Outcomes of Intensive Systolic Blood Pressure Reduction in Patients With Intracerebral Hemorrhage and Excessively High Initial Systolic Blood Pressure: Post Hoc Analysis of a Randomized Clinical Trial

Clinical and subclinical acute brain injury caused by invasive cardiovascular procedures

Over the past 50 years, the number and invasiveness of percutaneous cardiovascular procedures globally have increased substantially. However, cardiovascular interventions are inherently associated with a risk of acute brain injury, both periprocedurally and postprocedurally, which impairs medical outcomes and increases health-care costs. Current international clinical guidelines generally do not cover the area of acute brain injury related to cardiovascular invasive procedures. In this international Consensus Statement, we compile the available knowledge (including data on prevalence, pathophysiology, risk factors, clinical presentation and management) to formulate consensus recommendations on the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of acute brain injury caused by cardiovascular interventions. We also identify knowledge gaps and possible future directions in clinical research into acute brain injury related to cardiovascular interventions.

Screening and identification of differential-expressed RNAs in thrombin-induced in vitro model of intracerebral hemorrhage

Survival of olfactory mucosal mesenchymal stem cells (OM-MSCs) remains the low level in the cerebral microenvironment during intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). This article aims to reveal the differential expression profile of ICH-stimulated OM-MSCs based on whole transcriptome sequence analysis. OM-MSCs were isolated from 6-week C57BL/6 mice. Morphology and surface markers of OM-MSCs were investigated by light microscope and flow cytometry, respectively. OM-MSCs were incubated with 20 U/mL thrombin for 24 h to mimic ICH-induced injury in vitro. Total RNA was extracted for whole transcriptome sequencing and qPCR. OM-MSCs were characterized by negative for CD45 and CD34, and positive for CD44, CD90 and CD29. Thrombin led to decrease in cell viability and increase in senescence and apoptosis in OM-MSCs. In total, 736 lncRNAs (upregulated: 393; downregulated: 343), 21 miRNAs (upregulated: 7; downregulated: 14) and 807 mRNAs (upregulated: 422; downregulated: 385) were identified. GO and KEGG pathways were enriched in protein heterodimerization activity, trans-synaptic signaling, membrane pathway, alcohol metabolic process, organic hydroxy compound biosynthesis process, secondary alcohol metabolic process, alcoholism, neutrophil extracellular trap formation, systemic lupus erythematosus, metabolic process, steroid biosynthesis and drug metabolism-cytochrome P450. 200 lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA were predicted in thrombin-induced OM-MSCs. Based on qPCR, we validated COMMD1B, MOAP1, lncRNA CAPN15, lncRNA ALDH1L2, miR-3473b and miR-1964-3p were upregulated in thrombin-stimulated OM-MSCs, and GM20431, lncRNA GAPDH and miR-122b-3p were downregulated. Our findings provide novel understanding for thrombin-induced injury in OM-MSCs. Differently-expressed RNAs can be the targets of improving therapeutic application of OM-MSCs.

Assessment of Blood Pressure and Heart Rate Related Variables in Acute Stroke Patients Receiving Intravenous Antihypertensive Medication Infusions

BACKGROUND

We performed an analysis of a large intensive care unit electronic database to provide preliminary estimates of various blood pressure parameters in patients with acute stroke receiving intravenous (IV) antihypertensive medication and determine the relationship with in-hospital outcomes.

METHODS

We identified the relationship between pre-treatment and post-treatment systolic blood pressure (SBP) and heart rate (HR)-related variables and in-hospital mortality and acute kidney injury in patients with acute stroke receiving IV clevidipine, nicardipine, or nitroprusside using data provided in the Medical Information Mart for Intensive Care (MIMIC) IV database.

RESULTS

A total of 1830 patients were treated with IV clevidipine (n = 64), nicardipine (n = 1623), or nitroprusside (n = 143). The standard deviations [SDs] of pre-treatment SBP (16.3 vs. 13.7, p ≤ 0.001) and post-treatment SBP (15.4 vs. 14.4, p = 0.004) were higher in patients who died compared with those who survived, particularly in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). The mean SBP was significantly lower post treatment compared with pre-treatment values for clevidipine (130.7 mm Hg vs. 142.5 mm Hg, p = 0.006), nicardipine (132.8 mm Hg vs. 141.6 mm Hg, p ≤ 0.001), and nitroprusside (126.2 mm Hg vs. 139.6 mm Hg, p ≤ 0.001). There were no differences in mean SDs post treatment compared with pre-treatment values for clevidipine (14.5 vs. 13.5, p = 0.407), nicardipine (14.2 vs. 14.6, p = 0.142), and nitroprusside (14.8 vs. 14.8, p = 0.997). The SDs of pre-treatment and post-treatment SBP were not significantly different in patients with ischemic stroke treated with IV clevidipine, nicardipine, or nitroprusside or for patients with ICH treated with IV clevidipine or nitroprusside. However, patients with ICH treated with IV nicardipine had a significantly higher SD of post-treatment SBP (13.1 vs. 14.2, p = 0.0032).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that SBP fluctuations were associated with in-hospital mortality in patients with acute stroke. IV antihypertensive medication reduced SBP but did not reduce SBP fluctuations in this observational study. Our results highlight the need for optimizing therapeutic interventions to reduce SBP fluctuations in patients with acute stroke.

Advances in the medical treatment and diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhage associated with oral anticoagulation

INTRODUCTION

With the increasing prevalence of atrial fibrillation (AF), it entails expanding oral anticoagulants (OACs) use, carrying a higher risk of associated hemorrhagic events, including intracranial hemorrhage (ICH). Despite advances in OACs development with a better safety profile and reversal agent for these anticoagulants, there is still no consensus on the optimal management of patients with OACs-associated ICH.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, the authors have carried out an exhaustive search on the advances in recent years. The authors provide an update on the management of ICH in anticoagulated patients, as well as an update on the latest evidence on anticoagulation resumption, recent therapeutic strategies, and investigational drugs that could play a role in the future.

EXPERT OPINION

Following an ICH event in an anticoagulated patient, a comprehensive clinical evaluation is imperative. Anticoagulation should be promptly withdrawn and reversed. Once the patient is stabilized, a reintroduction of anticoagulation should be considered, typically within a timeframe of 4-8 weeks, if feasible. If re-anticoagulation is not possible, alternative options such as Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion are available.

Suboptimal Cerebral Perfusion is Associated with Ischemia After Intracerebral Hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Remote ischemic lesions on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) occur in one third of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and are associated with worse outcomes. The etiology is unclear and not solely due to blood pressure reduction. We hypothesized that impaired cerebrovascular autoregulation and hypoperfusion below individualized lower limits of autoregulation are associated with the presence of DWI lesions.

METHODS

This was a retrospective, single-center study of all primary ICH with intraparenchymal pressure monitoring within 10 days from onset and subsequent magnetic resonance imaging. Pressure reactivity index was calculated as the correlation coefficient between mean arterial pressure and intracranial pressure. Optimal cerebral perfusion pressure (CPPopt) is the cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) with the lowest corresponding pressure reactivity index. The difference between CPP and CPPopt, time spent below the lower limit of autoregulation (LLA), and time spent above the upper limit of autoregulation (ULA) were calculated by using mean hourly physiologic data. Univariate associations between physiologic parameters and DWI lesions were analyzed by using binary logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 505 h of artifact-free data from seven patients without DWI lesions and 479 h from six patients with DWI lesions were analyzed. Patients with DWI lesions had higher intracranial pressure (17.50 vs. 10.92 mm Hg; odds ratio 1.14, confidence interval 1.01-1.29) but no difference in mean arterial pressure or CPP compared with patients without DWI lesions. The presence of DWI lesions was significantly associated with a greater percentage of time spent below the LLA (49.85% vs. 14.70%, odds ratio 5.77, confidence interval 1.88-17.75). No significant association was demonstrated between CPPopt, the difference between CPP and CPPopt, ULA, LLA, or time spent above the ULA between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Blood pressure reduction below the LLA is associated with ischemia after acute ICH. Individualized, autoregulation-informed targets for blood pressure reduction may provide a novel paradigm in acute management of ICH and require further study.

Effects of Mobile Stroke Unit dispatch on blood pressure management and outcomes in patients with intracerebral haematoma: Results from the Berlin_Prehospital Or Usual Care Delivery in acute Stroke (B_PROUD) controlled intervention study

INTRODUCTION

In patients with acute intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) and elevated systolic blood pressure (BP), guidelines suggest that systolic BP reduction to <140 mmHg should be rapidly initiated. Compared with conventional care, Mobile Stroke Units (MSUs) allow for earlier ICH diagnosis through prehospital imaging and earlier BP lowering.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

ICH patients were prospectively evaluated as a cohort of the controlled B_PROUD-study in which MSU availability alone determined MSU dispatch in addition to conventional ambulance. We used inverse probability of treatment weighting to adjust for confounding to estimate the effect of additional MSU dispatch in ICH patients. Outcomes of interest were 7-day mortality (primary), systolic BP (sBP) at hospital arrival, dispatch-to-imaging time, largest haematoma volume, anticoagulation reversal, length of in-hospital stay, 3-month functional outcome.

RESULTS

Between February 2017 and May 2019, MSUs were dispatched to 95 (mean age: 72 ± 13 years, 45% female) and only conventional ambulances to 78 ICH patients (mean age: 71 ± 12 years, 44% female). After adjusting for confounding, we found shorter dispatch-to-imaging time (mean difference: -17.75 min, 95% CI: -27.16 to -8.21 min) and lower sBP at hospital arrival (mean difference = -16.31 mmHg, 95% CI: -30.64 to -6.19 mmHg) in the MSU group. We found no statistically significant difference for the other outcomes, including 7-day mortality (adjusted odds ratio: 1.43, 95% CI: 0.68 to 3.31) or favourable outcome (adjusted odds ratio = 0.67, 95% CI: 0.27 to 1.67).

CONCLUSIONS

Although MSU dispatch led to sBP reduction and lower dispatch-to-imaging time compared to conventional ambulance care, we found no evidence of better outcomes in the MSU dispatch group.

Mechanistic Evaluation of Diffusion Weighted Hyperintense Lesions After Large Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Subgroup Analysis of MISTIE III

BACKGROUND

Ischemic lesions on diffusion weighted imaging (DWI) are common after acute spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) but are poorly understood for large ICH volumes (> 30 mL). We hypothesized that large blood pressure drops and effect modification by cerebral small vessel disease markers on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are associated with DWI lesions.

METHODS

This was an exploratory analysis of participants in the Minimally Invasive Surgery Plus Alteplase for Intracerebral Hemorrhage Evacuation phase 3 trial with protocolized brain MRI scans within 7 days from ICH. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to assess biologically relevant factors associated with DWI lesions, and relationships between DWI lesions and favorable ICH outcomes (modified Rankin Scale 0-3).

RESULTS

Of 499 enrolled patients, 300 had MRI at median 7.5 days (interquartile range 7-8), and 178 (59%) had DWI lesions. The incidence of DWI lesions was higher in patients with systolic blood pressure (SBP) reduction ≥ 80 mm Hg in first 24 h (76%). In adjusted models, factors associated with DWI lesions were as follows: admission intraventricular hematoma volume (p = 0.03), decrease in SBP ≥ 80 mm Hg from admission to day 1 (p = 0.03), and moderate-to-severe white matter disease (p = 0.01). Patients with DWI lesions had higher odds of severe disability at 1 month (p = 0.04), 6 months (p = 0.036), and 12 months (p < 0.01). No evidence of effect modification by cerebral small vessel disease on blood pressure was found.

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with large hypertensive ICH, white matter disease, intraventricular hemorrhage volume, and large reductions in SBP over the first 24 h were independently associated with DWI lesions. Further investigation of potential hemodynamic mechanisms of ischemic injury after large ICH is warranted.

An interpretable framework to identify responsive subgroups from clinical trials regarding treatment effects: Application to treatment of intracerebral hemorrhage

Randomized Clinical trials (RCT) suffer from a high failure rate which could be caused by heterogeneous responses to treatment. Despite many models being developed to estimate heterogeneous treatment effects (HTE), there remains a lack of interpretable methods to identify responsive subgroups. This work aims to develop a framework to identify subgroups based on treatment effects that prioritize model interpretability. The proposed framework leverages an ensemble uplift tree method to generate descriptive decision rules that separate samples given estimated responses to the treatment. Subsequently, we select a complementary set of these decision rules and rank them using a sparse linear model. To address the trial's limited sample size problem, we proposed a data augmentation strategy by borrowing control patients from external studies and generating synthetic data. We apply the proposed framework to a failed randomized clinical trial for investigating an intracerebral hemorrhage therapy plan. The Qini-scores show that the proposed data augmentation strategy plan can boost the model's performance and the framework achieves greater interpretability by selecting complementary descriptive rules without compromising estimation quality. Our model derives clinically meaningful subgroups. Specifically, we find those patients with Diastolic Blood Pressure≥70 mm hg and Systolic Blood Pressure<215 mm hg benefit more from intensive blood pressure reduction therapy. The proposed interpretable HTE analysis framework offers a promising potential for extracting meaningful insight from RCTs with neutral treatment effects. By identifying responsive subgroups, our framework can contribute to developing personalized treatment strategies for patients more efficiently.

GFAP point-of-care measurement for prehospital diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhage in acute coma

BACKGROUND

Prehospital triage and treatment of patients with acute coma is challenging for rescue services, as the underlying pathological conditions are highly heterogenous. Recently, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) has been identified as a biomarker of intracranial hemorrhage. The aim of this prospective study was to test whether prehospital GFAP measurements on a point-of-care device have the potential to rapidly differentiate intracranial hemorrhage from other causes of acute coma.

METHODS

This study was conducted at the RKH Klinikum Ludwigsburg, a tertiary care hospital in the northern vicinity of Stuttgart, Germany. Patients who were admitted to the emergency department with the prehospital diagnosis of acute coma (Glasgow Coma Scale scores between 3 and 8) were enrolled prospectively. Blood samples were collected in the prehospital phase. Plasma GFAP measurements were performed on the i-STAT Alinity® (Abbott) device (duration of analysis 15 min) shortly after hospital admission.

RESULTS

143 patients were enrolled (mean age 65 ± 20 years, 42.7% female). GFAP plasma concentrations were strongly elevated in patients with intracranial hemorrhage (n = 51) compared to all other coma etiologies (3352 pg/mL [IQR 613-10001] vs. 43 pg/mL [IQR 29-91.25], p < 0.001). When using an optimal cut-off value of 101 pg/mL, sensitivity for identifying intracranial hemorrhage was 94.1% (specificity 78.9%, positive predictive value 71.6%, negative predictive value 95.9%). In-hospital mortality risk was associated with prehospital GFAP values.

CONCLUSION

Increased GFAP plasma concentrations in patients with acute coma identify intracranial hemorrhage with high diagnostic accuracy. Prehospital GFAP measurements on a point-of-care platform allow rapid stratification according to the underlying cause of coma by rescue services. This could have major impact on triage and management of these critically ill patients.

Perioperative stroke

Ischaemic or haemorrhagic perioperative stroke (that is, stroke occurring during or within 30 days following surgery) can be a devastating complication following surgery. Incidence is reported in the 0.1-0.7% range in adults undergoing non-cardiac and non-neurological surgery, in the 1-5% range in patients undergoing cardiac surgery and in the 1-10% range following neurological surgery. However, higher rates have been reported when patients are actively assessed and in high-risk populations. Prognosis is significantly worse than stroke occurring in the community, with double the 30-day mortality, greater disability and diminished quality of life among survivors. Considering the annual volume of surgeries performed worldwide, perioperative stroke represents a substantial burden. Despite notable differences in aetiology, patient populations and clinical settings, existing clinical recommendations for perioperative stroke are extrapolated mainly from stroke in the community. Perioperative in-hospital stroke is unique with respect to the stroke occurring in other settings, and it is essential to apply evidence from other settings with caution and to identify existing knowledge gaps in order to effectively guide patient care and future research.

Manifestations and Outcomes of Intracerebral Hemorrhage During the COVID-19 Pandemic in China: Multicenter, Longitudinal Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic has inevitably affected the distribution of medical resources, and epidemic lockdowns have had a significant impact on the nursing and treatment of patients with other acute diseases, including intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to investigate how the COVID-19 pandemic affected the manifestations and outcomes of patients with ICH.

METHODS

Patients with acute ICH before (December 1, 2018-November 30, 2019) and during (December 1, 2019-November 30, 2020) the COVID-19 pandemic at 31 centers in China from the Chinese Cerebral Hemorrhage: Mechanism and Intervention (CHEERY) study were entered into the analysis. Demographic information and clinical manifestations and outcomes were collected and compared between the 2 groups.

RESULTS

From December 1, 2018, to November 30, 2020, a total of 3460 patients with ICH from the CHEERY study were enrolled and eventually analyzed. The results showed that during the COVID-19 pandemic, patients with ICH were more likely to be older (P<.001) with a history of ischemic stroke (P=.04), shorter time from onset to admission (P<.001), higher blood pressure (P<.001), higher fasting blood glucose (P=.003), larger hematoma volume (P<.001), and more common deep ICH (P=.01) and intraventricular hemorrhage (P=.02). These patients required more intensive care unit treatment (P<.001) and preferred to go to the hospital directly rather than call an ambulance (P<.001). In addition, the COVID-19 pandemic was associated with an increased risk of pulmonary infection during hospitalization (adjusted risk ratio [RRadjusted] 1.267, 95% CI 1.065-1.509), lower probability of a 3-month good outcome (RRadjusted 0.975, 95% CI 0.956-0.995), and a higher probability of in-hospital (RRadjusted 3.103, 95% CI 2.156-4.465), 1-month (RRadjusted 1.064, 95% CI 1.042-1.087), and 3-month (RRadjusted 1.069, 95% CI 1.045-1.093) mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Our study indicated that the cloud of COVID-19 has adversely impacted the presentation and outcomes of ICH. Medical workers may pay more attention to patients with ICH, while the public should pay more attention to hypertension control and ICH prevention.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Chinese Clinical Trial Registry ChiCTR1900020872; https://www.chictr.org.cn/showprojEN.html?proj=33817.

MSCs overexpressing GDNF restores brain structure and neurological function in rats with intracerebral hemorrhage

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have been applied in transplantation to treat intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) but with limited efficacy. Accumulated evidence has shown that glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) plays a crucial part in neuronal protection and functional recovery of the brain after ICH; however, GDNF has difficulty crossing the blood-brain barrier, which limits its application. In this study, we investigated the influences of MSCs overexpressing GDNF (MSCs/GDNF) on the brain structure as well as gait of rats after ICH and explored the possible mechanisms. We found that cell transplantation could reverse the neurological dysfunction and brain damage caused by ICH to a certain extent, and MSCs/GDNF transplantation was superior to MSCs transplantation. Moreover, Transplantation of MSCs overexpressing GDNF effectively reduced the volume of bleeding foci and increased the level of glucose uptake in rats with ICH, which could be related to improving mitochondrial quality. Furthermore, GDNF produced by transplanted MSCs/GDNF further inhibited neuroinflammation, improved mitochondrial quality and function, promoted angiogenesis and the survival of neurons and oligodendrocytes, and enhanced synaptic plasticity in ICH rats when compared with simple MSC transplantation. Overall, our data indicate that GDNF overexpression heightens the curative effect of MSC implantation in treating rats following ICH.

Acute kidney injury in neurocritical care

Approximately 20% of patients with acute brain injury (ABI) also experience acute kidney injury (AKI), which worsens their outcomes. The metabolic and inflammatory changes associated with AKI likely contribute to prolonged brain injury and edema. As a result, recognizing its presence is important for effectively managing ABI and its sequelae. This review discusses the occurrence and effects of AKI in critically ill adults with neurological conditions, outlines potential mechanisms connecting AKI and ABI progression, and highlights AKI management principles. Tailored approaches include optimizing blood pressure, managing intracranial pressure, adjusting medication dosages, and assessing the type of administered fluids. Preventive measures include avoiding nephrotoxic drugs, improving hemodynamic and fluid balance, and addressing coexisting AKI syndromes. ABI patients undergoing renal replacement therapy (RRT) are more susceptible to neurological complications. RRT can negatively impact cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and brain tissue oxygenation, with effects tied to specific RRT methods. Continuous RRT is favored for better hemodynamic stability and lower risk of dialysis disequilibrium syndrome. Potential RRT modifications for ABI patients include adjusted dialysate and blood flow rates, osmotherapy, and alternate anticoagulation methods. Future research should explore whether these strategies enhance outcomes and if using novel AKI biomarkers can mitigate AKI-related complications in ABI patients.

Intracerebral haemorrhage

Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is a dramatic condition caused by the rupture of a cerebral vessel and the entry of blood into the brain parenchyma. ICH is a major contributor to stroke-related mortality and dependency: only half of patients survive for 1 year after ICH, and patients who survive have sequelae that affect their quality of life. The incidence of ICH has increased in the past few decades with shifts in the underlying vessel disease over time as vascular prevention has improved and use of antithrombotic agents has increased. The pathophysiology of ICH is complex and encompasses mechanical mass effect, haematoma expansion and secondary injury. Identifying the causes of ICH and predicting the vital and functional outcome of patients and their long-term vascular risk have improved in the past decade; however, no specific treatment is available for ICH. ICH remains a medical emergency, with prevention of haematoma expansion as the key therapeutic target. After discharge, secondary prevention and management of vascular risk factors in patients remains challenging and is based on an individual benefit-risk balance evaluation.

Association between Mean Arterial Pressure during the First 24 Hours and Clinical Outcome in Critically Ill Stroke Patients: An Analysis of the MIMIC-III Database

Abnormal blood pressure is common in critically ill stroke patients. However, the association between mean arterial pressure (MAP) and mortality of critically ill stroke patients remains unclear. We extracted eligible acute stroke patients from the MIMIC-III database. The patients were divided into three groups: a low MAP group (MAP ≤ 70 mmHg), a normal MAP group (70 mmHg < MAP ≤ 90 mmHg), and a high MAP group (MAP > 90 mmHg). The Cox proportional hazards model and restricted cubic splines were used to assess the association between MAP and mortality. Sensitivity analyses were conducted to investigate whether MAP had different effects on mortality in different subpopulations. A total of 2885 stroke patients were included in this study. The crude 7-day and 28-day mortality was significantly higher in the low MAP group than that in the normal MAP group. By contrast, patients in the high MAP group did not have higher crude 7-day and 28-day mortality than those in the normal MAP group. After multiple adjustments using the Cox regression model, patients with low MAP were consistently associated with higher 7-day and 28-day mortality than those with normal MAP in the following subgroups: age > 60 years, male, those with or without hypertension, those without diabetes, and those without CHD (p < 0.05), but patients with high MAP were not necessarily associated with higher 7-day and 28-day mortality after adjustments (most p > 0.05). Using the restricted cubic splines, an approximately L-shaped relationship was established between MAP and the 7-day and 28-day mortality in acute stroke patients. The findings were robust to multiple sensitivity analyses in stroke patients. In critically ill stroke patients, a low MAP significantly increased the 7-day and 28-day mortality, while a high MAP did not, suggesting that a low MAP is more harmful than a high MAP in critically ill stroke patients.

Neurologic Complications in Patients With Left Ventricular Assist Devices

Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) use has revolutionised the care of patients with advanced heart failure, allowing more patients to survive until heart transplantation and providing improved quality for patients unable to undergo transplantation. Despite these benefits, improvements in device technology, and better clinical care and experience, LVADs are associated with neurologic complications. This review provides information on the incidence, risk factors, and management of neurologic complications among LVAD patients. Although scant guidelines exist for the evaluation and management of neurologic complications in LVAD patients, a high index of suspicion can prompt early detection of neurologic complications which may improve overall neurologic outcomes. A better understanding of the implications of continuous circulatory flow on systemic and cerebral vasculature is necessary to reduce the common occurrence of neurologic complications in this population.

Lower serum cystatin C level predicts poor functional outcome in patients with hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage independent of renal function

We explored the association between the serum level of cystatin C (CysC) at admission and short-term functional outcome in patients with hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage (HICH) without chronic kidney disease (CKD). A total of 555 patients with HICH were consecutively recruited after admission and were followed-up for 3 months after admission. The primary outcome was poor functional outcome (modified Rankin Scale [mRS] score ≥ 3). The median serum CysC level in our cohort was 1.03 mg/L (interquartile range, .89-1.20). Patients were categorized into four groups according to the serum CysC quartiles. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed a negative association between serum CysC and poor functional outcome at 3-month follow-up (quartile [Q]1 vs. Q4: adjusted odds ratio [OR] = .260, 95% confidence interval [CI] = .098, .691, p < .001). The negative association between serum CysC and poor functional outcome at 3 months was more pronounced in subgroups with smaller hematoma volume (≤ 30 mL), and absence of secondary intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH). Addition of serum CysC to a model containing conventional risk factors improved the model performance with net reclassification index (NRI) of .426% (p < .001) and integrated discrimination improvement (IDI) of .043% (p < .001) for poor functional outcome. Serum CysC was found to be a negative predictor of poor short-term functional outcome in HICH patients independent of renal function.

Prehospital Ultra-Early Neurological Deterioration in Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Definition, Prevalence, and Association with Outcomes

INTRODUCTION

The objective of this study was to define prehospital ultra-early neurological deterioration (UND) and to investigate the association with functional outcomes in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

METHODS

We conducted a prospective cohort study of consecutive acute ICH patients. The stroke severity at onset and hospital admission was assessed using the Chongqing Stroke Scale (CQSS), and prehospital UND was defined as a CQSS increase of ≥2 points between symptoms onset and admission. Early neurological deterioration (END) was defined as the increase of ≥4 points in NIHSS score within the first 24 h after admission. Poor outcome was defined as a modified Rankin Scale (mRS) of 4-6 at 3 months.

RESULTS

Prehospital UND occurred in 29 of 169 patients (17.2%). Patients with prehospital UND had a median admission NIHSS score of 17.0 as opposed to those without prehospital UND with a median NIHSS score of 8.5. There were three patterns of neurological deterioration: prehospital UND only in 21 of 169 patients (12.4%), END but without prehospital UND in 20 of 169 patients (11.8%), and continuous neurological deterioration in both phases in 8 patients (4.7%). Prehospital UND was associated with worse 3-month outcomes (median mRS score, 4.0 vs. 2.0, p = 0.002). After adjusting for age, time from onset to admission, END, and systolic blood pressure, prehospital UND was an independent predictor of poor outcome (odds ratio [OR] 3.27, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.26-8.48, p = 0.015).

CONCLUSION

Prehospital UND occurs in approximately 1 in 7 patients between symptom onset and admission and is associated with poor functional outcome in patients with ICH. Further research is needed to investigate the prehospital UND in the prehospital phase in the triage of patients with ICH.

The effect of blood pressure variability on the prognosis of patients with acute cerebral hemorrhage: Possible mechanism

Background

Antihypertensive therapy in the acute phase of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) can reduce hematoma expansion. Numerous studies have demonstrated that blood pressure variability secondary to antihypertensive therapy has adverse effects on neurological outcomes, but the conclusions are diverse, and the mechanism of this occurrence is unknown. The aim of this research was to analyze the impact of blood pressure variability after antihypertensive treatment on the prognosis of patients with acute ICH, along with the possible mechanism.

Materials and methods

A total of 120 patients within 20 h of onset of ICH were divided into a good prognosis group (mRS ≤ 2 points) and a poor prognosis group (mRS ≥ 3 points) according to their 90-day mRS scores. The basic patient information, NIHSS score, GCS score, mRS score at 90 days after admission, head CT examination at admission and 24 h and CTP examination at 24 h were collected from some patients. The blood pressure values of patients were collected within 24 h, and multiple blood pressure variation (BPV) parameters within 1 and 24 h were calculated.

Results

(1) After excluding confounding factors such as age, whether the hematoma ruptured into the ventricle, confounding signs, amount of bleeding, edema around the hematoma, NIHSS on admission, operation or non-operation, and 24-h hematoma increment, the fourth quartile systolic blood pressure (SBP) maximum and minimum difference within 1 h [OR: 5.069, CI (1.036-24.813) P = 0.045] and coefficient of continuous variation (SV) within 24 h [OR: 2.912 CI (1.818-71.728) P = 0.009] were still independent factors affecting the 90-day mRS in ICH patients. (2) There was a negative correlation between SBP SV and CBF in terms of the difference between the contralateral side and the perihematomal region at 24 h (Rs = -0.692, P = 0.013).

Conclusion

Blood pressure variability after antihypertensive therapy in acute ICH is one of the influencing factors for 90-day mRS in patients. A 1-h dramatic drop in SBP and 24-h SBP SV may affect the long-term prognosis of patients by reducing whole cerebral perfusion.

Changes in Cerebral Blood Flow and Diffusion-Weighted Imaging Lesions After Intracerebral Hemorrhage

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a common subtype of stroke and places a great burden on the family and society with a high mortality and disability rate and a poor prognosis. Many findings from imaging and pathologic studies have suggested that cerebral ischemic lesions visualized on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI) in patients with ICH are not rare and are generally considered to be associated with poor outcome, increased risk of recurrent (ischemic and hemorrhagic) stroke, cognitive impairment, and death. In this review, we describe the changes in cerebral blood flow (CBF) and DWI lesions after ICH and discuss the risk factors and possible mechanisms related to the occurrence of DWI lesions, such as cerebral microangiopathy, cerebral atherosclerosis, aggressive early blood pressure lowering, hyperglycemia, and inflammatory response. We also point out that a better understanding of cerebral DWI lesions will be a key step toward potential therapeutic interventions to improve long-term recovery for patients with ICH.

Remote diffusion-weighted imaging lesions and blood pressure variability in primary intracerebral hemorrhage

Objective

The aim of this study was to examine the association between remote diffusion-weighted imaging lesions (R-DWILs) and blood pressure variability (BPV) in patients with primary intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

Methods

We conducted a retrospective review of a consecutive cohort of 375 patients with primary ICH within 24 h onset. R-DWILs were defined as hyperintensity lesions in DWI remote from the hematoma. Blood pressure recordings were extracted up to 24 h post-admission. BPV was measured using SD, coefficient of variation (CV), and successive variation (SV).

Results

Remote DWI lesions were detected in 65 (17.3%) primary ICH patients. In multivariable logistic regression analysis, parameters of BPV were independently associated with R-DWILs, and the results remained consistent after being adjusted with mean SBP. SD, CV, and SV values in the highest quintile, showed 3- to 8-fold increased risk of R-DWILs, compared with the lowest quintile. ΔSBP demonstrated a significant difference in 2 different predictive models. Max SBP only dictated a significant difference in model 1. Mean SBP, admission SBP, and min SBP, failed to present an association with R-DWILs in model 1 or model 2.

Conclusion

Our results provided additional evidence that BPV is associated with the development of R-DWILs in primary ICH.

Optimizing the Time Window of Minimally Invasive Stereotactic Surgery for Intracerebral Hemorrhage Evacuation Combined with Rosiglitazone Infusion Therapy in Rabbits

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to explore the effects of minimally invasive surgery (MIS) in combination with rosiglitazone (RSG) on intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and determine the optimal time window.

METHODS

An ICH rabbit model was constructed using the injection of autologous arterial blood and then treated with RSG, MIS, and MIS combined with RSG at 6, 12, 18, and 24 hours. Thereafter, rabbits that underwent different treatments were used to measure the neurological deficit score, brain water content, and glutamate content. Expression of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CD36 in the different groups was detected using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting. In addition, oxidative stress-related and inflammation-related genes were examined.

RESULTS

Brain computed tomography indicated that an ICH rabbit model was successfully established. Compared to those in the control rabbits, the neurological deficit scores, brain water content, and glutamate content in the ICH rabbits were significantly increased at each time window (P < 0.05), while they were decreased at each time window after MIS combined with RSG treatment and declined to the lowest at 6 hours. Additionally, ICH significantly upregulated PPARγ and CD36 expression (P < 0.05). Moreover, superoxide dismutase content decreased after ICH, and nitric oxide synthase 2, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6, and interleukin-1 beta mRNA expression was upregulated, whereas MIS combined with RSG treatment reversed the levels caused by ICH.

CONCLUSIONS

Evacuation of MIS hematoma combined with RSG infusion at an early stage (6 hours) may attenuate secondary brain damage caused by ICH by regulating the PPARγ/CD36 pathway.

Individualized CT image-guided free-hand catheter technique: A new and reliable method for minimally invasive evacuation of basal ganglia hematoma

Objective

To validate the clinical reliability of an individualized CT image-guided‘ free-hand catheter technique (CTGFC) for basal ganglia hematoma (BGH) evacuation.

Methods

From January 2017 to December 2020, 58 cases of patients with BGH who underwent catheter evacuation were enrolled. The surgery was conducted using the CTGFC (n = 31) or stereotactic catheter technique (STC, n = 27). The authors evaluated the baseline characteristics, operation-related indicators, postoperative complications, hospitalization-related indicators, short-term and long-term functional outcomes, and mortality rate 1 year after surgery.

Results

All patients underwent BGH evacuation under non-general anesthesia in the CTGFC group. The operative time (p &lt; 0.01) and operation costs (p &lt; 0.05) were significantly shorter in the CTGFC group than that in the STC group (p &lt; 0.01). Comparable results were found in the catheter indwelling duration, residual hematoma volume, hematoma evacuation rate, incidence of postoperative complications, hospital ICU stay, and hospital costs between these two groups (p &gt; 0.05). The duration of hospital stay was remarkably shorter in the CTGFC group than that in the STC group (p &lt; 0.01). There were no differences in terms of the short-time functional outcomes score at discharge, including the Glasgow outcome scale (GOS) score, the activities of daily living (ADL) score, and the Karnofsky performance score (KPS). Moreover, comparable findings were also found in the 1-year postoperative GOS score, ADL score, KPS score, and mortality rate between these two groups.

Conclusion

The simple CTGFC-assisted surgery was a safe and reliable option for BGH evacuation, especially in primary medical institutes and emergency situations with limited medical resources.

Systolic Blood Pressure Variability When Transitioning From Intravenous to Enteral Antihypertensive Agents in Patients With Hemorrhagic Strokes

Background/Objective

Systolic blood pressure variability (SBPV) in patients with intracranial hemorrhage (ICH) and subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) is associated with an increased risk of acute kidney injury (AKI) and mortality. SBPV is a strong predictor of poor functional outcomes in patients with ICH. Intravenous (IV) antihypertensive agents are commonly used to achieve sustained target blood pressure goals; however, this is not a feasible long-term option. The transition from IV to enteral antihypertensives is not yet well established in patients with ICH and SAH. This study aimed to assess the effect of the number of antihypertensive agents and overlap time during the transition period from IV to enteral route on SBPV in patients with ICH and SAH.

Methods

This retrospective single-center study was conducted at a tertiary teaching hospital in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Data were extracted from electronic medical records after obtaining Institutional Review Board approval. Patients were included if they were &gt;18 years old, admitted with spontaneous ICH or SAH, and received continuous infusion antihypertensives prior to transitioning to the enteral route. The major outcome was the effect of the number of antihypertensive agents and overlap time on SBPV during the transition process. Minor outcomes included the effect of the number of antihypertensive agents and overlap time on heart rate variability and the incidence of AKI on day 7.

Results

After the screening, we included 102 patients. Based on our regression model, the number of enteral antihypertensive agents upon transitioning from IV to enteral antihypertensive therapy had no effect on SBPV in the intensive care unit (ICU) among our patients (p-value = 0.274). However, the prolonged overlap was associated with reduced SBPV in the ICU (p-value = 0.012). No differences were observed between the groups in heart rate variation or AKI rate.

Conclusions

In patients with ICH and SAH, prolonged overlap of enteral antihypertensive agents to overlap with intravenous antihypertensive therapy may result in lower SBPV. This finding needs to be confirmed on a larger scale with more robust study designs for patients with ICH and SAH.

Review of Long-Term Blood Pressure Control After Intracerebral Hemorrhage: Challenges and Opportunities

Blood pressure (BP) is the most important modifiable risk factor for intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Elevated BP is associated with an increased risk of ICH, worse outcome after ICH, and in survivors, higher risks of recurrent ICH, ischemic stroke, myocardial infarction, and cognitive impairment/dementia. As intensive BP control probably improves the chances of recovery from acute ICH, the early use of intravenous or oral medications to achieve a systolic BP goal of <140 mm Hg within the first few hours of presentation is reasonable for being applied in most patients. In the long-term, oral antihypertensive drugs should be titrated as soon as possible to achieve a goal BP <130/80 mm Hg and again in all ICH patients regardless of age, location, or presumed mechanism of ICH. The degree of sustained BP reduction, rather than the choice of BP-lowering agent(s), is the most important factor for optimizing risk reduction, with varying combinations of thiazide-type diuretics, long-acting calcium channel blockers, ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers, being the mainstay of therapy. As most patients will require multiple BP-lowering agents, and physician inertia and poor adherence are major barriers to effective BP control, single-pill combination therapy should be considered as the choice of management where available. Increased population and clinician awareness, and innovations to solving patient, provider, and social factors, have much to offer for improving BP control after ICH and more broadly across high-risk groups. It is critical that all physicians, especially those managing ICH patients, emphasize the importance of BP control in their practice.

Temporal Trajectory of Systolic Blood Pressure and Outcomes in Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage: ATACH-2 Trial Cohort

BACKGROUND

To highlight the heterogeneity of acute temporal blood pressure (BP) changes in the ATACH-2 trial (Antihypertensive Treatment of Acute Cerebral Hemorrhage-2) and associations with the outcomes of intracerebral hemorrhage.

METHODS

One thousand patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage, who had been randomized to intensive (110-139 mm Hg) or standard (140-179 mm Hg) systolic BP (SBP) lowering with intravenous nicardipine in ATACH-2 from 2011 to 2015, were analyzed about temporal changes in hourly maximum SBP up to 24 hours after randomization using group-based trajectory modeling. Outcomes included death or disability (modified Rankin Scale score 4-6) at 3 months, neurological deterioration within 24 hours (≥2-point decrease in Glasgow Coma Scale score or ≥4-point increase in National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score), and acute kidney injury (≥0.3 mg/dL within 48 hours or ≥1.5-fold increase in serum creatinine) within 7 days after onset.

RESULTS

Group-based trajectory modeling revealed 4 SBP trajectory groups: moderate SBP (from ≈190 mm Hg at hospital arrival to 150-160 mm Hg after randomization; n=298), moderate-to-low SBP (from ≈190 mm Hg to <140 mm Hg; n=395), high-to-low SBP (from >210 mm Hg to <140 mm Hg; n=134), and high SBP (from >210 mm Hg to 160-170 mm Hg; n=173). Patients with intensive treatment accounted for 11.1%, 88.6%, 85.1%, and 1.7% of each group, respectively. Compared with the moderate-to-low SBP group, the high-to-low SBP group showed increased risks of death or disability at 3 months (adjusted odds ratio, 2.29 [95% CI, 1.24-4.26]) and acute kidney injury (adjusted odds ratio, 3.50 [95% CI, 1.83-6.69]), while no increase in neurological deterioration was seen in this group (adjusted odds ratio, 0.48 [95% CI, 0.20-1.13]). The moderate SBP and high SBP groups showed no significant risk differences for such outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Data-driven observation using a group-based trajectory modeling approach may be useful to clarify the relationship between antihypertensive treatment, temporal SBP changes, and outcomes in acute intracerebral hemorrhage.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov; Unique identifier: NCT01176565.

Blood Pressure and Spot Sign in Spontaneous Supratentorial Subcortical Intracerebral Hemorrhage

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is a potentially devastating cause of brain injury, often occurring secondary to hypertension. Contrast extravasation on computed tomography angiography (CTA), known as the spot sign, has been shown to predict hematoma expansion and worse outcomes. Although hypertension has been associated with an increased rate of the spot sign being present, the relationship between spot sign and blood pressure has not been fully explored.

METHODS

We retrospectively analyzed data from 134 patients (40 women and 94 men, mean age 62.3 ± 15.73 years) presenting to a tertiary academic medical center with spontaneous supratentorial subcortical intracerebral hemorrhage from 1/1/2018 to 1/4/2021.

RESULTS

A spot sign was demonstrated in images of 18 patients (13.43%) and correlated with a higher intracerebral hemorrhage score (2.61 ± 1.42 vs. 1.31 ± 1.25, p = 0.002), larger hematoma volume (53.49cm³ ± 32.08 vs. 23.45cm³ ± 25.65, p = 0.001), lower Glasgow Coma Scale on arrival (9.06 ± 4.56 vs. 11.74 ± 3.65, p = 0.027), increased risk of hematoma expansion (16.67% vs. 5.26%, p = 0.042), and need for surgical intervention (66.67% vs. 15.52%, p < 0.001). We did not see a correlation with age, sex, or underlying comorbidities. The presence of spot sign correlated with higher modified Rankin scores at discharge (4.94 ± 1.00 vs. 3.92 ± 1.64, p < 0.001). We saw significantly higher systolic blood pressure at the time of CTA in patients with a spot sign (184 mm Hg ± 43.11 vs. 153 mm Hg ± 36.99, p = 0.009) and the highest recorded blood pressure (p = 0.019), although not blood pressure on arrival (p = 0.081). Performing CTA early in the process of blood pressure lowering was associated with a spot sign (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The presence of spot sign correlates with larger hematomas, worse outcomes, and increased surgical intervention. There is a significant association between spot sign and systolic blood pressure at the time of CTA, with the highest systolic blood pressure being recorded prior to CTA. Although the role of intensive blood pressure management in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage remains a subject of debate, patients with a spot sign may be a subgroup that could benefit from this.

Clinical and Prognostic Characteristics of Recurrent Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Contrast to First-Ever ICH

This study aimed to compare clinical and prognostic characteristics between recurrent and first-ever ICH. Four thousand twelve patients entered the study, and 64% of them were male. The median age is 62 years (interquartile range, 55–71). Among them, 3,750 (93.5%) patients had no experience of previous ICH, and 262 (6.5%) patients were considered as recurrent ICH. We compared demographic data, baseline clinical characteristics, imaging information, hematological parameters, and clinical outcomes between recurrent and first-ever ICH. We found that recurrent ICH was significantly associated with older age, more frequent history of ischemic heart disease, ischemic stroke, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia, while patients with recurrent ICH had previously received more antihypertensive therapy, and showed lower admission blood pressure (median, 160 vs. 167 mmHg) and higher baseline of National Institute of Health stroke scale (NIHSS) score (median, 10 vs. 9). We also demonstrated that recurrent ICH was an independent risk factor of 3-month function dependence after adjusting for many potentially competitive risk factors.

Challenges in the hemodynamic management of acute nontraumatic neurological injuries

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To appraise the evidence from the literature and suggest an integrated hemodynamic approach of early and delayed phases of acute ischemic stroke (AIS), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) and intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH).

RECENT FINDINGS

In AIS, the research aims to evaluate the optimal pressure control before, during and after the revascularization, to optimize the perfusion in the ischemic areas, minimizing the risk of hemorrhage or secondary damage to already infarcted areas. In the early phase of SAH, systemic pressure should be controlled to balance the risk of stroke, hypertension-related rebleeding, and maintenance of cerebral perfusion pressure. The late phase aims to minimize the risk of cerebral vasospasm by adapting systemic pressure and volemia to cerebral and systemic physiological hemodynamic targets. In the mild-to-moderate ICH, achieving SAP of less than 140 mmHg and greater than 110 mmHg may be considered as a beneficial target. Caution should be considered in lowering intensively SAP in severe ICH.

SUMMARY

In nontraumatic brain injuries, the hemodynamic management is strictly related to fluctuating physiology of these diseases, needing a strict control of pressure and flow variable to ensure both cerebral and systemic homeostasis.

Insights into a personalized management of blood pressure in acute stroke

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Blood pressure management in acute stroke has long been a matter of debate. Epidemiological data show that high blood pressure is associated with death, disability and early stroke recurrence, whereas the pathophysiological rationale for ensuring elevated blood pressure in order maintain adequate cerebral perfusion remains a pertinent argument, especially in ischaemic stroke.

RECENT FINDINGS

The European Stroke Organisation Guidelines on blood pressure management in acute ischaemic stroke and intracerebral haemorrhage provide recommendations for the appropriate management of blood pressure in various clinical acute stroke settings.

SUMMARY

In this narrative review, we provide specific updates on blood pressure management in ICH, blood pressure management in the setting of reperfusion therapies for ischaemic stroke, and the evidence for the use of induced hypertension in patients with acute ischaemic stroke in the light of the recent guidelines.

Zebrafish drug screening identifies candidate therapies for neuroprotection after spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage

Despite the global health burden, treatment of spontaneous intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) is largely supportive and translation of specific medical therapies has not been successful. Zebrafish larvae offer a unique platform for drug screening to rapidly identify neuroprotective compounds following ICH. We applied the Spectrum Library compounds to zebrafish larvae acutely after ICH to screen for decreased brain cell death and identified 150 successful drugs. Candidates were then evaluated for possible indications with other cardiovascular diseases. Six compounds were identified including two angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I). Ramipril and quinapril were further assessed to confirm a significant 55% reduction in brain cell death. Proteomic analysis revealed potential mechanisms of neuroprotection. Using the INTERACT2 clinical trial dataset, we demonstrate a significant reduction in the adjusted odds of an unfavourable shift in the modified Rankin Scale at 90 days for patients receiving an ACE-I after ICH (vs. no ACE-I; odds ratio 0.80; 95% confidence interval 0.68-0.95; P=0.009). The zebrafish larval model of spontaneous ICH can be used as a reliable drug screening platform, and has identified therapeutics which may offer neuroprotection.

Ischemia in intracerebral hemorrhage: A comparative study of small-vessel and large-vessel diseases

Objective

This study aimed to compare effects of cerebral small‐vessel disease (cSVD) burden and cerebral artery stenosis (CAS) on acute ischemia in intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) and their interaction with mean arterial pressure (MAP) change.

Methods

We recruited consecutive patients with acute primary ICH. Brain magnetic resonance imaging and angiography were performed to quantify diffusion‐weighted imaging (DWI) lesions, CAS, and cSVD markers, which were calculated for the total cSVD score. Multivariable regression models were adopted to explore their associations by DWI lesions size (<15 vs. ≥15 mm) and median MAP change stratification.

Results

Of 305 included patients (mean age 59.5 years, 67.9% males), 77 (25.2%) had DWI lesions (small, 79.2%; large, 20.8%) and 67 (22.0%) had moderate and severe CAS. In multivariable analysis, small DWI lesions were independently associated with higher total cSVD score (odds ratio [OR] 1.81, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.36–2.41). and large DWI lesions were associated with more severe CAS (OR 2.51, 95% CI 1.17–5.38). This association was modified by MAP change (interaction p = 0.016), with stratified analysis showing an increased risk of large DWI lesions in severe CAS with greater MAP change (≥44 mmHg) (OR 3.48, 95% CI 1.13–10.74) but not with mild MAP change (<44 mmHg) (OR 1.21, 95% CI 0.20–7.34).

Interpretation

Total cSVD burden is associated with small DWI lesions, whereas the degree of CAS is associated with large DWI lesions, specifically with greater MAP change, suggesting that large‐artery atherosclerosis may be involved in ischemic brain injury, which is different from small‐vessel pathogenesis in ICH.

Effect of Moderate and Severe Persistent Hyperglycemia on Outcomes in Patients With Intracerebral Hemorrhage

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

We evaluated the effect of persistent hyperglycemia on outcomes in 1000 patients with intracerebral hemorrhage enrolled within 4.5 hours of symptom onset.

METHODS

We defined moderate and severe hyperglycemia based on serum glucose levels ≥140 mg/dL-<180 and ≥180 mg/dL, respectively, measured at baseline, 24, 48, and 72 hours. Persistent hyperglycemia was defined by 2 consecutive (24 hours apart) serum glucose levels. We evaluated the relationship between moderate and severe hyperglycemia and death or disability (defined by modified Rankin Scale score of 4-6) at 90 days in the overall cohort and in groups defined by preexisting diabetes.

RESULTS

In the multivariate analysis, both moderate (odds ratio, 1.8 [95% CI, 1.1-2.8]) and severe (odds ratio, 1.8 [95% CI, 1.2-2.7]) hyperglycemia were associated with higher 90-day death or disability after adjusting for Glasgow Coma Scale score, hematoma volume, presence or absence of intraventricular hemorrhage, hyperlipidemia, cigarette smoking, and hypertension (no interaction between hyperglycemia and preexisting diabetes, P=0.996). Among the patients without preexisting diabetes, both moderate (odds ratio, 1.8 [95% CI, 1.0-3.2]) and severe (odds ratio, 2.0 [95% CI, 1.1-3.7]) hyperglycemia were associated with 90-day death or disability after adjusting for above mentioned potential confounders. Among the patients with preexisting diabetes, moderate and severe hyperglycemia were not associated with 90-day death or disability.

CONCLUSIONS

Persistent hyperglycemia, either moderate or severe, increased the risk of death or disability in nondiabetic patients with intracerebral hemorrhage.

REGISTRATION

URL: https://www.clinicaltrials.gov; Unique identifier: NCT01176565.

Intensive blood pressure lowering with nicardipine and outcomes after intracerebral hemorrhage: An individual participant data systematic review

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Nicardipine has strong, rapidly acting antihypertensive activity. The effects of acute systolic blood pressure levels achieved with intravenous nicardipine after onset of intracerebral hemorrhage on clinical outcomes were determined.

METHODS

A systematic review and individual participant data analysis of articles before 1 October 2020 identified on PubMed were performed (PROSPERO: CRD42020213857). Prospective studies involving hyperacute intracerebral hemorrhage adults treated with intravenous nicardipine whose outcome was assessed using the modified Rankin Scale were eligible. Outcomes included death or disability at 90 days, defined as the modified Rankin Scale score of 4-6, and hematoma expansion, defined as an increase ≥6 mL from baseline to 24-h computed tomography.

SUMMARY OF REVIEW

Three studies met the eligibility criteria. For 1265 patients enrolled (age 62.6 ± 13.0 years, 484 women), death or disability occurred in 38.2% and hematoma expansion occurred in 17.4%. Mean hourly systolic blood pressure during the initial 24 h was positively associated with death or disability (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.12, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.00-1.26 per 10 mmHg) and hematoma expansion (1.16, 1.02-1.32). Mean hourly systolic blood pressure from 1 h to any timepoint during the initial 24 h was positively associated with death or disability. Later achievement of systolic blood pressure to ≤140 mmHg increased the risk of death or disability (aOR 1.02, 95% CI 1.00-1.05 per hour).

CONCLUSIONS

Rapid lowering of systolic blood pressure by continuous administration of intravenous nicardipine during the initial 24 h in hyperacute intracerebral hemorrhage was associated with lower risks of hematoma expansion and 90-day death or disability without increasing serious adverse events.

Acute Hypertensive Response in Patients With Acute Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Narrative Review

OBJECTIVE

To review the role of the acute hypertensive response in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage, current treatment options, and areas for further research.

METHODS

Review of the literature to assess 1) frequency of acute hypertensive response in intracerebral hemorrhage; 2) consequences of acute hypertensive response in clinical outcomes; 3) acute hypertensive response and secondary brain injury: hematoma expansion and perihematomal edema; 4) vascular autoregulation, safety data side effects of acute antihypertensive treatment; and 5) randomized clinical trials and meta-analyses.

RESULTS

An acute hypertensive response is frequent in patients with acute intracerebral hemorrhage and is associated with poor clinical outcomes. However, it is not clear whether high blood pressure is a cause of poor clinical outcome or solely represents a marker of severity. Although current guidelines recommend intensive blood pressure treatment (<140 mm Hg) in patients with intracerebral hemorrhage, 2 randomized clinical trials have failed to demonstrate a consistent clinical benefit from this approach, and new data suggest that intensive blood pressure treatment could be beneficial for some patients but detrimental for others.

CONCLUSIONS

Intracerebral hemorrhage is a heterogenous disease, thus, a one-fit-all approach for blood pressure treatment may be suboptimal. Further research should concentrate on finding subgroups of patients more likely to benefit from aggressive blood pressure lowering, considering intracerebral hemorrhage etiology, ultra-early randomization, and risk markers of hematoma expansion on brain imaging.

The Story of Intracerebral Hemorrhage: From Recalcitrant to Treatable Disease

This invited special report is based on an award presentation at the World Stroke Organization/European Stroke Organization Conference in November of 2020 outlining progress in the acute management of intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) over the past 35 years. ICH is the second most common and the deadliest type of stroke for which there is no scientifically proven medical or surgical treatment. Prospective studies from the 1990s onward have demonstrated that most growth of spontaneous ICH occurs within the first 2 to 3 hours and that growth of ICH and resulting volumes of ICH and intraventricular hemorrhage are modifiable factors that can improve outcome. Trials focusing on early treatment of elevated blood pressure have suggested a target systolic blood pressure of 140 mm Hg, but none of the trials were positive by their primary end point. Hemostatic agents to decrease bleeding in spontaneous ICH have included desmopressin, tranexamic acid, and rFVIIa (recombinant factor VIIa) without clear benefit, and platelet infusions which were associated with harm. Hemostatic agents delivered within the first several hours have the greatest impact on growth of ICH and potentially on outcome. No large Phase III surgical ICH trial has been positive by primary end point, but pooled analyses suggest that earlier ICH removal is more likely to be beneficial. Recent trials emphasize maximization of clot removal and minimizing brain injury from the surgical approach. The future of ICH therapy must focus on delivery of medical and surgical therapies as soon as possible if we are to improve outcomes.

Acute intracerebral haemorrhage: diagnosis and management

Intracerebral haemorrhage (ICH) accounts for half of the disability-adjusted life years lost due to stroke worldwide. Care pathways for acute stroke result in the rapid identification of ICH, but its acute management can prove challenging because no individual treatment has been shown definitively to improve its outcome. Nonetheless, acute stroke unit care improves outcome after ICH, patients benefit from interventions to prevent complications, acute blood pressure lowering appears safe and might have a modest benefit, and implementing a bundle of high-quality acute care is associated with a greater chance of survival. In this article, we address the important questions that neurologists face in the diagnosis and acute management of ICH, and focus on the supporting evidence and practical delivery for the main acute interventions.