Skin fibrosis. Identification and isolation of a dermal lineage with intrinsic fibrogenic potential

Elevated CD26 Expression by Skin Fibroblasts Distinguishes a Profibrotic Phenotype Involved in Scar Formation Compared to Gingival Fibroblasts

Compared to skin, wound healing in oral mucosa is faster and produces less scarring, but the mechanisms involved are incompletely understood. Studies in mice have linked high expression of CD26 to a profibrotic fibroblast phenotype, but this has not been tested in models more relevant for humans. We hypothesized that CD26 is highly expressed by human skin fibroblasts (SFBLs), and this associates with a profibrotic phenotype distinct from gingival fibroblasts (GFBLs). We compared CD26 expression in human gingiva and skin and in gingival and hypertrophic-like scar-forming skin wound healing in a pig model, and used three-dimensional cultures of human GFBLs and SFBLs. In both humans and pigs, nonwounded skin contained abundantly CD26-positive fibroblasts, whereas in gingiva they were rare. During skin wound healing, CD26-positive cells accumulated over time and persisted in forming hypertrophic-like scars, whereas few CD26-positive cells were present in the regenerated gingival wounds. Cultured human SFBLs displayed significantly higher levels of CD26 than GFBLs. This was associated with an increased expression of profibrotic genes and transforming growth factor-β signaling in SFBLs. The profibrotic phenotype of SFBLs partially depended on expression of CD26, but was independent of its catalytic activity. Thus, a CD26-positive fibroblast population that is abundant in human skin but not in gingiva may drive the profibrotic response leading to excessive scarring.

Laboratory Models for the Study of Normal and Pathologic Wound Healing

Current knowledge of wound healing is based on studies using various in vitro and in vivo wound models. In vitro models allow for biological examination of specific cell types involved in wound healing. In vivo models generally provide the full spectrum of biological responses required for wound healing, including inflammation and angiogenesis, and provide cell-cell interactions not seen in vitro. In this review, the authors aim to delineate the most relevant wound healing models currently available and to discuss their strengths and limitations in their approximation of the human wound healing processes to aid scientists in choosing the most appropriate wound healing models for designing, testing, and validating their experiments.

Important Developments in Burn Care

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Explain the epidemiology of severe burn injury in the context of socioeconomic status, gender, age, and burn cause. 2. Describe challenges with burn depth evaluation and novel methods of adjunctive assessment. 3. Summarize the survival and functional outcomes of severe burn injury. 4. State strategies of fluid resuscitation, endpoints to guide fluid titration, and sequelae of overresuscitation. 5. Recognize preventative measures of sepsis. 6. Explain intraoperative strategies to improve patient outcomes, including hemostasis, restrictive transfusion, temperature regulation, skin substitutes, and Meek skin grafting. 7. Translate updates in the pathophysiology of hypertrophic scarring into novel methods of clinical management. 8. Discuss the potential role of free tissue transfer in primary and secondary burn reconstruction.

SUMMARY

Management of burn-injured patients is a challenging and unique field for plastic surgeons. Significant advances over the past decade have occurred in resuscitation, burn wound management, sepsis, and reconstruction that have improved outcomes and quality of life after thermal injury. However, as patients with larger burns are resuscitated, an increased risk of nosocomial infections, sepsis, compartment syndromes, and venous thromboembolic phenomena have required adjustments in care to maintain quality of life after injury. This article outlines a number of recent developments in burn care that illustrate the evolution of the field to assist plastic surgeons involved in burn care.

Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4, Wound Healing, Scarring, and Fibrosis

Scarring and fibrosis are an enormous public health concern, resulting in excessive morbidity and mortality in addition to countless lost health care dollars. Recent advances in cell and developmental biology promise a better understanding of scarring and fibrosis and may translate to new clinical therapies.

Expansion of CD26 positive fibroblast population promotes keloid progression

BACKGROUND

Keloid is a skin fibrosis disease that characterised by invasive growth of fibroblasts and aberrant deposition of extracellular matrix. Studies indicated that keloid fibroblasts (KFs) is a class of 'activated' fibroblasts, which show accelerated proliferation and excessive extracellular matrix formation as compared with normal fibroblasts (NFs). However, the mechanism underlying keloid fibroblasts dysfunction is still unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To verify CD26 expression difference between KFs and NFs, and investigate the function of CD26 positive fibroblasts in keloid progression.

METHODS

KFs and NFs were isolated from Keloid tissues and normal skin tissues respectively. Flow cytometry was performed to isolate CD26+/CD26- fibroblasts from KFs and NFs. Proliferation of different fibroblasts were analyzed by CCK8 assay and Ki 67 straining. Profibrotic phenotype difference was detected by qRT-PCR, western blot, ELISA and immunofluorescence. Scratching experiment and transwell assay were used to assess invasion ability of CD26+/CD26- fibroblasts. Diprotin A was used as a CD26 inhibitor to further investigated the function of CD26 fibroblasts in keloid disease.

RESULT

CD26 expression was increased in KFs, and the proportion of CD26+ fibroblasts was significantly increased in KFs. Cell viability analysis showed that CD26+ fibroblasts was more active in proliferation. Furthermore, the expression of profibrotic genes were increased in CD26+ fibroblasts, including TGF-β1, IGF-1, IL6, collagen 1, collagen 3 and fibronectin. And meanwhile, CD26+ fibroblasts showed stronger invasion ability as compared to CD26- fibroblasts. Moreover, Diprotin A significantly suppressed proliferation and extracellular matrix secretion of CD26+ fibroblasts isolated from keloid tissues.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that CD26+ fibroblasts possess proliferation advantage in compare to CD26- fibroblasts, and the advantage caused expansion of CD26 positive fibroblast population promotes keloid progression.

Unifying mechanism for different fibrotic diseases

Fibrotic diseases are not well-understood. They represent a number of different diseases that are characterized by the development of severe organ fibrosis without any obvious cause, such as the devastating diseases idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) and scleroderma. These diseases have a poor prognosis comparable with endstage cancer and are uncurable. Given the phenotypic differences, it was assumed that the different fibrotic diseases also have different pathomechanisms. Here, we demonstrate that many endstage fibrotic diseases, including IPF; scleroderma; myelofibrosis; kidney-, pancreas-, and heart-fibrosis; and nonalcoholic steatohepatosis converge in the activation of the AP1 transcription factor c-JUN in the pathologic fibroblasts. Expression of the related AP1 transcription factor FRA2 was restricted to pulmonary artery hypertension. Induction of c-Jun in mice was sufficient to induce severe fibrosis in multiple organs and steatohepatosis, which was dependent on sustained c-Jun expression. Single cell mass cytometry revealed that c-Jun activates multiple signaling pathways in mice, including pAkt and CD47, which were also induced in human disease. αCD47 antibody treatment and VEGF or PI3K inhibition reversed various organ c-Jun-mediated fibroses in vivo. These data suggest that c-JUN is a central molecular mediator of most fibrotic conditions.

Small molecule-mediated inhibition of myofibroblast transdifferentiation for the treatment of fibrosis

Fibrosis, a disease in which excessive amounts of connective tissue accumulate in response to physical damage and/or inflammatory insult, affects nearly every tissue in the body and can progress to a state of organ malfunction and death. A hallmark of fibrotic disease is the excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix-secreting activated myofibroblasts (MFBs) in place of functional parenchymal cells. As such, the identification of agents that selectively inhibit the transdifferentiation process leading to the formation of MFBs represents an attractive approach for the treatment of diverse fibrosis-related diseases. Herein we report the development of a high throughput image-based screen using primary hepatic stellate cells that identified the antifungal drug itraconazole (ITA) as an inhibitor of MFB cell fate in resident fibroblasts derived from multiple murine and human tissues (i.e., lung, liver, heart, and skin). Chemical optimization of ITA led to a molecule (CBR-096-4) devoid of antifungal and human cytochrome P450 inhibitory activity with excellent pharmacokinetics, safety, and efficacy in rodent models of lung, liver, and skin fibrosis. These findings may serve to provide a strategy for the safe and effective treatment of a broad range of fibrosis-related diseases.

Forecasting Fat Fibrosis

Excess ECM and fibrosis of white adipose tissue (WAT) is associated with tissue dysfunction and type 2 diabetes. In this issue of Cell Metabolism, Marcelin et al. (2017) elucidate a key mechanism behind WAT fibrosis in which the activation of PDGFRα on adipocyte precursors drives this population toward a fibrotic phenotype.

Involvement of DPP IV/CD26 in cutaneous wound healing process in mice

Dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP IV/CD26) is a widely distributed multifunctional protein that plays a significant role in different physiological as well as pathological processes having a broad spectrum of bioactive substrates and immunomodulative properties. It has potential influence on different processes crucial for wound healing, including cell adhesion, migration, apoptosis, and extracellular matrix degradation. However, despite its known enzymatic and immunomodulative functions, limited data characterize the role of DPP IV/CD26 in cutaneous wound healing mechanisms. The aim of this study was to investigate the process of wound healing in conditions of CD26 deficiency in order to obtain better insights on the role of DPP IV/CD26 in cutaneous regeneration. Experimental wounds were made on the dorsal part of CD26 deficient (CD26^-/- ) and wild-type mice (C57BL/6). The process of cutaneous wound healing was monitored on defined time schedule postwounding by macroscopic, microscopic, and biochemical analyses. Obtained results revealed a better rate of wound closure, revascularization and cell proliferation in CD26^-/- mice, with enhanced local expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α and vascular endothelial growth factor. CD26 deficiency induced prompt macrophage recruitment at the site of skin damage but did not influence mobilization of T-cells in comparison with wild-type mice. CD26^-/- mice have significantly higher values of IP-10 in serum and control skins compared with wild-type mice but values in wounds did not differ significantly on days 2, 4, and 7 of wound healing. DPP IV/CD26 activity was found to be decreased 4 days postwounding in serum and 2, 4, and 7 days postwounding in wounds of wild-type animals compared with control skins. These findings contribute to better understanding of wound healing mechanisms and could give a support in finding new therapeutic approaches for wound healing and tissue regeneration.

Diabetes, hypertension, and chronic kidney disease progression: role of DPP4

The protein dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) is a target in diabetes management and reduction of associated cardiovascular risk. Inhibition of the enzymatic function and genetic deletion of DPP4 is associated with tremendous benefits to the heart, vasculature, adipose tissue, and the kidney in rodent models of obesity, diabetes and hypertension, and associated complications. The recently concluded, "Saxagliptin Assessment of Vascular Outcomes Recorded in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 53" trial revealed a reduction in proteinuria in chronic kidney disease patients (stages 1-3). These results have spurred immense interest in the nonenzymatic and enzymatic role of DPP4 in the kidney. DPP4 is expressed predominantly in the glomeruli and S1-S3 segments of the nephron and to a lesser extent in other segments. DPP4 is known to facilitate absorption of cleaved dipeptides and regulate the function of the sodium/hydrogen exchanger-3 in the proximal tubules. DPP4, also known as CD26, has an important role in costimulation of lymphocytes via caveolin-1 on antigen-presenting cells in peripheral blood. Herein, we present our perspectives for the ongoing interest in the role of DPP4 in the kidney.

Minimizing Skin Scarring through Biomaterial Design

Wound healing continues to be a major burden to patients, though research in the field has expanded significantly. Due to an aging population and increasing comorbid conditions, the cost of chronic wounds is expected to increase for patients and the U.S. healthcare system alike. With this knowledge, the number of engineered products to facilitate wound healing has also increased dramatically, with some already in clinical use. In this review, the major biomaterials used to facilitate skin wound healing will be examined, with particular attention allocated to the science behind their development. Experimental therapies will also be evaluated.

Effect of Palmitoyl-Pentapeptide (Pal-KTTKS) on Wound Contractile Process in Relation with Connective Tissue Growth Factor and α-Smooth Muscle Actin Expression

To evaluate whether Palmitoyl-pentapeptide (Pal-KTTKS), a lipidated subfragment of type 1 pro-collagen (residues 212-216), plays a role in fibroblast contractility, the effect of Pal-KTTKS on the expression of pro-fibrotic mediators in hypertropic scarring were investigated in relation with trans-differentiation of fibroblast to myofibroblast, an icon of scar formation. α-SMA was visualized by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy with a Cy-3-conjugated monoclonal antibody. The extent of α-SMA-positive fibroblasts was determined in collagen lattices and in cell culture study. Pal-KTTKS (0-0.5 µM) induced CTGF and α-SMA protein levels were determined by western blot analysis and fibroblast contractility was assessed in three-dimensional collagen lattice contraction assay. In confocal analysis, fibroblasts were observed as elongated and spindle shapes while myofibroblast observed as squamous, enlarged cells with pronounced stress fibers. Without Pal-KTTKS treatment, three quarters of the fibroblasts differentiates into the myofibroblast; α-SMA-positive stress fibers per field decreased twofold with 0.1 µM Pal-KTTKS treatment (75 ± 7.1 vs 38.6 ± 16.1%, n = 3, p < 0.05). The inhibitory effect was not significant in 0.5 µM Pal-KTTKS treatment. Stress fiber level and collagen contractility correlates with α-SMA expression level. In conclusion, Pal-KTTKS (0.1 µM) reduces α-SMA expression and trans-differentiation of fibroblasts to myofibroblast. The degree of reduction is dose-dependent. An abundance of myofibroblast and fibrotic scarring is correlated with excessive levels of α-SMA and collagen contractility. Delicate balance between the wound healing properties and pro-fibrotic abilities of pentapeptide KTTKS should be considered for selecting therapeutic dose for scar prevention.

Regeneration of fat cells from myofibroblasts during wound healing

Although regeneration through the reprogramming of one cell lineage to another occurs in fish and amphibians, it has not been observed in mammals. We discovered in the mouse that during wound healing, adipocytes regenerate from myofibroblasts, a cell type thought to be differentiated and nonadipogenic. Myofibroblast reprogramming required neogenic hair follicles, which triggered bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling and then activation of adipocyte transcription factors expressed during development. Overexpression of the BMP antagonist Noggin in hair follicles or deletion of the BMP receptor in myofibroblasts prevented adipocyte formation. Adipocytes formed from human keloid fibroblasts either when treated with BMP or when placed with human hair follicles in vitro. Thus, we identify the myofibroblast as a plastic cell type that may be manipulated to treat scars in humans.

Proteome analysis identifies L1CAM/CD171 and DPP4/CD26 as novel markers of human skin mast cells

BACKGROUND

The function of skin mast cells has been well documented in IgE-mediated allergic reactions, whereas other mast cell functions are poorly defined. This study aimed at identifying novel mast cell proteins by proteome analysis of primary human skin mast cells.

METHODS

The proteome of skin mast cells was compared to other cell types and analyzed using bioinformatics. The expression and function of two proteins hitherto not described in skin mast cells was investigated in isolated mast cells as well as in mast cells in situ.

RESULTS

Within the mast cell proteome, we identified 49 highly expressed proteins previously not described in mast cells; 21 of these proteins were found to be selectively expressed in mast cells. Two proteins, the neural cell adhesion molecule L1 and dipeptidyl peptidase 4, were further studied. L1 was found to be highly expressed in mast cells in normal, psoriasis, and mastocytosis skin. Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 was found to be expressed in mast cells in normal, psoriasis, and mastocytosis skin as well as in bone marrow mast cells in patients with systemic mastocytosis. In normal skin, mast cells were identified as a major source of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 and we also found that skin mast cells and fibroblasts secrete an active form of this enzyme.

CONCLUSIONS

In a systematic proteomics approach we identified two novel mast cell proteins potentially relevant to skin homeostasis: neural cell adhesion molecule L1 and dipeptidyl peptidase 4.

Isolation of Live Fibroblasts by Fluorescence-Activated Cell Sorting

Flow cytometry is a powerful tool in cell biology in that it allows real-time characterization of cellular phenotypes. Additionally, through the process of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), living cells can be isolated for future in vitro experiments, including single cell analysis. Here we describe the isolation of live fibroblasts from the dermis of the skin in mice using FACS. This method circumvents the need for ex vivo expansion in cell culture, which can alter phenotypic and functional characteristics of cells.

The pro-fibrotic role of dipeptidyl peptidase 4 in carbon tetrachloride-induced experimental liver injury

Liver fibrosis is a progressive pathological process involving inflammation and extracellular matrix deposition. Dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4), also known as CD26, is a cell surface glycoprotein and serine protease. DPP4 binds to fibronectin, can inactivate specific chemokines, incretin hormone and neuropeptides, and influences cell adhesion and migration. Such properties suggest a pro-fibrotic role for this peptidase but this hypothesis needs in vivo examination. Experimental liver injury was induced with carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) in DPP4 gene knockout (gko) mice. DPP4 gko had less liver fibrosis and inflammation and fewer B cell clusters than wild type mice in the fibrosis model. DPP4 inhibitor-treated mice also developed less liver fibrosis. DNA microarray and PCR showed that many immunoglobulin (Ig) genes and some metabolism-associated transcripts were differentially expressed in the gko strain compared with wild type. CCl₄-treated DPP4 gko livers had more IgM⁺ and IgG⁺ intrahepatic lymphocytes, and fewer CD4⁺, IgD⁺ and CD21⁺ intrahepatic lymphocytes. These data suggest that DPP4 is pro-fibrotic in CCl₄-induced liver fibrosis and that the mechanisms of DPP4 pro-fibrotic action include energy metabolism, B cells, NK cells and CD4⁺ cells.

Skin fibrosis: Models and mechanisms

Matrix synthesis, deposition and remodeling are complex biological processes that are critical in development, maintenance of tissue homeostasis and repair of injured tissues. Disturbances in the regulation of these processes can result in severe pathological conditions which are associated with tissue fibrosis as e.g. in Scleroderma, cutaneous Graft-versus-Host-Disease, excessive scarring after trauma or carcinogenesis. Therefore, finding efficient treatments to limit skin fibrosis is of major clinical importance. However the pathogenesis underlying the development of tissue fibrosis is still not entirely resolved. In recent years progress has been made unraveling the complex cellular and molecular mechanisms that determine fibrosis. Here we provide an overview of established and more recently developed mouse models that can be used to investigate the mechanisms of skin fibrosis and to test potential therapeutic approaches.

Hair follicles' transit-amplifying cells govern concurrent dermal adipocyte production through Sonic Hedgehog

Zhang et al. show that hair follicles’ transit-amplifying cells (HF-TACs) play an essential role in orchestrating dermal adipogenesis through secreting Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). SHH acts directly on adipocyte precursors, promoting their proliferation and their expression of a key adipogenic gene, Pparg, to induce dermal adipogenesis.

Growth and regeneration of one tissue within an organ compels accommodative changes in the surrounding tissues. However, the molecular nature and operating logic governing these concurrent changes remain poorly defined. The dermal adipose layer expands concomitantly with hair follicle downgrowth, providing a paradigm for studying coordinated changes of surrounding lineages with a regenerating tissue. Here, we discover that hair follicle transit-amplifying cells (HF-TACs) play an essential role in orchestrating dermal adipogenesis through secreting Sonic Hedgehog (SHH). Depletion of Shh from HF-TACs abrogates both dermal adipogenesis and hair follicle growth. Using cell type-specific deletion of Smo, a gene required in SHH-receiving cells, we found that SHH does not act on hair follicles, adipocytes, endothelial cells, and hematopoietic cells for adipogenesis. Instead, SHH acts directly on adipocyte precursors, promoting their proliferation and their expression of a key adipogenic gene, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (Pparg), to induce dermal adipogenesis. Our study therefore uncovers a critical role for TACs in orchestrating the generation of both their own progeny and a neighboring lineage to achieve concomitant tissue production across lineages.

Altered Dermal Fibroblasts in Systemic Sclerosis Display Podoplanin and CD90

Tissue injury triggers the activation and differentiation of multiple cell types to minimize damage and initiate repair processes. In systemic sclerosis, these repair processes appear to run unchecked, leading to aberrant remodeling and fibrosis of the skin and multiple internal organs, yet the fundamental pathological defect remains unknown. We describe herein a transition wherein the abundant CD34(+) dermal fibroblasts present in healthy human skin disappear in the skin of systemic sclerosis patients, and CD34(-), podoplanin(+), and CD90(+) fibroblasts appear. This transition is limited to the upper dermis in several inflammatory skin diseases, yet in systemic sclerosis, it can occur in all regions of the dermis. In vitro, primary dermal fibroblasts readily express podoplanin in response to the inflammatory stimuli tumor necrosis factor and IL-1β. Furthermore, we show that on acute skin injury in both human and murine settings, this transition occurs quickly, consistent with a response to inflammatory signaling. Transitioned fibroblasts partially resemble the cells that form the reticular networks in organized lymphoid tissues, potentially linking two areas of fibroblast research. These results allow for the visualization and quantification of a basic stage of fibroblast differentiation in inflammatory and fibrotic diseases in the skin.

The roles of tumor- and metastasis-promoting carcinoma-associated fibroblasts in human carcinomas

Carcinoma-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) constitute a substantial proportion of the non-neoplastic mesenchymal cell compartment in various human tumors. These fibroblasts are phenotypically converted from their progenitors via interactions with nearby cancer cells during the course of tumor progression. The resulting CAFs, in turn, support the growth and progression of carcinoma cells. These fibroblasts have a major influence on the hallmarks of carcinoma and promote tumor malignancy through the secretion of tumor-promoting growth factors, cytokines and exosomes, as well as through the remodeling of the extracellular matrix. Coevolution of CAFs and carcinoma cells during tumorigenesis is therefore essential for progression into fully malignant tumors. Recent studies have revealed the molecular mechanisms underlying CAF functions, especially in tumor invasion, metastasis and drug resistance and have highlighted the significant heterogeneity among these cells. In this review, we summarize the impacts of recently identified roles of tumor-promoting CAFs and discuss the therapeutic implications of targeting the heterotypic interactions of these fibroblasts with carcinoma cells. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

Ultrasensitive Fluorescent Probes Reveal an Adverse Action of Dipeptide Peptidase IV and Fibroblast Activation Protein during Proliferation of Cancer Cells

Dipeptide peptidase IV (DPPIV) and fibroblast activation protein (FAP) are isoenzymes. Evidence shows that DPPIV is related to antitumor immunity, and FAP may be a drug target in cancer therapy, making it seem that the two enzymes might have a synergistic role during the proliferation of cancer cells. Surprisingly, herein, we find an adverse action of DPPIV and FAP in the proliferation process by analyzing their changes with two tailor-made ultrasensitive fluorescent probes. First, the up-regulation of DPPIV and down-regulation of FAP in cancer cells under the stimulation of genistein are detected. Then, we find that MGC803 cells with a higher FAP but lower DPPIV level than SGC7901 cells exhibit a faster proliferation rate. Importantly, inhibiting the DPPIV expression with siRNA increases the proliferation rate of MGC803 cells, whereas the FAP inhibition decreases the rate. These findings suggest that the two enzymes play an adverse role during the proliferation of cancer cells, which provides us a new viewpoint for cancer studies.

First Proposal of Minimum Information About a Cellular Assay for Regenerative Medicine

: Advances in stem cell research have triggered scores of studies in regenerative medicine in a large number of institutions and companies around the world. However, reproducibility and data exchange among laboratories or cell banks are constrained by the lack of a standardized format for experiments. To enhance information flow in stem cell and derivative cell research, here we propose a minimum information standard to describe cellular assay data to facilitate practical regenerative medicine. Based on the existing Minimum Information About a Cellular Assay, we developed Minimum Information About a Cellular Assay for Regenerative Medicine (MIACARM), which allows for the description of advanced cellular experiments with defined taxonomy of human cell types. By using controlled terms, such as ontologies, MIACARM will provide a platform for cellular assay data exchange among cell banks or registries that have been established at more than 20 sites in the world.

SIGNIFICANCE

Currently, there are more than 20 human cell information storage sites around the world. However, reproducibility and data exchange among different laboratories or cell information providers are usually inadequate or nonexistent because of the lack of a standardized format for experiments. This study, which is the fruit of collaborative work by scientists at stem cell banks and cellular information registries worldwide, including those in the U.S., the U.K., Europe, and Japan, proposes new minimum information guidelines, Minimum Information About a Cellular Assay for Regenerative Medicine (MIACARM), for cellular assay data deposition. MIACARM is intended to promote data exchange and facilitation of practical regenerative medicine.

Transcription factor TBX4 regulates myofibroblast accumulation and lung fibrosis

Progressive tissue fibrosis is a major cause of the morbidity and mortality associated with repeated epithelial injuries and accumulation of myofibroblasts. Successful treatment options are limited by an incomplete understanding of the molecular mechanisms that regulate myofibroblast accumulation. Here, we employed in vivo lineage tracing and real-time gene expression transgenic reporting methods to analyze the early embryonic transcription factor T-box gene 4 (TBX4), and determined that TBX4-lineage mesenchymal progenitors are the predominant source of myofibroblasts in injured adult lung. In a murine model, ablation of TBX4-expressing cells or disruption of TBX4 signaling attenuated lung fibrosis after bleomycin-induced injury. Furthermore, TBX4 regulated hyaluronan synthase 2 production to enable fibroblast invasion of matrix both in murine models and in fibroblasts from patients with severe pulmonary fibrosis. These data identify TBX4 as a mesenchymal transcription factor that drives accumulation of myofibroblasts and the development of lung fibrosis. Targeting TBX4 and downstream factors that regulate fibroblast invasiveness could lead to therapeutic approaches in lung fibrosis.

Defining the identity of mouse embryonic dermal fibroblasts

Embryonic dermal fibroblasts in the skin have the exceptional ability to initiate hair follicle morphogenesis and contribute to scarless wound healing. Activation of the Wnt signaling pathway is critical for dermal fibroblast fate selection and hair follicle induction. In humans, mutations in Wnt pathway components and target genes lead to congenital focal dermal hypoplasias with diminished hair. The gene expression signature of embryonic dermal fibroblasts during differentiation and its dependence on Wnt signaling is unknown. Here we applied Shannon entropy analysis to identify the gene expression signature of mouse embryonic dermal fibroblasts. We used available human DNase-seq and histone modification ChiP-seq data on various cell-types to demonstrate that genes in the fibroblast cell identity signature can be epigenetically repressed in other cell-types. We found a subset of the signature genes whose expression is dependent on Wnt/β-catenin activity in vivo. With our approach, we have defined and validated a statistically derived gene expression signature that may mediate dermal fibroblast identity and function in development and disease. genesis 54:415-430, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Tumor-associated fibroblasts predominantly come from local and not circulating precursors

Fibroblasts are common cell types in cancer stroma and lay down collagen required for survival and growth of cancer cells. Although some cancer therapy strategies target tumor fibroblasts, their origin remains controversial. Multiple publications suggest circulating mesenchymal precursors as a source of tumor-associated fibroblasts. However, we show by three independent approaches that tumor fibroblasts derive primarily from local, sessile precursors. First, transplantable tumors developing in a mouse expressing green fluorescent reporter protein (EGFP) under control of the type I collagen (Col-I) promoter (COL-EGFP) had green stroma, whereas we could not find COL-EGFP(+) cells in tumors developing in the parabiotic partner lacking the fluorescent reporter. Lack of incorporation of COL-EGFP(+) cells from the circulation into tumors was confirmed in parabiotic pairs of COL-EGFP mice and transgenic mice developing autochthonous intestinal adenomas. Second, transplantable tumors developing in chimeric mice reconstituted with bone marrow cells from COL-EGFP mice very rarely showed stromal fibroblasts expressing EGFP. Finally, cancer cells injected under full-thickness COL-EGFP skin grafts transplanted in nonreporter mice developed into tumors containing green stromal cells. Using multicolor in vivo confocal microscopy, we found that Col-I-expressing fibroblasts constituted approximately one-third of the stromal mass and formed a continuous sheet wrapping the tumor vessels. In summary, tumors form their fibroblastic stroma predominantly from precursors present in the local tumor microenvironment, whereas the contribution of bone marrow-derived circulating precursors is rare.

Scarless wound healing: finding the right cells and signals

From the moment we are born, every injury to the skin has the potential to form a scar, many of which can impair form and/or function. As such, scar management constitutes a billion-dollar industry. However, effectively promoting scarless wound healing remains an elusive goal. The complex interactions of wound healing contribute to our inability to recapitulate scarless wound repair as it occurs in nature, such as in fetal skin and the oral mucosa. However, many new advances have occurred in recent years, some of which have translated scientific findings from bench to bedside. In vivo lineage tracing has helped establish a variety of novel cellular culprits that may act as key drivers of the fibrotic response. These newly characterized cell populations present further targets for therapeutic intervention, some of which have previously demonstrated promising results in animal models. Here, we discuss several recent studies that identify exciting approaches for diminishing scar formation. Particular attention will also be paid to the canonical Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, which plays an important role in both embryogenesis and tissue repair. New insights into the differential effects of Wnt signaling on heterogeneous fibroblast and keratinocyte populations within the skin further demonstrate methods by which wound healing can be re-directed to a more fetal scarless phenotype. Graphical abstract Recent approaches to reducing scar formation. Representation showing novel scientific approaches for decreasing scar formation, including the targeting of pro-fibrotic cell populations based on surface molecule expression (e.g. DPP4(+) fibroblasts, ADAM12(+) pericytes). Modulation of cellular mechanotransduction pathways are another means to reduce scar formation, both at the molecular level or, macroscopically with dressings designed to offload tension, at cutaneous wound sites (ADAM12 a disintegrin and metalloprotease 12, DPP4 dipeptidyl peptidase-4, FAK focal adhesion kinase).

Cellular mechanisms of skin repair in humans and other mammals

The increased incidence of non-healing skin wounds in developed societies has prompted tremendous research efforts on the complex process known as "wound healing". Unfortunately, the weak relevance of modern wound healing research to human health continues to be a matter of concern. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the cellular mechanisms that mediate wound closure in the skin of humans and laboratory animals. The author highlights the anatomical singularities of human skin vs. the skin of other mammals commonly used for wound healing research (i.e. as mice, rats, rabbits, and pigs), and discusses the roles of stem cells, myofibroblasts, and the matrix environment in the repair process. The majority of this review focuses on reepithelialization and wound closure. Other aspects of wound healing (e.g. inflammation, fibrous healing) are referred to when relevant to the main topic. This review aims at providing the reader with a clear understanding of the similarities and differences that have been reported over the past 100 years between the healing of human wounds and that of other mammals.

Fibroblasts and Mesenchymal Stromal/Stem Cells Are Phenotypically Indistinguishable

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Human mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs), derived from many different tissues, are characterized by a fibroblast-like morphology, the expression of certain cell surface markers and their ability to differentiate into adipocytes, chondrocytes and osteoblasts. A number of studies have shown that MSCs share many characteristics with fibroblasts; however, there is no well-defined set of phenotypic characteristics that could distinguish between these 2 types of cells.

METHODS

We used 4 well-established human fibroblast strains from 3 different tissue sources and several human MSC strains from 2 different tissue sources to compare the phenotypic and immunological characteristics of these cells.

RESULTS

Fibroblast strains had a similar morphology to MSCs, expressed the same cell surface markers as MSCs and could also differentiate into adipocytes, chondrocytes and osteoblasts. Also, similar to MSCs, these fibroblasts were capable of suppressing T cell proliferation and modulating the immunophenotype of macrophages. We also show that MSCs deposit extracellular matrices of collagen type I and fibronectin, and express FSP1 in patterns similar to fibroblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on currently accepted definitions for cultured human MSCs and fibroblasts, we could not find any immunophenotypic property that could make a characteristic distinction between MSCs and fibroblasts.

The myofibroblast in wound healing and fibrosis: answered and unanswered questions

The discovery of the myofibroblast has allowed definition of the cell responsible for wound contraction and for the development of fibrotic changes. This review summarizes the main features of the myofibroblast and the mechanisms of myofibroblast generation. Myofibroblasts originate from a variety of cells according to the organ and the type of lesion. The mechanisms of myofibroblast contraction, which appear clearly different to those of smooth muscle cell contraction, are described. Finally, we summarize the possible strategies in order to reduce myofibroblast activities and thus influence several pathologies, such as hypertrophic scars and organ fibrosis.

The role of stem cells in limb regeneration

Limb regeneration is a complex yet fascinating process observed to some extent in many animal species, though seen in its entirety in urodele amphibians. Accomplished by formation of a morphologically uniform intermediate, the blastema, scientists have long attempted to define the cellular constituents that enable regrowth of a functional appendage. Today, we know that the blastema consists of a variety of multipotent progenitor cells originating from a variety of tissues, and which contribute to limb tissue regeneration in a lineage-restricted manner. By continuing to dissect the role of stem cells in limb regeneration, we can hope to one day modulate the human response to limb amputation and facilitate regrowth of a working replacement.

The Relationship of Bacterial Biofilms and Capsular Contracture in Breast Implants

Capsular contracture is a common sequelae of implant-based breast augmentation. Despite its prevalence, the etiology of capsular contracture remains controversial. Numerous studies have identified microbial biofilms on various implantable materials, including breast implants. Furthermore, biofilms have been implicated in subclinical infections associated with other surgical implants. In this review, we discuss microbial biofilms as a potential etiology of capsular contracture. The review also outlines the key diagnostic modalities available to identify the possible infectious agents found in biofilm, as well as available preventative and treatment measures.

Stem cell heterogeneity and plasticity in epithelia

Epithelia cover the surfaces and line the cavities of the body. Recent studies have highlighted the existence of multiple stem cell compartments within individual epithelia that exhibit striking plasticity in response to tissue damage, transplantation, or tumor development. New knowledge about the composition of the epithelial niche and the transcription factor networks that maintain cell identity has provided new insights into the extrinsic and intrinsic regulation of stem cell behavior. In addition new in vitro tissue substitutes allow better integration of data from human and mouse models.

β-Catenin Stabilization in Skin Fibroblasts Causes Fibrotic Lesions by Preventing Adipocyte Differentiation of the Reticular Dermis

The Wnt/β-catenin pathway plays a central role in epidermal homeostasis and regeneration, but how it affects fibroblast fate decisions is unknown. We investigated the effect of targeted β-catenin stabilization in dermal fibroblasts. Comparative gene expression profiling of stem cell antigen 1^- (Sca1^-) and Sca1⁺ neonatal fibroblasts from upper and lower dermis, respectively, confirmed that Sca1⁺ cells had a preadipocyte signature and showed differential expression of Wnt/β-catenin–associated genes. By targeting all fibroblasts or selectively targeting Dlk1⁺ lower dermal fibroblasts, we found that β-catenin stabilization between developmental stages E16.5 and P2 resulted in a reduction in the dermal adipocyte layer with a corresponding increase in dermal fibrosis and an altered hair cycle. The fibrotic phenotype correlated with a reduction in the potential of Sca1⁺ fibroblasts to undergo adipogenic differentiation ex vivo. Our findings indicate that Wnt/β-catenin signaling controls adipogenic cell fate within the lower dermis, which potentially contributes to the pathogenesis of fibrotic skin diseases.

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4 and kidney fibrosis in diabetes

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most common cause of end-stage kidney disease worldwide and is associated with increased morbidity and mortality in patients with both type 1 and type 2 diabetes. Recent evidence revealed that dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors may exhibit a protective effect against DN. In fact, the kidney is the organ where the DPP-4 activity is the highest level per organ weight. A preclinical analysis revealed that DPP-4 inhibitors also ameliorated kidney fibrosis. In this review, we analyzed recent reports in this field and explore the renoprotective effects and possible mechanism of the DPP-4 inhibitors.

The integrin-collagen connection--a glue for tissue repair?

The α1β1, α2β1, α10β1 and α11β1 integrins constitute a subset of the integrin family with affinity for GFOGER-like sequences in collagens. Integrins α1β1 and α2β1 were originally identified on a subset of activated T-cells, and have since been found to be expressed on a number of cell types including platelets (α2β1), vascular cells (α1β1, α2β1), epithelial cells (α1β1, α2β1) and fibroblasts (α1β1, α2β1). Integrin α10β1 shows a distribution that is restricted to mesenchymal stem cells and chondrocytes, whereas integrin α11β1 appears restricted to mesenchymal stem cells and subsets of fibroblasts. The bulk of the current literature suggests that collagen-binding integrins only have a limited role in adult connective tissue homeostasis, partly due to a limited availability of cell-binding sites in the mature fibrillar collagen matrices. However, some recent data suggest that, instead, they are more crucial for dynamic connective tissue remodeling events--such as wound healing--where they might act specifically to remodel and restore the tissue architecture. This Commentary discusses the recent development in the field of collagen-binding integrins, their roles in physiological and pathological settings with special emphasis on wound healing, fibrosis and tumor-stroma interactions, and include a discussion of the most recently identified newcomers to this subfamily--integrins α10β1 and α11β1.

Inhibition of fibrotic contraction by C-phycocyanin through modulation of connective tissue growth factor and α-smooth muscle actin expression

The effects of C-phycocyanin (C-pc), a phycobiliprotein, on the expression of pro-fibrotic mediators in hyper-tropic scarring such as connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and α-smooth muscle actins (α-SMA) were investigated in relation to trans-differentiation of fibroblast to myo-fibroblast, an icon of scar formation. C-pc was isolated from Spirulina Platensis extract using sonication method and C-pc concentration was determined by Bennet and Bogorad equation. α-SMA and CTGF levels in wounded primary human dermal fibroblasts were determined by western blot analysis and immuno-fluorescence confocal microscope was employed. Fibroblast contractility was examined by three-dimensional collagen lattice contraction assay. There was an elevation of α-SMA (121%) and CTGF (143%) levels in wound cells as compared with non-wound cells. The does-response profiles of down regulation demonstrated that the maximum inhibitions of α-SMA by 63% (p<0.05) and CTGF by 50% (p<0.1) were achieved by C-pc (6 nM) treated cells. In confocal assay, non-wound fibroblasts exhibited basal level of α-SMA staining, while wounded cells without C-pc treatment showed strong up-regulation of α-SMA by 147% (p<0.05). C-pc (6 nM) inhibited α-SMA expression by 70% (p<0.05) and reduced collagen contraction by 29% (p<0.05). C-pc seemed to lessen the over expression of CTGF, α-SMA, subsequently alleviating the fibrotic contracture. This study suggests the potential application of C-pc to regulation of the expression of pro-fibrotic mediators in scarring process and its potential usage as an efficient means for anti-fibrosis therapy.

Fibroblast-Extracellular Matrix Interactions in Tissue Fibrosis

Activated myofibroblasts are key effector cells in tissue fibrosis. Emerging evidence suggests that myofibroblasts infiltrating fibrotic tissues originate predominantly from local mesenchyme-derived populations. Alterations in the extracellular matrix network play an important role in modulating fibroblast phenotype and function. In a pro-inflammatory environment, generation of matrix fragments may induce a matrix-degrading fibroblast phenotype. Deposition of ED-A fibronectin plays an important role in myofibroblast transdifferentiation. In fibrotic tissues, the matrix is enriched with matricellular macromolecules that regulate growth factor-mediated responses and modulate protease activation. This manuscript discusses emerging concepts on the role of the extracellular matrix in regulation of fibroblast behavior.

Epidermal β-catenin activation remodels the dermis via paracrine signalling to distinct fibroblast lineages

Sustained epidermal Wnt/β-catenin signalling expands the stem cell compartment and induces ectopic hair follicles (EFs). This is accompanied by extensive fibroblast proliferation and extracellular matrix (ECM) remodelling in the underlying dermis. Here we show that epidermal Hedgehog (Hh) and Transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) signalling mediate the dermal changes. Pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of these pathways prevents β-catenin-induced dermal reprogramming and EF formation. Epidermal Shh stimulates proliferation of the papillary fibroblast lineage, whereas TGF-β2 controls proliferation, differentiation and ECM production by reticular fibroblasts. Hh inhibitors do not affect TGF-β target gene expression in reticular fibroblasts, and TGF-β inhibition does not prevent Hh target gene induction in papillary fibroblasts. However, when Hh signalling is inhibited the reticular dermis does not respond to epidermal β-catenin activation. We conclude that the dermal response to epidermal Wnt/β-catenin signalling depends on distinct fibroblast lineages responding to different paracrine signals.

The molecular mechanisms regulating skin dermal changes are unclear. Here, the authors show that deletion of Hedgehog (Hh) in the upper dermis alters the response to epidermal Wnt signalling, which, together with changes in extracellular matrix production, influences distinct fibroblast lineages differently.

Extracellular matrix component signaling in cancer

Cell responses to the extracellular matrix depend on specific signaling events. These are important from early development, through differentiation and tissue homeostasis, immune surveillance, and disease pathogenesis. Signaling not only regulates cell adhesion cytoskeletal organization and motility but also provides survival and proliferation cues. The major classes of cell surface receptors for matrix macromolecules are the integrins, discoidin domain receptors, and transmembrane proteoglycans such as syndecans and CD44. Cells respond not only to specific ligands, such as collagen, fibronectin, or basement membrane glycoproteins, but also in terms of matrix rigidity. This can regulate the release and subsequent biological activity of matrix-bound growth factors, for example, transforming growth factor-β. In the environment of tumors, there may be changes in cell populations and their receptor profiles as well as matrix constitution and protein cross-linking. Here we summarize roles of the three major matrix receptor types, with emphasis on how they function in tumor progression.

Scar Management in the Pediatric and Adolescent Populations

For most children and adolescents who have developed symptomatic scars, cosmetic concerns are only a portion of the motivation that drives them and their caregivers to obtain treatment. In addition to the potential for cosmetic disfigurement, scars may be associated with a number of physical comorbidities including hypertrichosis, dyshidrosis, tenderness/pain, pruritus, dysesthesias, and functional impairments such as contractures, all of which may be compounded by psychosocial factors. Although a plethora of options for treating scars exists, specific management guidelines for the pediatric and adolescent populations do not, and evidence must be extrapolated from adult studies. New modalities such as the scar team approach, autologous fat transfer, and ablative fractional laser resurfacing suggest a promising future for children who suffer symptomatically from their scars. In this state-of-the-art review, we summarize cutting-edge scar treatment strategies as they relate to the pediatric and adolescent populations.

Two clonal types of human skin fibroblasts with different potentials for proliferation and tissue remodeling ability

BACKGROUND

Skin fibroblast heterogeneity is of growing interest due to its relevance in not only skin development but also cutaneous wound healing. However, the characterization of human dermal fibroblasts at a clonal level has not been accomplished and their functional heterogeneity remains poorly understood.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to define the clonal heterogeneity of human dermal fibroblasts.

METHODS

Isolated human dermal fibroblasts were clonally expanded and categorized by comprehensive phenotypic and gene expression profiling.

RESULTS

Single fibroblasts were significantly multiplied and efficiently cloned without chromosomal abnormalities under hypoxic conditions. Individual clones were heterogeneous in their proliferative capacity, and gene expression profiling revealed differences in the expression of genes involved in extracellular matrix synthesis and degradation. Each cloned fibroblast also had different abilities in terms of collagen remodeling. All phenotypic and gene expression data were analyzed with Spearman's rank correlation, and fibroblasts were categorized into at least two functional clonal types. One was highly proliferative, while the other was less proliferative but had the ability to remodel the tissue architecture. The proliferative clones were predominant in infants, but decreased with physiological aging.

CONCLUSION

This study provides strong evidence for the functional heterogeneity of human dermal fibroblasts at a clonal level, which has implications regarding skin repair and aging.

Murine Dermal Fibroblast Isolation by FACS

Fibroblasts are the principle cell type responsible for secreting extracellular matrix and are a critical component of many organs and tissues. Fibroblast physiology and pathology underlie a spectrum of clinical entities, including fibroses in multiple organs, hypertrophic scarring following burns, loss of cardiac function following ischemia, and the formation of cancer stroma. However, fibroblasts remain a poorly characterized type of cell, largely due to their inherent heterogeneity. Existing methods for the isolation of fibroblasts require time in cell culture that profoundly influences cell phenotype and behavior. Consequently, many studies investigating fibroblast biology rely upon in vitro manipulation and do not accurately capture fibroblast behavior in vivo. To overcome this problem, we developed a FACS-based protocol for the isolation of fibroblasts from the dorsal skin of adult mice that does not require cell culture, thereby preserving the physiologic transcriptional and proteomic profile of each cell. Our strategy allows for exclusion of non-mesenchymal lineages via a lineage negative gate (Lin(-)) rather than a positive selection strategy to avoid pre-selection or enrichment of a subpopulation of fibroblasts expressing specific surface markers and be as inclusive as possible across this heterogeneous cell type.

Low intensity 635 nm diode laser irradiation inhibits fibroblast-myofibroblast transition reducing TRPC1 channel expression/activity: New perspectives for tissue fibrosis treatment

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Low-level laser therapy (LLLT) or photobiomodulation therapy is emerging as a promising new therapeutic option for fibrosis in different damaged and/or diseased organs. However, the anti-fibrotic potential of this treatment needs to be elucidated and the cellular and molecular targets of the laser clarified. Here, we investigated the effects of a low intensity 635 ± 5 nm diode laser irradiation on fibroblast-myofibroblast transition, a key event in the onset of fibrosis, and elucidated some of the underlying molecular mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

NIH/3T3 fibroblasts were cultured in a low serum medium in the presence of transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1 and irradiated with a 635 ± 5 nm diode laser (continuous wave, 89 mW, 0.3 J/cm(2) ). Fibroblast-myofibroblast differentiation was assayed by morphological, biochemical, and electrophysiological approaches. Expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and MMP-9 and of Tissue inhibitor of MMPs, namely TIMP-1 and TIMP-2, after laser exposure was also evaluated by confocal immunofluorescence analyses. Moreover, the effect of the diode laser on transient receptor potential canonical channel (TRPC) 1/stretch-activated channel (SAC) expression and activity and on TGF-β1/Smad3 signaling was investigated.

RESULTS

Diode laser treatment inhibited TGF-β1-induced fibroblast-myofibroblast transition as judged by reduction of stress fibers formation, α-smooth muscle actin (sma) and type-1 collagen expression and by changes in electrophysiological properties such as resting membrane potential, cell capacitance and inwardly rectifying K(+) currents. In addition, the irradiation up-regulated the expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9 and downregulated that of TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 in TGF-β1-treated cells. This laser effect was shown to involve TRPC1/SAC channel functionality. Finally, diode laser stimulation and TRPC1 functionality negatively affected fibroblast-myofibroblast transition by interfering with TGF-β1 signaling, namely reducing the expression of Smad3, the TGF-β1 downstream signaling molecule.

CONCLUSION

Low intensity irradiation with 635 ± 5 nm diode laser inhibited TGF-β1/Smad3-mediated fibroblast-myofibroblast transition and this effect involved the modulation of TRPC1 ion channels. These data contribute to support the potential anti-fibrotic effect of LLLT and may offer further informations for considering this therapy as a promising therapeutic tool for the treatment of tissue fibrosis.

Dermal Contributions to Human Interfollicular Epidermal Architecture and Self-Renewal

The human interfollicular epidermis is renewed throughout life by populations of proliferating basal keratinocytes. Though interfollicular keratinocyte stem cells have been identified, it is not known how self-renewal in this compartment is spatially organized. At the epidermal-dermal junction, keratinocytes sit atop a heterogeneous mix of dermal cells that may regulate keratinocyte self-renewal by influencing local tissue architecture and signalling microenvironments. Focusing on the rete ridges and complementary dermal papillae in human skin, we review the identity and organisation of abundant dermal cells types and present evidence for interactions between the dermal microenvironment and the interfollicular keratinocytes.

Origin of fibrosing cells in systemic sclerosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Systemic sclerosis, an autoimmune disease of unknown origin, is characterized by progressive fibrosis that can affect all organs of the body. To date, there are no effective therapies for the disease. This paucity of treatment options is primarily because of limited understanding of the processes that initiate and promote fibrosis in general and a lack of animal models that specifically emulate the chronic nature of systemic sclerosis. Most models capitulate acute injury-induced fibrosis in specific organs. Yet, regardless of the model a major outstanding question in the field is the cellular origin of fibrosing cells.

RECENT FINDINGS

A multitude of origins have been proposed in a variety of tissues, including resident tissue stroma, fibrocytes, pericytes, adipocytes, epithelial cells and endothelial cells. Developmentally derived fibroblast lineages have recently been elucidated with fibrosing potential in injury models. Increasing data support the pericyte as a fibrosing cell origin in diverse fibrosis models and adipocytes have recently been proposed. Fibrocytes, epithelial cells and endothelial cells also have been examined, although data do not as strongly support these possible origins.

SUMMARY

In this review, we discuss recent evidence arguing in favor of and against proposed origins of fibrosing cells in diverse models of fibrosis. We highlight outstanding controversies and propose how future research may elucidate how fibrosing cells arise and what processes can be targeted in order to treat systemic sclerosis.