent CIN3+ by 10 years and would cost £358,222 (€440,426; $574,910) (discounted) per 1000 women treated. Implementation of human papillomavirus test of cure in cytologically negative women according to the sentinel sites protocol would avert an additional 8.4 cases of CIN 3+ and reduce costs by £9388 per 1000 women treated.

CONCLUSIONS

Human papillomavirus test of cure would be more effective and would be cost saving compared with cytology only follow-up. The results of this evaluation support the full scale implementation of human papillomavirus test of cure after treatment of CIN within the NHS Cervical Screening Programme.

HPV testing in primary cervical screening: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Previous findings from cross-sectional studies have shown human papillomavirus (HPV) testing to be more sensitive than cytology testing for primary cervical screening. This systematic review aims to assess whether the increase in baseline detection with HPV testing corresponds to lower rates in subsequent screening rounds.

METHODS

We searched Medline, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library for randomized controlled trials (published from 2005 to 2010) comparing HPV-based and cytology-based cervical screening. Primary outcomes of interest were relative rates of higher grade cervical intraepithelial neoplasia and invasive cervical cancer. Secondary outcomes included test performance characteristics and colposcopy referral rates. Results were pooled where possible using a random effects model.

RESULTS

Seven randomized trials were identified. Across studies, HPV testing was more accurate than conventional cytology and detected significantly more CIN3+ in the first screening round (Mantel-Haenszel [M-H] risk ratio 1.67; 95% CI 1.27 to 2.19) and significantly less in the second screening round (M-H RR 0.49; 95% CI 0.37 to 0.66). There were no differences in pooled rates of CIN2+ (M-H RR 1.19; 95% CI 0.94 to 1.50) and CIN3+ (M-H RR 1.09; 95% CI 0.84 to 1.42), but there was a higher pooled rate of CIN2 (M-H RR 1.37; 95% CI 1.12 to 1.68) over two screening rounds. A trend towards lower rates of invasive cervical cancer was observed.

CONCLUSION

Organized screening programs in higher resource settings should consider adopting HPV testing as the primary screening test for women 30 or 35 years of age and older. Further research is needed to determine optimal screening strategies for younger women.

The HPV test has similar sensitivity but more overdiagnosis than the Pap test--a randomised health services study on cervical cancer screening in Finland

We compared test sensitivity (in terms of prevented cancers) and overdiagnosis (in terms of non-progressive pre-invasive lesions) between the human papillomavirus test (HPV test, Hybrid Capture 2) and the traditional Pap test in routine screening for cervical cancer. The design was a randomised (1:1) health services study in Finland with intake between 2003 and 2007. We estimated sensitivity by the incidence method within one screening round. Overdiagnosis was based on the rate of cervical intraepithelial Grade 3 (CIN3) lesions diagnosed at screen and during the following interval. Out of 203,788 randomised women 132,298 attended (65% in both study arms) and 600,753 person-years accumulated among attenders up to the end of 2010. In all attenders, 34 invasive cervical cancers and 288 CIN3 lesions were diagnosed at screen or during the following interval. The interval cancer incidence was 2.5/10(5) person-years (sensitivity 0.87) and 1.4 (sensitivity 0.93) in the HPV arm and Pap test arm, respectively. The rate of CIN3 lesions was 57.1 and 38.8, respectively. In conclusion, sensitivity of HPV testing was similar to that of Pap testing but caused more overdiagnosis. Therefore, implementation of HPV testing needs to be reconsidered especially in countries with well organised programmes.

HPV type distribution in invasive cervical cancers in Italy: pooled analysis of three large studies

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to describe the prevalence of HPV types in invasive cervical cancers in Italy from 1996 to 2008.

METHODS

A pooled analysis of the three largest case series typed to date was performed. HPV typing was performed on paraffin-embedded slices. Molecular analyses were performed in four laboratories. Multivariate analyses were performed to test the associations between calendar time, age, and geographical area and the proportion of types 16/18.

RESULTS

Out of 574 cancers, 24 (4.2%) were HPV negative. HPV 16 and 18 were responsible for 74.4% (378/508) and 80.3% (49/61) of the squamous cancers and adenocarcinomas, respectively. Other frequent types were 31 (9.5%), 45 (6.4%), and 58 (3.3%) for squamous cancers and 45 (13.3%), 31, 35, and 58 (5.0%) for adenocarcinomas. The proportion of HPV 16 and/or 18 decreased with age (p-value for trend <0.03), while it increased in cancers diagnosed in more recent years (p-value for trend < 0.005).

CONCLUSIONS

The impact of HPV 16/18 vaccine on cervical cancer will be greater for early onset cancers. In vaccinated women, screening could be started at an older age without reducing protection.

The evolution of cervical screening and the specialty of obstetrics and gynecology

The American Cancer Society, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and the American Society of Clinical Pathologists have released revised consensus recommendations for cervical cancer screening. These new recommendations integrate molecular testing and include significant changes in screening, particularly in women from 30 to 65 years of age without complications who now may be screened every 5 years by co-testing with cervical cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus testing and women 21-29 years who may be screened with cervical cytology alone every 3 years. The revised recommendations include clarification on when to start and stop screening and management of women who have undergone hysterectomy. They also clarify the management of results of co-testing. The new recommendations achieve the same degree of protection against cervical cancer as previous recommendations. They require less screening and will be much more convenient for our patients. They are a further step away from the days of annual Pap tests, and the decreased requirements for cervical cancer screening pose an exciting opportunity for focusing on many other important health issues during the well woman visit.

Tubal ligation frequency in Oklahoma women with cervical cancer

OBJECTIVE

Infrequent Pap screening is an important risk factor for cervical cancer. We studied the association between contraceptive methods, screening frequency, and cancer.

METHODS

Women (n=2004) enrolled in the cross-sectional Study to Understand Cervical Cancer Endpoints and Determinants (SUCCEED) underwent colposcopy to evaluate an abnormal Pap test. Questionnaire data were compared between those with cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN) 3/adenocarcinoma in situ (AIS) and those with invasive cancer to identify factors associated with cancer. Logistic regression was used to calculate age-stratified measures of association between contraceptive method and Pap frequency as well as tubal ligation (TL) and cancer risk.

RESULTS

In all age groups, women with TL were more likely to have had no Pap screening in the previous 5 years compared to women using other contraception: 26-35 years (OR 4.6, 95% CI 2.4-8.6; p<0.001), 36-45 years (OR 3.8, 95% CI 2.1-7.0; p<0.001), and 46-55 years (OR 2.2, 95% CI 1.0-4.9; p=0.050). Subjects with cancer (n=163) were more likely to have had a TL (41% vs. 21%, p<0.001) than those with CIN 3/AIS (n=370). Age-stratified analyses showed increased odds of tubal ligation in women with cancer versus those with CIN 3/AIS between 25 and 45 years, with a significant increase in women 26 to 35 years old (OR 3.3, 95% CI 1.4-8.1; p=0.009). Adjusting for Pap frequency changed the effect only slightly, suggesting that increased risk was not fully mediated by lack of screening.

CONCLUSION

Contraceptive type is associated with Pap screening. Women with TLs obtain less frequent Pap testing and may be at an increased risk for cervical cancer.

Importance of HPV Genotyping for the Screening, Therapy and Management of Cervical Neoplasias

In the last decade, the detection of human papillomaviruses (HPV) has become increasingly important in cervical cancer screening and the treatment of cancer precursors. HPV screening is recommended for the further evaluation of abnormal Pap tests or during follow-up after treating precancerous lesions. Several randomised controlled studies have shown that screening for cervical cancer using HPV detection can be more effective than cytology alone. Genotyping of different high-risk HPV (hrHPV) types obtained from smear tests has not yet gained widespread acceptance in clinical practice. However, significant differences have been noted in the oncogenicity of hrHPV genotypes. HPV 16 is by far the most common and oncogenic genotype. Genotyping of hrHPV could be helpful for the risk stratification of HPV-positive women.

American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer

An update to the American Cancer Society (ACS) guideline regarding screening for the early detection of cervical precancerous lesions and cancer is presented. The guidelines are based on a systematic evidence review, contributions from six working groups, and a recent symposium co-sponsored by the ACS, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology (ASCCP), and American Society for Clinical Pathology (ASCP), which was attended by 25 organizations. The new screening recommendations address age-appropriate screening strategies, including the use of cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing, follow-up (e.g., management of screen positives and screening interval for screen negatives) of women after screening, age at which to exit screening, future considerations regarding HPV testing alone as a primary screening approach, and screening strategies for women vaccinated against HPV16/18 infections.

Laboratory and clinical aspects of human papillomavirus testing

Human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is associated with a wide spectrum of disease that ranges from self-limited skin warts to life-threatening cancers. Since HPV plays a necessary etiological role in cervical cancer, it is logical to use HPV as a marker for early detection of cervical cancer and precancer. Recent advances in technology enable the development of high-throughput HPV assays of different formats, including DNA-based, mRNA-based, high-risk group-specific and type-specific methods. The ultimate goal of these assays is to improve the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of cervical screening programs. HPV testing has several potential advantages compared to cytology-based screening. However, since the cancer to transient infection ratio is always low in the general population, HPV test results are bound to have a low positive predictive value that may subject women to unnecessary follow-up investigations. The wide-spread administration of prophylactic HPV vaccine will substantially decrease the incidence of cancer and precancer. This poses a number of challenges to cytology-based screening, and the role of HPV testing is expected to increase. Finally, apart from technical and cost-effectiveness considerations, one should also keep in mind the psycho-social impact of using sexually-transmitted agents as a marker for cancer screening.

Alternative approaches to cervical cancer screening for developing countries

Cervical cancer remains the most common cancer among women living in developing countries, largely because of the failure either to initiate or sustain effective cervical-cancer screening programmes. This potentially preventable and curable cancer continues to cause high mortality among relatively young women residing in low-resource countries. Cytology as a screening test, linked with a robust healthcare infrastructure, has significantly affected cervical cancer prevention in countries that have had sufficient resources to establish and sustain well-conducted programmes. The failure to establish such programmes has stimulated a large body of research into alternative screening tests and approaches to cervical-cancer prevention. Two of the most recent research methods have been visual inspection with acetic acid and molecular testing for high-risk types of human papillomavirus deoxyribonucleic acid. Visual inspection with acetic acid has shown a great deal of promise in cross-sectional studies; however, in randomised-controlled trials, it has been shown to be significantly less effective in reducing cervical cancer or its precursors. The development of point-of-care human papillomavirus or other highly sensitive tests for the prevention of cervical cancer is imperative. It has also been clearly shown that linking testing or screening to treatment (so-called 'screen and treat') without the intervention of colposcopy or the need for sophisticated laboratories may potentially prevent cervical cancer in large numbers of women.

HPV-DNA testing for cervical cancer precursors: from evidence to clinical practice

The large amount of literature published over the last two decades on human papillomavirus (HPV)-DNA testing has definitely demonstrated the association between high-risk viral genotypes (hrHPV) and cervical cancer. Moreover, hrHPV-DNA testing has shown excellent performance in several clinical applications, from screening settings to the follow-up of treated patients, compared to conventional cytology or colposcopy options. On the other hand, when a huge number of reports are published on the same subject in a relatively short period of time, with many variations in settings, study designs and applications, the result is often confusion and decreased comprehension by readers. In daily office practice, several different situations (in symptomatic or asymptomatic women) can be positively managed by the correct use of hrHPV-DNA testing. Validated hrHPV-DNA testing and, specifically, the HC2® assay, due to its excellent sensitivity and negative predictive value together with optimal reproducibility, currently represent a powerful tool in the clinician’s hands to optimally manage several situations related to HPV infection and the potential development of cervical cancer.

Human papillomavirus as a target for management, prevention and therapy

The discovery that human papillomavirus (HPV) is the necessary causal factor in cervical carcinogenesis has made it a target for prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines, as well as a diagnostic tool in cervical screening. Whilst prophylactic vaccination has proven very effective in terms of preventing cervical cancer precursor lesions, therapeutic strategies have presented far greater challenges. HPV testing has shown itself to be extremely valuable in the triage of low grade cytological abnormalities, test of cure following treatment of cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), and will, over the next 10 years, gradually replace cytology as the mainstay of primary cervical screening. In this review, the latest evidence supporting HPV as both a biomarker of risk for cervical cancer and a target for prophylactic and therapeutic vaccination is presented.

Performance of p16/Ki-67 immunostaining to detect cervical cancer precursors in a colposcopy referral population

PURPOSE

Cytology-based screening has limited sensitivity to detect prevalent cervical precancers. Human papilloma virus (HPV) DNA testing is highly sensitive and provides a high, long-term reassurance of low risk of cervical cancer. However, the specificity of HPV DNA testing is limited, requiring additional, more disease-specific markers for efficient screening approaches.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Liquid-based cytology samples were collected from 625 women referred to colposcopy. A slide was stained using the CINtec plus cytology assay. Pap cytology and HPV genotyping were conducted from the same vial. Clinical performance characteristics were calculated for all women, stratified by age, and for women referred with a low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (LSIL) Pap.

RESULTS

p16/Ki-67 positivity increased with histologic severity, from 26.8% in normal histology, 46.5% in CIN1, 82.8% in CIN2 to 92.8% in CIN3. Among women with CIN3, p16/Ki-67 positivity increased from 77.8% for women younger than 30 years without HPV16 to 100% for women 30 years and older with HPV16. The sensitivity and specificity to detect CIN3+ were 93.2% and 46.1%, respectively, and increased to 97.2% and 60.0% among women 30 years and older. In women with high-risk (HR)-HPV-positive atypical squamous cells of undetermined significance (ASC-US) and LSIL, sensitivity and specificity for detection of CIN3 were 90.6% and 48.6%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

p16/Ki-67 testing could reduce referral to colposcopy by almost half while detecting the most severe cases of CIN3. The high sensitivity of p16/Ki-67 with significantly improved specificity compared with HPV testing makes p16/Ki-67 a viable option for LSIL triage. Further studies are required to evaluate p16/Ki-67 as triage marker in HPV-based screening strategies.

Rationale and design of a multicenter prospective cohort study for the eVALuation and monitoring of HPV infections and relATEd cervical diseases in high-risk women (VALHIDATE study)

Background

Pap screening, an effective method for cervical cancer prevention, is now supported by molecular human papillomavirus (HPV) testing. Recently commercialised preventive vaccines also provide new tools for the primary prevention of cervical cancer. To determine appropriate prevention strategies, the Health General Direction, Lombardy Region, funded a project that aims to characterize and monitor HPV infections and related cervical diseases in high-risk women.

Methods/design

VALHIDATE is a 5-year multicentre open prospective cohort study. It will recruit 7000 consenting women aged 13–65 years to provide information about the local biomolecular epidemiology of HPV infection and cervical diseases in high-risk women recruited from nine clinical centres and one faith-based organisation. The study will estimate the overall and type-specific prevalence of HPV infection and cervical abnormalities. It also aims to compare standard Pap screening with biomolecular screening, and to assist in the design of targeted regional prevention programs directed specifically at high-risk groups. Three groups of high-risk women: 1000 HIV-infected women (aged 26–65 years), 1000 recent migrant women (aged 26–65 years) and 3000 young women (aged 13–26 years) and 1 control group: 2000 women (aged 26–45 years) attending a spontaneous screening program, will be recruited. Sample sizes will be revised after the first year. Adult participants will undergo conventional cervical cytology, HPV DNA screening and genotyping. Paediatric participants will undergo HPV DNA testing and genotyping of urine samples. HPV DNA, cytological abnormalities and HPV types will be analysed according to demographic, epidemiological, behavioural, and clinical data collected in an electronic case report form. Overall and stratified prevalences will be estimated to analyse the associations between HPV infection and selected characteristics. Logistic regression models will be used to estimate crude and adjusted odds ratios. Cox proportional hazard models will be used to estimate hazard ratios over time and between groups.

Discussion/main expected results

This study will provide substantial insight into HPV infections and related cervical diseases in high-risk groups and will help determine appropriate regional cervical cancer prevention strategies.

Perspective for prophylaxis and treatment of cervical cancer: an immunological approach

As the second most common cause of cancer-related death in women, human papilloma virus (HPV) vaccines have been a major step in decreasing the morbidity and mortality associated with cervical cancer. An estimated 490,000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer each year. Increasing knowledge of the HPV role in the etiology of cervical cancer has led to the development and introduction of HPV-based vaccines for active immunotherapy of cervical cancer. Immunotherapies directed at preventing HPV-persistent infections. These vaccines are already accessible for prophylaxis and in the near future, they will be available for the treatment of preexisting HPV-related neoplastic lesions.

The age-specific prevalence of human papillomavirus and risk of cytologic abnormalities in rural Nigeria: implications for screen-and-treat strategies

Cervical screening for carcinogenic human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is being considered for low-income countries. Effectiveness requires targeted screening in older women in whom prevalent infections are more likely to be persistent and predictive of precancer. Some studies in West Africa have found unusually high HPV prevalences across all adult ages, which may reduce the positive predictive value (PPV) of HPV-based screening, if positivity in older women does not sufficiently predict elevated risk. We conducted a population-based study in rural Nigeria to identify HPV prevalence and associated cervical abnormalities. Using stratified random sampling, we enrolled women age 15+. Nonvirgins had a cervical exam including liquid-based cytology and PCR HPV DNA testing from residual cytology specimens. Two-thirds of invited women participated, and 14.7% had detectable carcinogenic HPV, a proportion that did not decline with age (p-trend = 0.36) and showed slight peaks in the 15-29 and 60-69 age groups. Among women of the age typically considered for screen-and-treat programs (30-49 years), 12.8% were HPV positive, and the PPV for high-grade or worse cytology was 16.4%. Comparatively, women age < 30 were more likely to be HPV positive (18.9%, p = 0.03) with a lower PPV (4.2% p = 0.05). Among women age 50+ (typically excluded from screening in resource-poor settings because inexpensive treatment is not available), HPV positivity was 14.2% with a PPV of 13.9%. In Irun and similar settings where HPV does not decline with age, HPV-based screen-and-treat programs might be feasible for mid-adult women because prevalence is sufficiently low and positivity predicts elevated risk of more easily treated precancer.

American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer

An update to the American Cancer Society (ACS) guideline regarding screening for the early detection of cervical precancerous lesions and cancer is presented. The guidelines are based on a systematic evidence review, contributions from 6 working groups, and a recent symposium cosponsored by the ACS, the American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and the American Society for Clinical Pathology, which was attended by 25 organizations. The new screening recommendations address age-appropriate screening strategies, including the use of cytology and high-risk human papillomavirus (HPV) testing, follow-up (eg, the management of screen positives and screening intervals for screen negatives) of women after screening, the age at which to exit screening, future considerations regarding HPV testing alone as a primary screening approach, and screening strategies for women vaccinated against HPV16 and HPV18 infections.

Cost-effectiveness of cervical cancer screening: cytology versus human papillomavirus DNA testing

OBJECTIVE

To determine the most cost-effective screening programme for cervical cancer.

DESIGN

Cost-effectiveness analysis from a societal perspective.

SETTING

The Netherlands.

POPULATION

Dutch women who have not been invited for human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination.

METHODS

We calibrated the microsimulation screening analysis (MISCAN) model to Dutch epidemiological data. We used this model to consider nine screening strategies that use: (i) cytological testing with cytology triage for borderline/mildly abnormal smears; (ii) HPV testing with cytology triage for HPV-positive smears; or (iii) cytological testing with HPV triage for borderline/mildly abnormal smears. For each strategy, we varied the number of screening rounds, the time interval, the age of the first screening, and the type of cytological testing (conventional or liquid-based cytology).

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Quality-adjusted life years (QALYs) gained and costs from a societal perspective.

RESULTS

Under the base-case assumptions, primary HPV testing with cytology triage is the most cost-effective strategy. Using cost-effectiveness thresholds of € 20,000 and € 50,000 per QALY gained yields optimal screening programmes with three and seven screening rounds, respectively. The results are sensitive to several uncertain model inputs, most importantly the costs of the HPV test. For women aged 32 years or younger, primary cytology screening is more cost-effective than primary HPV testing.

CONCLUSIONS

Increasing the interval between screening rounds and changing the primary test from cytology to HPV testing can improve the effectiveness and decrease the costs of cervical cancer screening in the Netherlands.