401
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Grayfer L, Hodgkinson JW, Belosevic M. Antimicrobial responses of teleost phagocytes and innate immune evasion strategies of intracellular bacteria. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 43:223-42. [PMID: 23954721 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2013.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 08/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
During infection, macrophage lineage cells eliminate infiltrating pathogens through a battery of antimicrobial responses, where the efficacy of these innate immune responses is pivotal to immunological outcomes. Not surprisingly, many intracellular pathogens have evolved mechanisms to overcome macrophage defenses, using these immune cells as residences and dissemination strategies. With pathogenic infections causing increasing detriments to both aquacultural and wild fish populations, it is imperative to garner greater understanding of fish phagocyte antimicrobial responses and the mechanisms by which aquatic pathogens are able to overcome these teleost macrophage barriers. Insights into the regulation of macrophage immunity of bony fish species will lend to the development of more effective aquacultural prophylaxis as well as broadening our understanding of the evolution of these immune processes. Accordingly, this review focuses on recent advances in the understanding of teleost macrophage antimicrobial responses and the strategies by which intracellular fish pathogens are able to avoid being killed by phagocytes, with a focus on Mycobacterium marinum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leon Grayfer
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | | | - Miodrag Belosevic
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada; School of Public Health, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada.
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402
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Winsauer C, Kruglov AA, Chashchina AA, Drutskaya MS, Nedospasov SA. Cellular sources of pathogenic and protective TNF and experimental strategies based on utilization of TNF humanized mice. Cytokine Growth Factor Rev 2014; 25:115-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cytogfr.2013.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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403
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Sridharan H, Upton JW. Programmed necrosis in microbial pathogenesis. Trends Microbiol 2014; 22:199-207. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2014.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2014] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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404
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Progress in tuberculosis vaccine development and host-directed therapies--a state of the art review. THE LANCET RESPIRATORY MEDICINE 2014; 2:301-20. [PMID: 24717627 DOI: 10.1016/s2213-2600(14)70033-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis continues to kill 1·4 million people annually. During the past 5 years, an alarming increase in the number of patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis has been noted, particularly in eastern Europe, Asia, and southern Africa. Treatment outcomes with available treatment regimens for drug-resistant tuberculosis are poor. Although substantial progress in drug development for tuberculosis has been made, scientific progress towards development of interventions for prevention and improvement of drug treatment outcomes have lagged behind. Innovative interventions are therefore needed to combat the growing pandemic of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. Novel adjunct treatments are needed to accomplish improved cure rates for multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. A novel, safe, widely applicable, and more effective vaccine against tuberculosis is also desperately sought to achieve disease control. The quest to develop a universally protective vaccine for tuberculosis continues. So far, research and development of tuberculosis vaccines has resulted in almost 20 candidates at different stages of the clinical trial pipeline. Host-directed therapies are now being developed to refocus the anti-Mycobacterium tuberculosis-directed immune responses towards the host; a strategy that could be especially beneficial for patients with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis or extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis. As we are running short of canonical tuberculosis drugs, more attention should be given to host-directed preventive and therapeutic intervention measures.
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405
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Fazzi F, Njah J, Di Giuseppe M, Winnica DE, Go K, Sala E, St Croix CM, Watkins SC, Tyurin VA, Phinney DG, Fattman CL, Leikauf GD, Kagan VE, Ortiz LA. TNFR1/phox interaction and TNFR1 mitochondrial translocation Thwart silica-induced pulmonary fibrosis. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2014; 192:3837-46. [PMID: 24623132 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1103516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Macrophages play a fundamental role in innate immunity and the pathogenesis of silicosis. Phagocytosis of silica particles is associated with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), secretion of cytokines, such as TNF, and cell death that contribute to silica-induced lung disease. In macrophages, ROS production is executed primarily by activation of the NADPH oxidase (Phox) and by generation of mitochondrial ROS (mtROS); however, the relative contribution is unclear, and the effects on macrophage function and fate are unknown. In this study, we used primary human and mouse macrophages (C57BL/6, BALB/c, and p47(phox-/-)) and macrophage cell lines (RAW 264.7 and IC21) to investigate the contribution of Phox and mtROS to silica-induced lung injury. We demonstrate that reduced p47(phox) expression in IC21 macrophages is linked to enhanced mtROS generation, cardiolipin oxidation, and accumulation of cardiolipin hydrolysis products, culminating in cell death. mtROS production is also observed in p47(phox-/-) macrophages, and p47(phox-/-) mice exhibit increased inflammation and fibrosis in the lung following silica exposure. Silica induces interaction between TNFR1 and Phox in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Moreover, TNFR1 expression in mitochondria decreased mtROS production and increased RAW 264.7 macrophage survival to silica. These results identify TNFR1/Phox interaction as a key event in the pathogenesis of silicosis that prevents mtROS formation and reduces macrophage apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabrizio Fazzi
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15219
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406
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Stanley SA, Barczak AK, Silvis MR, Luo SS, Sogi K, Vokes M, Bray MA, Carpenter AE, Moore CB, Siddiqi N, Rubin EJ, Hung DT. Identification of host-targeted small molecules that restrict intracellular Mycobacterium tuberculosis growth. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1003946. [PMID: 24586159 PMCID: PMC3930586 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 193] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/01/2014] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis remains a significant threat to global health. Macrophages are the host cell for M. tuberculosis infection, and although bacteria are able to replicate intracellularly under certain conditions, it is also clear that macrophages are capable of killing M. tuberculosis if appropriately activated. The outcome of infection is determined at least in part by the host-pathogen interaction within the macrophage; however, we lack a complete understanding of which host pathways are critical for bacterial survival and replication. To add to our understanding of the molecular processes involved in intracellular infection, we performed a chemical screen using a high-content microscopic assay to identify small molecules that restrict mycobacterial growth in macrophages by targeting host functions and pathways. The identified host-targeted inhibitors restrict bacterial growth exclusively in the context of macrophage infection and predominantly fall into five categories: G-protein coupled receptor modulators, ion channel inhibitors, membrane transport proteins, anti-inflammatories, and kinase modulators. We found that fluoxetine, a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor, enhances secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α and induces autophagy in infected macrophages, and gefitinib, an inhibitor of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR), also activates autophagy and restricts growth. We demonstrate that during infection signaling through EGFR activates a p38 MAPK signaling pathway that prevents macrophages from effectively responding to infection. Inhibition of this pathway using gefitinib during in vivo infection reduces growth of M. tuberculosis in the lungs of infected mice. Our results support the concept that screening for inhibitors using intracellular models results in the identification of tool compounds for probing pathways during in vivo infection and may also result in the identification of new anti-tuberculosis agents that work by modulating host pathways. Given the existing experience with some of our identified compounds for other therapeutic indications, further clinically-directed study of these compounds is merited. Infection with the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes the disease tuberculosis (TB) that imposes significant worldwide morbidity and mortality. Approximately 2 billion people are infected with M. tuberculosis, and almost 1.5 million people die annually from TB. With increasing drug resistance and few novel drug candidates, our inability to effectively treat all infected individuals necessitates a deeper understanding of the host-pathogen interface to facilitate new approaches to treatment. In addition, the current anti-tuberculosis regimen requires months of strict compliance to clear infection; targeting host immune function could play a strategic role in reducing the duration and complexity of treatment while effectively treating drug-resistant strains. Here we use a microscopy-based screen to identify molecules that target host pathways and inhibit the growth of M. tuberculosis in macrophages. We identified several host pathways not previously implicated in tuberculosis. The identified inhibitors prevent growth either by blocking host pathways exploited by M. tuberculosis for virulence, or by activating immune responses that target intracellular bacteria. Fluoxetine, used clinically for treating depression, induces autophagy and enhances production of TNF-α. Similarly, gefitinib, used clinically for treating cancer, inhibits M. tuberculosis growth in macrophages. Importantly, gefitinib treatment reduces bacterial replication in the lungs of M. tuberculosis-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Stanley
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America ; Division of Infectious Disease and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Amy K Barczak
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America ; Division of Infectious Disease, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America ; Department of Molecular Biology and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Melanie R Silvis
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Samantha S Luo
- Department of Molecular Biology and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Kimberly Sogi
- Division of Infectious Disease and Vaccinology, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California, United States of America
| | - Martha Vokes
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Mark-Anthony Bray
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Anne E Carpenter
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Christopher B Moore
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Noman Siddiqi
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Eric J Rubin
- Department of Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Deborah T Hung
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America ; Department of Molecular Biology and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America ; Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
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407
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Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are deadly weapons used by phagocytes and other cell types, such as lung epithelial cells, against pathogens. ROS can kill pathogens directly by causing oxidative damage to biocompounds or indirectly by stimulating pathogen elimination by various nonoxidative mechanisms, including pattern recognition receptors signaling, autophagy, neutrophil extracellular trap formation, and T-lymphocyte responses. Thus, one should expect that the inhibition of ROS production promote infection. Increasing evidences support that in certain particular infections, antioxidants decrease and prooxidants increase pathogen burden. In this study, we review the classic infections that are controlled by ROS and the cases in which ROS appear as promoters of infection, challenging the paradigm. We discuss the possible mechanisms by which ROS could promote particular infections. These mechanisms are still not completely clear but include the metabolic effects of ROS on pathogen physiology, ROS-induced damage to the immune system, and ROS-induced activation of immune defense mechanisms that are subsequently hijacked by particular pathogens to act against more effective microbicidal mechanisms of the immune system. The effective use of antioxidants as therapeutic agents against certain infections is a realistic possibility that is beginning to be applied against viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia N Paiva
- Departamento de Imunologia, Instituto de Microbiologia , CCS Bloco D, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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408
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Re DB, Le Verche V, Yu C, Amoroso MW, Politi KA, Phani S, Ikiz B, Hoffmann L, Koolen M, Nagata T, Papadimitriou D, Nagy P, Mitsumoto H, Kariya S, Wichterle H, Henderson CE, Przedborski S. Necroptosis drives motor neuron death in models of both sporadic and familial ALS. Neuron 2014; 81:1001-1008. [PMID: 24508385 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2014.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Most cases of neurodegenerative diseases are sporadic, hindering the use of genetic mouse models to analyze disease mechanisms. Focusing on the motor neuron (MN) disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), we therefore devised a fully humanized coculture model composed of human adult primary sporadic ALS (sALS) astrocytes and human embryonic stem-cell-derived MNs. The model reproduces the cardinal features of human ALS: sALS astrocytes, but not those from control patients, trigger selective death of MNs. The mechanisms underlying this non-cell-autonomous toxicity were investigated in both astrocytes and MNs. Although causal in familial ALS (fALS), SOD1 does not contribute to the toxicity of sALS astrocytes. Death of MNs triggered by either sALS or fALS astrocytes occurs through necroptosis, a form of programmed necrosis involving receptor-interacting protein 1 and the mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein. The necroptotic pathway therefore constitutes a potential therapeutic target for this incurable disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane B Re
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Virginia Le Verche
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Changhao Yu
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Mackenzie W Amoroso
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Project A.L.S./Jenifer Estess Laboratory for Stem Cell Research, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Kristin A Politi
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Sudarshan Phani
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Burcin Ikiz
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Lucas Hoffmann
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Martijn Koolen
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Academisch Medisch Centrum, University of Amsterdam, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Tetsuya Nagata
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Dimitra Papadimitriou
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Peter Nagy
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Hiroshi Mitsumoto
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Shingo Kariya
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Hynek Wichterle
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Project A.L.S./Jenifer Estess Laboratory for Stem Cell Research, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Christopher E Henderson
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Rehabilitation and Regenerative Medicine, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Project A.L.S./Jenifer Estess Laboratory for Stem Cell Research, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Serge Przedborski
- Center for Motor Neuron Biology and Disease, the Columbia Translational Neuroscience Initiative, and the Columbia Stem Cell Initiative, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Pathology and Cell Biology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA; Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY 10032, USA.
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409
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More to life than death: molecular determinants of necroptotic and non-necroptotic RIP3 kinase signaling. Curr Opin Immunol 2014; 26:76-89. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 10/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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410
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Linkermann
- Division of Nephrology and Hypertension, Christian-Albrechts-University, Kiel, Germany
| | - Douglas R. Green
- Department of Immunology, St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee, USA
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411
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Lechartier B, Rybniker J, Zumla A, Cole ST. Tuberculosis drug discovery in the post-post-genomic era. EMBO Mol Med 2014; 6:158-68. [PMID: 24401837 PMCID: PMC3927952 DOI: 10.1002/emmm.201201772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The expectation that genomics would result in new therapeutic interventions for infectious diseases remains unfulfilled. In the post-genomic era, the decade immediately following the availability of the genome sequence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, tuberculosis (TB) drug discovery relied heavily on the target-based approach but this proved unsuccessful leading to a return to whole cell screening. Genomics underpinned screening by providing knowledge and many enabling technologies, most importantly whole genome resequencing to find resistance mutations and targets, and this resulted in a selection of leads and new TB drug candidates that are reviewed here. Unexpectedly, many new targets were found to be ‘promiscuous’ as they were inhibited by a variety of different compounds. In the post-post-genomics era, more advanced technologies have been implemented and these include high-content screening, screening for inhibitors of latency, the use of conditional knock-down mutants for validated targets and siRNA screens. In addition, immunomodulation and pharmacological manipulation of host functions are being explored in an attempt to widen our therapeutic options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benoit Lechartier
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne Global Health Institute, Lausanne, Switzerland
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412
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Exploitation of host lipids by bacteria. Curr Opin Microbiol 2013; 17:38-45. [PMID: 24581691 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2013] [Revised: 10/27/2013] [Accepted: 11/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria that interact with eukaryotic cells have developed a variety of strategies to divert host lipids, or cellular processes driven by lipids, to their benefit. Host lipids serve as building blocks for bacterial membrane formation and as energy source. They promote the formation of specific microdomains, facilitating interactions with the host. Host lipids are also critical players in the entry of bacteria or toxins into cells, and, for bacteria growing inside parasitophorous vacuoles, in building a secure shelter. Bacterial dissemination is often dependent on enzymatic activities targeting host lipids. Finally, on a larger scale, long lasting parasitic association can disturb host lipid metabolism so deeply as to 'reprogram' it, as proposed in the case of Mycobacterium infection.
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413
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Aguiló N, Marinova D, Martín C, Pardo J. ESX-1-induced apoptosis during mycobacterial infection: to be or not to be, that is the question. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2013; 3:88. [PMID: 24364000 PMCID: PMC3850411 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2013.00088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 11/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The major Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence factor ESAT-6 exported by the ESX-1 secretion system has been described as a pro-apoptotic factor by several independent groups in recent years, sustaining a role for apoptosis in M. tuberculosis pathogenesis. This role has been supported by independent studies in which apoptosis has been shown as a hallmark feature in human and mouse lungs infected with virulent strains. Nevertheless, the role of apoptosis during mycobacterial infection is subject to an intense debate. Several works maintain that apoptosis is more evident with attenuated strains, whereas virulent mycobacteria tend to inhibit this process, suggesting that apoptosis induction may be a host mechanism to control infection. In this review, we summarize the evidences that support the involvement of ESX-1-induced apoptosis in virulence, intending to provide a rational treatise for the role of programmed cell death during M. tuberculosis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nacho Aguiló
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Department of Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza, Spain ; CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III Madrid, Spain
| | - Dessislava Marinova
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Department of Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza, Spain ; CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III Madrid, Spain
| | - Carlos Martín
- Grupo de Genética de Micobacterias, Department of Microbiología, Medicina Preventiva y Salud Pública, Universidad de Zaragoza Zaragoza, Spain ; CIBER Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III Madrid, Spain
| | - Julián Pardo
- Cell Immunity in Cancer, Inflammation and Infection group, Biomedical Research Centre of Aragon, Nanoscience Institute of Aragon, Aragon I+D Foundation, IIS Aragon/University of Zaragoza Zaragoza, Spain
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414
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Meijer AH, van der Vaart M, Spaink HP. Real-time imaging and genetic dissection of host-microbe interactions in zebrafish. Cell Microbiol 2013; 16:39-49. [DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2013] [Revised: 10/15/2013] [Accepted: 10/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Annemarie H. Meijer
- Institute of Biology; Leiden University; Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Michiel van der Vaart
- Institute of Biology; Leiden University; Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Herman P. Spaink
- Institute of Biology; Leiden University; Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden The Netherlands
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415
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Different responses of human mononuclear phagocyte populations to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2013; 94:111-22. [PMID: 24360327 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2013.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 10/29/2013] [Accepted: 11/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infects different populations of macrophages. Alveolar macrophages (AMs) are initially infected, and their response may contribute to controlling Mtb infection and dissemination. However, Mtb infection may disseminate to other tissues, infecting a wide variety of macrophages. Given the difficulty in obtaining AMs, monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) are used to model macrophage-mycobacteria interactions in humans. However, the response of other tissue macrophages to Mtb infection has been poorly explored. We have compared MDMs, AMs and splenic human macrophages (SMs) for their in vitro capacity to control Mtb growth, cytokine production, and induction of cell death in response to Mtb H37Rv, and the Colombian isolate UT205, and to the virulence factor ESAT-6. Significant differences in the magnitude of cell death and cytokine production depending mainly on the Mtb strain were observed; however, no major differences in the mycobacteriostatic/mycobacteriocidal activity were detected among the macrophage populations. Infection with the clinical isolate UT205 was associated with an increased cell death with membrane damage, particularly in IFNγ-treated SMs and H37Rv induced a higher production of cytokines compared to UT205. These results are concordant with the interpretation of a differential response to Mtb infection mainly depending upon the strain of Mtb.
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416
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Abstract
The evolutionary emergence of vertebrates was accompanied by major morphological and functional innovations, including the development of an adaptive immune system. Vertebrate adaptive immunity is based on the clonal expression of somatically diversifying antigen receptors on lymphocytes. This is a common feature of both the jawless and jawed vertebrates , although these two groups of extant vertebrates employ structurally different types of antigen receptors and principal mechanisms for their somatic diversification . These observations suggest that the common vertebrate ancestor must have already possessed a complex immune system, including B- and T-like lymphocyte lineages and primary lymphoid organs, such as the thymus, but possibly lacked the facilities for somatic diversification of antigen receptors. Interestingly, memory formation, previously considered to be a defining feature of adaptive immunity, also occurs in the context of innate immune responses and can even be observed in unicellular organisms, attesting to the convergent evolutionary history of distinct aspects of adaptive immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Boehm
- Max Planck Institute of Immunobiology and Epigenetics, 79108 Freiburg, Germany; ,
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417
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Wieder T, Braumüller H, Brenner E, Zender L, Röcken M. Changing T-cell enigma: cancer killing or cancer control? Cell Cycle 2013; 12:3146-53. [PMID: 24013429 DOI: 10.4161/cc.26060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Data from different laboratories and theoretical considerations challenge our current view on anticancer immunity. Immune cells are capable of destroying cancer cells under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Therefore, cellular immunity is considered to control cancers through mechanisms that kill cancers. Yet, therapeutic anticancer immune responses rarely delete cancers. If efficient, they rather establish a life with stable disease. This raises the question of whether killing is the sole mechanism by which immune therapy attacks cancers. Here, we show that, besides cancer eradication by cytotoxic lymphocytes, other modes of action are operative and strictly required for cancer control. We show that T helper-1 cells arrest cancer growth by driving cancers into a state of stable or permanent growth arrest, called senescence. Such immune cells establish cytokine-producing walls around developing cancers. When producing interferon-γ and tumor necrosis factor, this cytokine-induced tumor immune-surveillance keeps the cancer cells in a permanently non-proliferating state. Simultaneously, antiangiogenic chemokines cut their connections to the surrounding tissues. This strategy significantly reduces tumor burden and prolongs life of cancer-bearing animals. As human cancers also undergo senescence, the current data suggest tumor-immune surveillance through cytokine-induced senescence, instead of tumor eradication, as the more realistic and primary goal of cancer control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wieder
- Department of Dermatology; Eberhard Karls University; Tübingen, Germany
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418
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Abstract
Tuberculous meningitis is especially common in young children and people with untreated HIV infection, and it kills or disables roughly half of everyone affected. Childhood disease can be prevented by vaccination and by giving prophylactic isoniazid to children exposed to infectious adults, although improvements in worldwide tuberculosis control would lead to more effective prevention. Diagnosis is difficult because clinical features are non-specific and laboratory tests are insensitive, and treatment delay is the strongest risk factor for death. Large doses of rifampicin and fluoroquinolones might improve outcome, and the beneficial effect of adjunctive corticosteroids on survival might be augmented by aspirin and could be predicted by screening for a polymorphism in LTA4H, which encodes an enzyme involved in eicosanoid synthesis. However, these advances are insufficient in the face of drug-resistant tuberculosis and HIV co-infection. Many questions remain about the best approaches to prevent, diagnose, and treat tuberculous meningitis, and there are still too few answers.
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419
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Hall CJ, Boyle RH, Astin JW, Flores MV, Oehlers SH, Sanderson LE, Ellett F, Lieschke GJ, Crosier KE, Crosier PS. Immunoresponsive gene 1 augments bactericidal activity of macrophage-lineage cells by regulating β-oxidation-dependent mitochondrial ROS production. Cell Metab 2013; 18:265-78. [PMID: 23931757 DOI: 10.1016/j.cmet.2013.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 180] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Revised: 04/30/2013] [Accepted: 06/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Evidence suggests the bactericidal activity of mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species (mROS) directly contributes to killing phagocytozed bacteria. Infection-responsive components that regulate this process remain incompletely understood. We describe a role for the mitochondria-localizing enzyme encoded by Immunoresponsive gene 1 (IRG1) during the utilization of fatty acids as a fuel for oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) and associated mROS production. In a zebrafish infection model, infection-responsive expression of zebrafish irg1 is specific to macrophage-lineage cells and is regulated cooperatively by glucocorticoid and JAK/STAT signaling pathways. Irg1-depleted macrophage-lineage cells are impaired in their ability to utilize fatty acids as an energy substrate for OXPHOS-derived mROS production resulting in defective bactericidal activity. Additionally, the requirement for fatty acid β-oxidation during infection-responsive mROS production and bactericidal activity toward intracellular bacteria is conserved in murine macrophages. These results reveal IRG1 as a key component of the immunometabolism axis, connecting infection, cellular metabolism, and macrophage effector function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Hall
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Pathology, School of Medical Sciences, The University of Auckland, New Zealand
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420
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Inflammation in tuberculosis: interactions, imbalances and interventions. Curr Opin Immunol 2013; 25:441-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2013.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2013] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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421
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Tobin DM, Roca FJ, Ray JP, Ko DC, Ramakrishnan L. An enzyme that inactivates the inflammatory mediator leukotriene b4 restricts mycobacterial infection. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67828. [PMID: 23874453 PMCID: PMC3708926 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2013] [Accepted: 05/22/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
While tuberculosis susceptibility has historically been ascribed to failed inflammation, it is now known that an excess of leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H), which catalyzes the final step in leukotriene B4 (LTB4) synthesis, produces a hyperinflammatory state and tuberculosis susceptibility. Here we show that the LTB4-inactivating enzyme leukotriene B4 dehydrogenase/prostaglandin reductase 1 (LTB4DH/PTGR1) restricts inflammation and independently confers resistance to tuberculous infection. LTB4DH overexpression counters the susceptibility resulting from LTA4H excess while ltb4dh-deficient animals can be rescued pharmacologically by LTB4 receptor antagonists. These data place LTB4DH as a key modulator of TB susceptibility and suggest new tuberculosis therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M. Tobin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for AIDS Research, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DT); (LR)
| | - Francisco J. Roca
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - John P. Ray
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Dennis C. Ko
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Center for AIDS Research, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Lalita Ramakrishnan
- Department of Microbiology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail: (DT); (LR)
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422
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Tobin DM, Ramakrishnan L. TB: the Yin and Yang of lipid mediators. Curr Opin Pharmacol 2013; 13:641-5. [PMID: 23849093 DOI: 10.1016/j.coph.2013.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2013] [Revised: 06/20/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing appreciation of the diverse roles that lipid mediators play in modulating inflammatory responses during infection. In the case of tuberculosis, virulent mycobacteria induce host production of anti-inflammatory mediators, including lipoxins, which limit the host inflammatory response and lead to necrotic cell death of infected macrophages. Recent work using the zebrafish model suggests that, while excess anti-inflammatory lipoxins are host detrimental during mycobacterial infections, excess pro-inflammatory lipids also drive host susceptibility. The balance of these inflammatory states is influenced by common human genetic variation in Asia. Fuller understanding of the mechanisms of eicosanoid-mediated inflammatory imbalance during tuberculosis infection has important implications for the development of adjunctive therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Tobin
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, NC, USA.
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423
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Abstract
Although proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF are critical for containment of tuberculosis, they can also exacerbate disease when produced at high levels. In this issue of Cell, Roca and Ramakrishnan demonstrate that high TNF production induces reactive oxygen species in infected macrophages, ultimately leading to macrophage necrosis and bacterial dissemination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeroen W J van Heijst
- Immunology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA.
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424
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Vanden Driessche K, Persson A, Marais BJ, Fink PJ, Urdahl KB. Immune vulnerability of infants to tuberculosis. Clin Dev Immunol 2013; 2013:781320. [PMID: 23762096 PMCID: PMC3666431 DOI: 10.1155/2013/781320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2013] [Revised: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 03/31/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
One of the challenges faced by the infant immune system is learning to distinguish the myriad of foreign but nonthreatening antigens encountered from those expressed by true pathogens. This balance is reflected in the diminished production of proinflammatory cytokines by both innate and adaptive immune cells in the infant. A downside of this bias is that several factors critical for controlling Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection are significantly restricted in infants, including TNF, IL-1, and IL-12. Furthermore, infant T cells are inherently less capable of differentiating into IFN- γ -producing T cells. As a result, infected infants are 5-10 times more likely than adults to develop active tuberculosis (TB) and have higher rates of severe disseminated disease, including miliary TB and meningitis. Infant TB is a fundamentally different disease than TB in immune competent adults. Immunotherapeutics, therefore, should be specifically evaluated in infants before they are routinely employed to treat TB in this age group. Modalities aimed at reducing inflammation, which may be beneficial for adjunctive therapy of some forms of TB in older children and adults, may be of no benefit or even harmful in infants who manifest much less inflammatory disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koen Vanden Driessche
- Centre for Understanding and Preventing Infections in Children, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V5Z 4H4
- Department of Pediatrics, Laboratory of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Persson
- Centre for Understanding and Preventing Infections in Children, Child & Family Research Institute, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada V5Z 4H4
| | - Ben J. Marais
- Sydney Institute for Emerging Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity and The Children's Hospital at Westmead, University of Sydney, Locked Bag 4100, Sydney, NSW 2145, Australia
| | - Pamela J. Fink
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Kevin B. Urdahl
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
- Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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