Characterization of biophysical and metabolic properties of cells labeled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles and transfection agent for cellular MR imaging

Physical and biological characterization of superparamagnetic iron oxide- and ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide-labeled cells: a comparison

RATIONALE

Superparamagnetic iron-oxide particles are used frequently for cellular magnetic resonance imaging and in vivo cell tracking. The purpose of this study was to compare the labeling characteristics and efficiency as well as toxicity of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) and ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide (USPIO) for 3 cell lines.

METHODS

Using human fibroblasts, immortalized rat progenitor cells and HEP-G2-hepatoma cells, dose- and time-dependence of SPIO and USPIO uptake were evaluated. The amount of intracellular (U)SPIO was monitored over 2 weeks after incubation by T2-magnetic resonance relaxometry, ICP-mass-spectrometry, and histology. Transmission-electronmicroscopy was used to specify the intracellular localization of the endocytosed iron particles. Cell death-rate and proliferation-index were assessed as indicators of cell-toxicity.

RESULT

For all cell lines, SPIO showed better uptake than USPIO, which was highest in HEP-G2 cells (110 +/- 2 pg Fe/cell). Cellular iron concentrations in progenitor cells and fibroblasts were 13 +/- 1pg Fe/cell and 7.2 +/- 0.3pg Fe/cell, respectively. For all cell lines T2-relaxation times in cell pellets were below detection threshold (<3 milliseconds) after 5 hours of incubation with SPIO (3.0 micromol Fe/mL growth medium) and continued to be near the detection for the next 6 days. For both particle types and all cell lines cellular iron oxide contents decreased after recultivation and surprisingly were found lower than in unlabeled control cells after 15 days. Viability and proliferation of (U)SPIO-labeled and unlabeled cells were not significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

The hematopoetic progenitor, mesenchymal fibroblast and epithelial HEP-G2 cell lines accumulated SPIO more efficiently than USPIO indicating SPIO to be better suited for cell labeling. However, the results indicate that there may be an induction of forced cellular iron elimination after incubation with (U)SPIO.

Integrated nanoparticle-biomolecule hybrid systems: synthesis, properties, and applications

Nanomaterials, such as metal or semiconductor nanoparticles and nanorods, exhibit similar dimensions to those of biomolecules, such as proteins (enzymes, antigens, antibodies) or DNA. The integration of nanoparticles, which exhibit unique electronic, photonic, and catalytic properties, with biomaterials, which display unique recognition, catalytic, and inhibition properties, yields novel hybrid nanobiomaterials of synergetic properties and functions. This review describes recent advances in the synthesis of biomolecule-nanoparticle/nanorod hybrid systems and the application of such assemblies in the generation of 2D and 3D ordered structures in solutions and on surfaces. Particular emphasis is directed to the use of biomolecule-nanoparticle (metallic or semiconductive) assemblies for bioanalytical applications and for the fabrication of bioelectronic devices.

A model of lysosomal metabolism of dextran coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles: implications for cellular magnetic resonance imaging

Ferumoxides, dextran-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles, form ferumoxide-transfection agent (FE-TA) complexes that are internalized into endosomes/lysosomes and have been used to label cells for in vivo MRI tracking and localization studies. A better understanding of the physical state of the FE-TA complexes during endocytosis could improve their use. The purpose of this study was to measure the rate of the degradation of iron particles under varying physiological conditions. FE-TA complexes were incubated in seven different buffers containing different chelates with different pH. Reducible iron concentrations, T2 relaxation rates and gradient echo (GRE) magnetic resonance images (MRI) were obtained from each condition immediately after incubation and at 6, 24, 48, 72 and 96 h and days 7, 14 and 21. The dynamics of FE-TA in the endosome/lysosomes within the cells were visualized with electron microscopy. Sodium citrate buffer at pH 4.5 rapidly dissolved FE-TA complexes. However, FE-TA complexes were less soluble in the same buffer at pH 5.5. Similarly, FE-TA complexes were not readily soluble in any of the other buffers with or without chelates, regardless of pH. Electron microscopic images showed degraded FE-TA in some intracellular endosome/lysosomes between days 3 and 5. In the cellular environment, some of the FE-TA-containing endosomes were found to fuse with lysosomes, causing rapid dissociation at low pH and exposing the iron core to chelates that resulted in soluble Fe(III) within the lysosomes. The studies presented represent a first step in identifying the important cellular environmental parameters affecting the integrity of FE-TA complexes.

In vitro imaging of single living human umbilical vein endothelial cells with a clinical 3.0-T MRI scanner

Iron oxide-labelled, single, living human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were imaged over time in vitro using a clinical 3.0-T magnetic resonance (MR) microscopy system. Labelling efficiency, toxicity, cell viability, proliferation and differentiation were assessed using flow cytometry, magnetic cell sorting and a phenanthroline assay. MR images were compared with normal light and fluorescence microscopy. Efficient uptake of iron oxide into HUVECs was shown, although with higher label uptake dose-dependent cytotoxic effects were observed, affecting cell viability. For MR imaging, a T2* weighted three-dimensional protocol was used with in-plane resolution of 39 x 48 microm2 and 100-microm slices with a scan time of 13 min. MRI could detect living cells in standard culture dishes at single-cell resolution, although label loss was observed that corresponded with the intracellular iron measurements. MR microscopy using iron oxide labels is a promising tool for studying HUVEC migration and cell biology in vitro and in vivo, but possible toxic effects of label uptake and loss of label over time should be taken into account.

Synthesis and surface engineering of iron oxide nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) with appropriate surface chemistry have been widely used experimentally for numerous in vivo applications such as magnetic resonance imaging contrast enhancement, tissue repair, immunoassay, detoxification of biological fluids, hyperthermia, drug delivery and in cell separation, etc. All these biomedical and bioengineering applications require that these nanoparticles have high magnetization values and size smaller than 100 nm with overall narrow particle size distribution, so that the particles have uniform physical and chemical properties. In addition, these applications need special surface coating of the magnetic particles, which has to be not only non-toxic and biocompatible but also allow a targetable delivery with particle localization in a specific area. To this end, most work in this field has been done in improving the biocompatibility of the materials, but only a few scientific investigations and developments have been carried out in improving the quality of magnetic particles, their size distribution, their shape and surface in addition to characterizing them to get a protocol for the quality control of these particles. Nature of surface coatings and their subsequent geometric arrangement on the nanoparticles determine not only the overall size of the colloid but also play a significant role in biokinetics and biodistribution of nanoparticles in the body. The types of specific coating, or derivatization, for these nanoparticles depend on the end application and should be chosen by keeping a particular application in mind, whether it be aimed at inflammation response or anti-cancer agents. Magnetic nanoparticles can bind to drugs, proteins, enzymes, antibodies, or nucleotides and can be directed to an organ, tissue, or tumour using an external magnetic field or can be heated in alternating magnetic fields for use in hyperthermia. This review discusses the synthetic chemistry, fluid stabilization and surface modification of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles, as well as their use for above biomedical applications.

In vivo and ex vivo MRI detection of localized and disseminated neural stem cell grafts in the mouse brain

The application of stem cells as delivery vehicles opens up the opportunity for targeting therapeutic proteins to the damaged or degenerating central nervous system. Neural stem cell (NSC) lines have been shown to engraft, differentiate and correct certain central nervous system diseases. The present study was performed to test the ability of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in detecting transplanted NSCs under conditions of limited migration in the normal adult mouse brain versus widespread migration when the cells are transplanted neonatally. The C17.2 NSC line was labeled in vitro with superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles and the labeled cells were implanted intracranially. Serial in vivo gradient echo MR imaging was performed using a 4.7 T horizontal bore magnet. High resolution ex vivo images of the isolated brains were performed at 9.4 T, and the presence of iron was correlated with Prussian blue staining in histological sections. Adult animals injected with SPIO-labeled stem cells exhibited hypointense regions near the injection site that were observed up to 32 days after injection. In neonatally transplanted animals, MR signal intensity from transplanted NSCs was not apparent in in vivo imaging but ex vivo MR images revealed small hypointense regions throughout the brain including the olfactory bulbs, cortex and the cerebellum, reflecting the wide distribution of the engrafted cells. These regions were correlated with Prussian blue staining, which confirmed the presence of SPIO particles inside the engrafted cells. We have shown that MRI is capable of differentiating localized and widespread engraftment of C17.2 stem cells in the central nervous system.

Cellular MR Imaging

Cellular MR imaging is a young field that aims to visualize targeted cells in living organisms. In order to provide a different signal intensity of the targeted cell, they are either labeled with MR contrast agents in vivo or prelabeled in vitro. Either (ultrasmall) superparamagnetic iron oxide [(U)SPIO] particles or (polymeric) paramagnetic chelates can be used for this purpose. For in vivo cellular labeling, Gd3+- and Mn2+- chelates have mainly been used for targeted hepatobiliary imaging, and (U)SPIO-based cellular imaging has been focused on imaging of macrophage activity. Several of these magneto-pharmaceuticals have been FDA-approved or are in late-phase clinical trials. As for prelabeling of cells in vitro, a challenge has been to induce a sufficient uptake of contrast agents into nonphagocytic cells, without affecting normal cellular function. It appears that this issue has now largely been resolved, leading to an active research on monitoring the cellular biodistribution in vivo following transplantation or transfusion of these cells, including cell migration and trafficking. New applications of cellular MR imaging will be directed, for instance, towards our understanding of hematopoietic (immune) cell trafficking and of novel guided (stem) cell-based therapies aimed to be translated to the clinic in the future.

Effect of human stem cells labeled with ferumoxides-poly-L-lysine on hematologic and biochemical measurements in rats

PURPOSE

To determine whether ferumoxides-poly-l-lysine (PLL) complex-labeled mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) or ferumoxides-PLL complex alone alters hematologic, blood chemistry, renal function, and/or liver function measurements after being intravenously infused into rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty-five rats (group 1) received intravenous injections of labeled MSCs, and 25 additional rats (group 2) received intravenous injections of ferumoxides-PLL complex only. Complete blood counts, liver and renal function test results, and serum electrolyte and iron concentrations were measured for 42 days after the injections and compared with those measured in five control rats (group 3). To determine the duration of labeled MSCs in the circulation, venous blood was serially drawn from five additional rats (group 4) that were injected with labeled MSCs. Analyses of variance (ANOVA) followed by Fisher protected least significant difference post hoc tests were used to statistically analyze results. P < .05 was considered to indicate significance in all analyses.

RESULTS

Administration of neither labeled MSCs nor ferumoxides-PLL complex had a significant effect on hematologic or blood chemistry indicators of organ function. Of the parameters measured, only hemoglobin concentration and mean corpuscular volume (MCV) in the rats injected with labeled MSCs, as well as MCV and hemoglobin, alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase, and direct bilirubin concentrations in the rats injected with ferumoxides-PLL complex, varied significantly during the 42-day postinjection period (P < .05, ANOVA). No other measurements, including serum electrolyte and iron concentrations, changed significantly during the test period (P > .05). Furthermore, injected labeled MSCs had cleared from the peripheral circulation by 15 minutes after injection.

CONCLUSION

Results indicate that infusing cells that are magnetically labeled with ferumoxides-PLL complex into rats does not alter biochemical or hematologic measures of organ function in a clinically relevant or preclusive manner.

Detection threshold of single SPIO-labeled cells with FIESTA

MRI of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO)-labeled cells has become a valuable tool for studying the in vivo trafficking of transplanted cells. Cellular detection with MRI is generally considered to be orders of magnitude less sensitive than other techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission-computed tomography (SPECT), or optical fluorescence microscopy. However, an analytic description of the detection threshold for single SPIO-labeled cells and the parameters that govern detection has not been adequately provided. In the present work, the detection threshold for single SPIO-labeled cells and the effect of resolution and SNR were studied for a balanced steady-state free precession (SSFP) sequence (3D-FIESTA). Based on the results from both theoretical and experimental analyses, an expression that predicts the minimum detectable mass of SPIO (m(c)) required to detect a single cell against a uniform signal background was derived: m(c) = 5v/(K(fsl) x SNR), where v is the voxel volume, SNR is the image signal-to-noise ratio, and K(fsl) is an empirical constant measured to be 6.2 +/- 0.5 x 10(-5) microl/pgFe. Using this expression, it was shown that the sensitivity of MRI is not very different from that of PET, requiring femtomole quantities of SPIO iron for detection under typical micro-imaging conditions (100 microm isotropic resolution, SNR = 60). The results of this work will aid in the design of cellular imaging experiments by defining the lower limit of SPIO labeling required for single cell detection at any given resolution and SNR.

Cell Tagging with Clinically Approved Iron Oxides: Feasibility and Effect of Lipofection, Particle Size, and Surface Coating on Labeling Efficiency

PURPOSE

To evaluate the effect of lipofection, particle size, and surface coating on labeling efficiency of mammalian cells with superparamagnetic iron oxides (SPIOs).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Institutional Review Board approval was not required. Different human cell lines (lung and breast cancer, fibrosarcoma, leukocytes) were tagged by using carboxydextran-coated SPIOs of various hydrodynamic diameters (17-65 nm) and a dextran-coated iron oxide (150 nm). Cells were incubated with increasing concentrations of iron (0.01-1.00 mg of iron [Fe] per milliliter), including or excluding a transfection medium (TM). Cellular iron uptake was analyzed qualitatively at light and electron microscopy and was quantified at atomic emission spectroscopy. Cell visibility was assessed with gradient- and spin-echo magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Effects of iron concentration in the medium and of lipofection on cellular SPIO uptake were analyzed with analysis of variance and two-tailed Student t test, respectively.

RESULTS

Iron oxide uptake increased in a dose-dependent manner with higher iron concentrations in the medium. The TM significantly increased the iron load of cells (up to 2.6-fold, P < .05). For carboxydextran-coated SPIOs, larger particle size resulted in improved cellular uptake (65 nm, 4.37 microg +/- 0.08 Fe per 100 000 cells; 17 nm, 2.14 microg +/- 0.06 Fe per 100 000 cells; P < .05). Despite larger particle size, dextran-coated iron oxides did not differ from large carboxydextran-coated particles (150 nm, 3.81 microg +/- 0.46 Fe per 100 000 cells; 65 nm, 4.37 microg +/- 0.08 Fe per 100 000 cells; P > .05). As few as 10 000 cells could be detected with clinically available MR techniques by using this approach.

CONCLUSION

Lipofection-based cell tagging is a simple method for efficient cell labeling with clinically approved iron oxide-based contrast agents. Large particle size and carboxydextran coating are preferable for cell tagging with endocytosis- and lipofection-based methods.

Molecular MR Imaging Probes

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been successfully applied to many of the applications of molecular imaging. This review discusses by example some of the advances in areas such as multimodality MR-optical agents, receptor imaging, apoptosis imaging, angiogenesis imaging, noninvasive cell tracking, and imaging of MR marker genes.

Noninvasive MR imaging of magnetically labeled stem cells to directly identify neovasculature in a glioma model

Bone marrow-derived endothelial precursor cells incorporate into neovasculature and have been successfully used as vehicles for gene delivery to brain tumors. To determine whether systemically administered Sca1+ bone marrow cells labeled with superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles can be detected by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging in a mouse brain tumor model, mouse Sca1+ cells were labeled in vitro with ferumoxides-poly-L-lysine complexes. Labeled or control cells were administered intravenously to glioma-bearing severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed during tumor growth. Mice that received labeled cells demonstrated hypointense regions within the tumor that evolved over time and developed a continuous dark hypointense ring at a consistent time point. This effect was not cleared by administration of a gadolinium contrast agent. Histology showed iron-labeled cells around the tumor rim in labeled mice, which expressed CD31 and von Willebrand factor, indicating the transplanted cells detected in the tumor have differentiated into endothelial-like cells. These results demonstrate that MRI can detect the incorporation of magnetically labeled bone marrow-derived precursor cells into tumor vasculature as part of ongoing angiogenesis and neovascularization. This technique can be used to directly identify neovasculature in vivo and to facilitate gene therapy by noninvasively monitoring these cells as gene delivery vectors.

Methods for magnetically labeling stem and other cells for detection by in vivo magnetic resonance imaging

Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles are being used for intracellular magnetic labeling of stem cells and other cells in order to monitor cell trafficking by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) as part of cellular-based repair, replacement and treatment strategies. This review focuses on the various methods for magnetic labeling of stem cells and other mammalian cells and on how to translate experimental results from bench to bedside.

Iron oxide MR contrast agents for molecular and cellular imaging

Molecular and cellular MR imaging is a rapidly growing field that aims to visualize targeted macromolecules or cells in living organisms. In order to provide a different signal intensity of the target, gadolinium-based MR contrast agents can be employed although they suffer from an inherent high threshold of detectability. Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) particles can be detected at micromolar concentrations of iron, and offer sufficient sensitivity for T2(*)-weighted imaging. Over the past two decades, biocompatible particles have been linked to specific ligands for molecular imaging. However, due to their relatively large size and clearance by the reticuloendothelial system (RES), widespread biomedical molecular applications have yet to be implemented and few studies have been reproduced between different laboratories. SPIO-based cellular imaging, on the other hand, has now become an established technique to label and detect the cells of interest. Imaging of macrophage activity was the initial and still is the most significant application, in particular for tumor staging of the liver and lymph nodes, with several products either approved or in clinical trials. The ability to now also label non-phagocytic cells in culture using derivatized particles, followed by transplantation or transfusion in living organisms, has led to an active research interest to monitor the cellular biodistribution in vivo including cell migration and trafficking. While most of these studies to date have been mere of the 'proof-of-principle' type, further exploitation of this technique will be aimed at obtaining a deeper insight into the dynamics of in vivo cell biology, including lymphocyte trafficking, and at monitoring therapies that are based on the use of stem cells and progenitors.

Feridex labeling of mesenchymal stem cells inhibits chondrogenesis but not adipogenesis or osteogenesis

Magnetic resonance (MR) tracking of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO)-labeled cells is a relatively new technique to non-invasively determine the biodistribution and migration of transplanted stem cells. A number of studies have recently reported encouraging results in the use of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) for repair of a variety of tissues. For MR tracking of SPIO-labeled MSCs, it is important to determine the effect that the magnetic labeling procedure may have on the differentiation capacity of labeled MSCs. Human MSCs were labeled with poly-L-lysine (PLL)-coated Feridex, with Feridex being an FDA-approved SPIO formulation in an off-label application, and assayed for cellular differentiation using five different assays. As compared with unlabeled controls, labeled MSCs exhibited an unaltered viability, proliferated similarly, and underwent normal adipogenic and osteogenic differentiation. However, there was a marked inhibition of chondrogenesis. The blocking of chondrogenic activity was mediated by the Feridex, rather than by the transfection agent (PLL). This is the first report showing Feridex blocking of cellular differentiation down a specific pathway (while not affecting viability and proliferation), and caution should thus be exercised when using Feridex-labeled MSCs for chondrogenic MR tracking studies. On the other hand, no detrimental effects of Feridex-labeling are anticipated for MR-guided osteogenic or adipogenic transplantation studies.

Magnetically labeled insulin-secreting cells

Iron oxide nanoparticles have been shown to magnetically label cells in order to visualize them in vivo via MR imaging. This technology has yet to be implemented in insulin secreting cells, thus it is not known whether the presence of these nanoparticles in the cytoplasm of the cells affects insulin secretion. This study investigates the effectiveness and consequence of labeling mouse insulinoma betaTC3 and betaTC-tet cells with monocrystalline iron oxide nanoparticles (MION). Our data show that MION can be internalized in both betaTC3 and betaTC-tet cells following a 24h exposure to 0.02mg/ml MION solution. The metabolic and secretory activities of both MION-labeled cell lines were statistically indistinguishable from sham treatment. Furthermore, cell viability and apoptosis remained constant throughout the cell's exposure to MION. Finally, MR images demonstrated significant contrast between labeled and sham-treated cells. Thus, labeling murine insulinoma cell lines with magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles does not hinder their insulin secretion, while it provides MR imaging contrast.

Efficient magnetic cell labeling with protamine sulfate complexed to ferumoxides for cellular MRI

Recently, there have been several reports using various superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles to label mammalian cells for monitoring their temporal and spatial migration in vivo by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficiency and toxicity of labeling cells using 2 commercially available Food and Drug Administration (FDA)-approved agents, ferumoxides, a suspension of dextran-coated SPIO used as an MRI contrast agent, and protamine sulfate, conventionally used to reverse heparin anticoagulation but also used ex vivo as a cationic transfection agent. After labeling of human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and hematopoietic (CD34+) stem cells and other mammalian cells with ferumoxides-protamine sulfate complexes (FE-Pro), cellular toxicity, functional capacity, and quantitative cellular iron incorporation were determined. FE-Pro-labeled cells demonstrated no short- or long-term toxicity, changes in differentiation capacity of the stem cells, or changes in phenotype when compared with unlabeled cells. Efficient labeling with FE-Pro was observed with iron content per cell varying between 2.01 +/- 0.1 pg for CD34+ cells and 10.94 +/- 1.86 pg for MSCs with 100% of cells labeled. Cell labeling using these agents should facilitate the translation of this method to clinical trials for evaluation of trafficking of infused or transplanted cells by MRI.

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles: nodal metastases and beyond

Superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles are unique MR contrast agents and are of great interest for their multiple potentials. SPIO nanoparticles have a higher diagnostic accuracy for detecting metastatic lymph nodes than conventional MR studies, particularly in head and neck. The impact of this unique MR contrast agent on treatment decision of patients with head and neck cancer needs to be investigated in comparison with contrast-enhanced CT. As MR technology advances, the accuracy of SPIO nanoparticles for detection of metastasis certainly improves; thus, 1 day we may be able to reliably detect metastases in stage N0 patients, so that treatment strategy is established for each individual patient. This article presents physiologic properties of SPIO, technical considerations and diagnostic accuracy for imaging with SPIO, and other potential applications of SPIO agents.

In Vivo Trafficking and Targeted Delivery of Magnetically Labeled Stem Cells

Targeted delivery of intravenously administered genetically altered cells or stem cells is still in an early stage of investigation. We developed a method of delivering iron oxide (ferumoxide)-labeled mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to a targeted area in an animal model by applying an external magnet. Rats with or without an external magnet placed over the liver were injected intravenously with ferumoxide-labeled MSCs and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) signal intensity (SI) changes, iron concentration, and concentration of MSCs in the liver were monitored at different time points. SI decreased in the liver after injection of MSCs and returned gradually to that of control rat livers at approximately day 29. SI decreases were greater in rats with external magnets. Higher iron concentration and increased labeled cell numbers were detected in rat livers with external magnets. The external magnets influenced the movement of labeled MSCs such that the cells were retained in the region of interest. These results potentially open a new area of investigation for delivering stem cells or genetically altered cells.

Comparison of Transfection Agents in Forming Complexes with Ferumoxides, Cell Labeling Efficiency, and Cellular Viability

By complexing ferumoxides or superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) to transfection agents (TAs), it is possible to magnetically label mammalian cells. There has been no systematic study comparing TAs complexed to SPIO as far as cell labeling efficiency and viability. This study investigates the toxicity and labeling efficiency at various doses of FEs complexed to different TAs in mammalian cells. Different classes of TAs were used, such as polycationic amines, dendrimers, and lipid-based agents. Cellular toxicity was measured using doses of TAs from 1 to 50 microg/mL in incubation media. Iron incorporation efficiency was measured by combining various amounts of FEs and different doses of TAs. Lipofectamine2000 showed toxicity at lowest dose (1 microg/mL), whereas FuGENE6 and low molecular weight poly-L-lysine (PLL) showed the least toxicity. SPIO labeling efficiency was similar with high-molecular-weight PLL (388.1 kDa) and superfect, whereas FuGENE6 and low-molecular-weight PLL were inefficient in labeling cells. Concentrations of 25 to 50 microg/mL of FEs complexed to TAs in media resulted in sufficient endocytosis of the SPIO into endosomes to detect cells on cellular magnetic resonance imaging.

Magnetic resonance imaging of labeled T-cells in a mouse model of multiple sclerosis

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a T cell-mediated autoimmune disease with early lesions characterized by mononuclear cellular infiltrate, edema, demyelination, and axonal loss that contribute to the clinical course of the disease. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in the mouse is a valuable model with a similar disease course to relapsing-remitting MS. The ability to detect the migration of encephalitogenic T cells into the central nervous system in EAE and MS would provide key information on these cells role in the development of lesions observed on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). T cells were labeled for detection by magnetic resonance imaging using Food and Drug Administration-approved, superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Ferumoxides) complexed to poly-L-Lysine (FE-PLL). EAE was induced by adoptive transfer of either labeled or unlabeled T cells. After disease onset, FE-PLL-labeled T cells were detected in the mouse spinal cord using in vivo and ex vivo cellular MRI. Excellent correlation was seen between MRI-visible lesions in the spinal cord and histopathology. The results demonstrate that T cells labeled with FE-PLL can induce EAE disease and can be detected in vivo in the mouse model. The magnetic labeling of cells opens the possibility of monitoring specific cellular phenotypes or pharmacologically or genetically engineered cells by MRI.