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Grella SL, Donaldson TN. Contextual memory engrams, and the neuromodulatory influence of the locus coeruleus. Front Mol Neurosci 2024; 17:1342622. [PMID: 38375501 PMCID: PMC10875109 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2024.1342622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Here, we review the basis of contextual memory at a conceptual and cellular level. We begin with an overview of the philosophical foundations of traversing space, followed by theories covering the material bases of contextual representations in the hippocampus (engrams), exploring functional characteristics of the cells and subfields within. Next, we explore various methodological approaches for investigating contextual memory engrams, emphasizing plasticity mechanisms. This leads us to discuss the role of neuromodulatory inputs in governing these dynamic changes. We then outline a recent hypothesis involving noradrenergic and dopaminergic projections from the locus coeruleus (LC) to different subregions of the hippocampus, in sculpting contextual representations, giving a brief description of the neuroanatomical and physiological properties of the LC. Finally, we examine how activity in the LC influences contextual memory processes through synaptic plasticity mechanisms to alter hippocampal engrams. Overall, we find that phasic activation of the LC plays an important role in promoting new learning and altering mnemonic processes at the behavioral and cellular level through the neuromodulatory influence of NE/DA in the hippocampus. These findings may provide insight into mechanisms of hippocampal remapping and memory updating, memory processes that are potentially dysregulated in certain psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L. Grella
- MNEME Lab, Department of Psychology, Program in Neuroscience, Loyola University Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Tia N. Donaldson
- Systems Neuroscience and Behavior Lab, Department of Psychology, The University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM, United States
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2
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van der Veldt S, Etter G, Mosser CA, Manseau F, Williams S. Conjunctive spatial and self-motion codes are topographically organized in the GABAergic cells of the lateral septum. PLoS Biol 2021; 19:e3001383. [PMID: 34460812 PMCID: PMC8432898 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3001383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The hippocampal spatial code’s relevance for downstream neuronal populations—particularly its major subcortical output the lateral septum (LS)—is still poorly understood. Here, using calcium imaging combined with unbiased analytical methods, we functionally characterized and compared the spatial tuning of LS GABAergic cells to those of dorsal CA3 and CA1 cells. We identified a significant number of LS cells that are modulated by place, speed, acceleration, and direction, as well as conjunctions of these properties, directly comparable to hippocampal CA1 and CA3 spatially modulated cells. Interestingly, Bayesian decoding of position based on LS spatial cells reflected the animal’s location as accurately as decoding using the activity of hippocampal pyramidal cells. A portion of LS cells showed stable spatial codes over the course of multiple days, potentially reflecting long-term episodic memory. The distributions of cells exhibiting these properties formed gradients along the anterior–posterior and dorsal–ventral axes of the LS, directly reflecting the topographical organization of hippocampal inputs to the LS. Finally, we show using transsynaptic tracing that LS neurons receiving CA3 and CA1 excitatory input send projections to the hypothalamus and medial septum, regions that are not targeted directly by principal cells of the dorsal hippocampus. Together, our findings demonstrate that the LS accurately and robustly represents spatial, directional as well as self-motion information and is uniquely positioned to relay this information from the hippocampus to its downstream regions, thus occupying a key position within a distributed spatial memory network. Calcium imaging of neurons in freely behaving mice reveals how the lateral septum, the main output of the hippocampal place cells, effectively represents information about not only location, but also head direction and self-movement, and may be pivotal in sending this information to downstream brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guillaume Etter
- McGill University & Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Canada
| | - Coralie-Anne Mosser
- McGill University & Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Canada
| | - Frédéric Manseau
- McGill University & Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Canada
| | - Sylvain Williams
- McGill University & Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Canada
- * E-mail:
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3
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Wirtshafter HS, Wilson MA. Lateral septum as a nexus for mood, motivation, and movement. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 126:544-559. [PMID: 33848512 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.03.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The lateral septum (LS) has been implicated in a wide variety of functions, including emotional, motivational, and spatial behavior, and the LS may regulate interactions between the hippocampus and other regions that mediate goal directed behavior. In this review, we suggest that the lateral septum incorporates movement into the evaluation of environmental context with respect to motivation, anxiety, and reward to output an 'integrated movement value signal'. Specifically, hippocampally-derived contextual information may be combined with reinforcement or motivational information in the LS to inform task-relevant decisions. We will discuss how movement is represented in the LS and the literature on the LS's involvement in mood and motivation. We will then connect these results to LS movement-related literature and hypotheses about the role of the lateral septum. We suggest that the LS may communicate a movement-scaled reward signal via changes in place-, movement-, and reward-related firing, and that the LS should be considered a fundamental node of affect and locomotor pathways in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah S Wirtshafter
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
| | - Matthew A Wilson
- Department of Biology, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
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4
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Buzsáki G, Tingley D. Space and Time: The Hippocampus as a Sequence Generator. Trends Cogn Sci 2018; 22:853-869. [PMID: 30266146 PMCID: PMC6166479 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2018.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 07/09/2018] [Accepted: 07/10/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Neural computations are often compared to instrument-measured distance or duration, and such relationships are interpreted by a human observer. However, neural circuits do not depend on human-made instruments but perform computations relative to an internally defined rate-of-change. While neuronal correlations with external measures, such as distance or duration, can be observed in spike rates or other measures of neuronal activity, what matters for the brain is how such activity patterns are utilized by downstream neural observers. We suggest that hippocampal operations can be described by the sequential activity of neuronal assemblies and their internally defined rate of change without resorting to the concept of space or time.
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Affiliation(s)
- György Buzsáki
- Neuroscience Institute, 435 East 30th Street, Langone Medical Center, New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA; Department of Neurology, Langone Medical Center, New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA; Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.
| | - David Tingley
- Neuroscience Institute, 435 East 30th Street, Langone Medical Center, New York University, New York, NY 10016, USA
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5
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Tsanov M. Differential and complementary roles of medial and lateral septum in the orchestration of limbic oscillations and signal integration. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 48:2783-2794. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marian Tsanov
- Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience; Trinity College Dublin; Dublin 2 Ireland
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6
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Grieves RM, Jeffery KJ. The representation of space in the brain. Behav Processes 2017; 135:113-131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2016.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2016] [Revised: 12/09/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Nguyen MN, Matsumoto J, Hori E, Maior RS, Tomaz C, Tran AH, Ono T, Nishijo H. Neuronal responses to face-like and facial stimuli in the monkey superior colliculus. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:85. [PMID: 24672448 PMCID: PMC3955777 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The superficial layers of the superior colliculus (sSC) appear to function as a subcortical visual pathway that bypasses the striate cortex for the rapid processing of coarse facial information. We investigated the responses of neurons in the monkey sSC during a delayed non-matching-to-sample (DNMS) task in which monkeys were required to discriminate among five categories of visual stimuli [photos of faces with different gaze directions, line drawings of faces, face-like patterns (three dark blobs on a bright oval), eye-like patterns, and simple geometric patterns]. Of the 605 sSC neurons recorded, 216 neurons responded to the visual stimuli. Among the stimuli, face-like patterns elicited responses with the shortest latencies. Low-pass filtering of the images did not influence the responses. However, scrambling of the images increased the responses in the late phase, and this was consistent with a feedback influence from upstream areas. A multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of the population data indicated that the sSC neurons could separately encode face-like patterns during the first 25-ms period after stimulus onset, and stimulus categorization developed in the next three 25-ms periods. The amount of stimulus information conveyed by the sSC neurons and the number of stimulus-differentiating neurons were consistently higher during the 2nd to 4th 25-ms periods than during the first 25-ms period. These results suggested that population activity of the sSC neurons preferentially filtered face-like patterns with short latencies to allow for the rapid processing of coarse facial information and developed categorization of the stimuli in later phases through feedback from upstream areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minh Nui Nguyen
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
| | - Jumpei Matsumoto
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
| | - Etsuro Hori
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
| | - Rafael Souto Maior
- Primate Center and Laboratory of Neurosciences and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Carlos Tomaz
- Primate Center and Laboratory of Neurosciences and Behavior, Department of Physiological Sciences, Institute of Biology, University of Brasília Brasilia, Brazil
| | - Anh H Tran
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
| | - Taketoshi Ono
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
| | - Hisao Nishijo
- System Emotional Science, Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Toyama Toyama, Japan
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Selective and graded coding of reward uncertainty by neurons in the primate anterodorsal septal region. Nat Neurosci 2013; 16:756-62. [PMID: 23666181 DOI: 10.1038/nn.3398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Natural environments are uncertain. Uncertainty of emotional outcomes can induce anxiety and raise vigilance, promote and signal the opportunity for learning, modulate economic choice and regulate risk-seeking. Here we demonstrate that a subset of neurons in the anterodorsal region of the primate septum (ADS) are primarily devoted to processing uncertainty in a highly specific manner. Those neurons were selectively activated by visual cues indicating probabilistic delivery of reward (for example, 25%, 50% and 75% reward) and did not respond to cues indicating certain outcomes (0% and 100% reward). The average ADS uncertainty response was graded with the magnitude of reward uncertainty and selectively signaled uncertainty about rewards rather than punishments. The selective and graded information about reward uncertainty encoded by many neurons in the ADS may underlie modulation of uncertainty of value- and sensorimotor-related areas to regulate goal-directed behavior.
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Nguyen MN, Hori E, Matsumoto J, Tran AH, Ono T, Nishijo H. Neuronal responses to face-like stimuli in the monkey pulvinar. Eur J Neurosci 2012; 37:35-51. [DOI: 10.1111/ejn.12020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Revised: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Minh Nui Nguyen
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
| | - Etsuro Hori
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
| | - Jumpei Matsumoto
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
| | - Anh Hai Tran
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
| | - Taketoshi Ono
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
| | - Hisao Nishijo
- System Emotional Science; Graduate School of Medicine and Pharmaceutical Sciences; University of Toyama; Sugitani 2630; Toyama; 930-0194; Japan
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Takamura Y, Tamura R, Zhou TL, Kobayashi T, Tran AH, Eifuku S, Ono T. Spatial firing properties of lateral septal neurons. Hippocampus 2006; 16:635-44. [PMID: 16786557 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The present study describes the spatial firing properties of neurons in the lateral septum (LS). LS neuronal activity was recorded in rats as they performed a spatial navigation task in an open field. In this task, the rat acquired an intracranial self-stimulation reward when it entered a certain place, a location that varied randomly from trial to trial. Of 193 neurons recorded in the LS, 81 showed place-related activity. The majority of the tested neurons changed place-related activity when spatial relations between environmental cues were altered by rotating intrafield (proximal) cues. The comparison of place activities between LS place-related neurons recorded in the present study and hippocampal place cells recorded in our previous study, using identical behavioral and recording procedures, revealed that spatial parameters (spatial information content, coherence, and cluster size) were smaller in the LS than in the hippocampus. Of the 193 LS neurons, 86 were influenced by intracranial self-stimulation rewards; 31 of these 86 were also place-related. These results, together with previous anatomical and behavioral observations, suggest that the spatial information sent from the hippocampus to the LS is modulated by and interacts with signals related to reward in the LS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusaku Takamura
- Department of Integrative Neuroscience, University of Toyama, Toyama 930-0194, Japan
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11
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Hori E, Tabuchi E, Matsumura N, Tamura R, Eifuku S, Endo S, Nishijo H, Ono T. Representation of place by monkey hippocampal neurons in real and virtual translocation. Hippocampus 2003; 13:190-6. [PMID: 12699327 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.10062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The hippocampal formation (HF) is hypothesized as a neuronal substrate of a cognitive map, which represents environmental spatial information by an ensemble of neural activity. However, the relationships between the hippocampal place cells and the cognitive map have not been clarified in monkeys. The present study was designed to investigate how activity patterns of place-selective neurons encode spatial relationships of various environmental stimuli; to do this, we used multidimensional scaling (MDS) for hippocampal neuronal activity in the monkey during the performance of real and virtual translocation. Of 389 neurons recorded from the monkey HF and parahippocampal gyrus (PH), 166 had place fields that displayed increased activity in a specific area of an experimental field and/or on a monitor (place-selective neurons). The MDS transformed relationships among the 16 places in the experimental field and the monitor, expressed as correlation coefficients between all possible pairs of two places based on the 166 place-selective responses, into geometric relationships in a two-dimensional MDS space. In the real translocation tasks, the 16 places were distributed throughout the MDS space, and their relative positions were well correlated to real positions in the experimental laboratory. However, the correlation between the MDS space and real arrangements was significantly smaller in virtual than real translocation tasks. The present results strongly suggest that activity patterns of the HF and PH neurons represent spatial information and might provide a neurophysiological basis for a cognitive map.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuro Hori
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan
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12
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Yonemori M, Nishijo H, Uwano T, Tamura R, Furuta I, Kawasaki M, Takashima Y, Ono T. Orbital cortex neuronal responses during an odor-based conditioned associative task in rats. Neuroscience 2000; 95:691-703. [PMID: 10670436 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(99)00475-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal activity in the rat orbital cortex during discrimination of various odors [five volatile organic compounds (acetophenone, isoamyl acetate, cyclohexanone, p-cymene and 1,8-cineole), and food- and cosmetic-related odorants (black pepper, cheese, rose and perfume)] and other conditioned sensory stimuli (tones, light and air puff) was recorded and compared with behavioral responses to the same odors (black pepper, cheese, rose and perfume). In a neurophysiological study, the rats were trained to lick a spout that protruded close to its mouth to obtain sucrose or intracranial self-stimulation reward after presentation of conditioned stimuli. Of 150 orbital cortex neurons recorded during the task, 65 responded to one or more types of sensory stimuli. Of these, 73.8% (48/65) responded during presentation of an odor. Although the mean breadth of responsiveness (entropy) of the olfactory neurons based on the responses to five volatile organic compounds and air (control) was rather high (0.795), these stimuli were well discriminated in an odor space resulting from multidimensional scaling using Pearson's correlation coefficients between the stimuli. In a behavioral study, a rat was housed in an equilateral octagonal cage, with free access to food and choice among eight levers, four of which elicited only water (no odor, controls), and four of which elicited both water and one of four odors (black pepper, cheese, rose or perfume). Lever presses for each odor and control were counted. Distributions of these five stimuli (four odors and air) in an odor space derived from the multidimensional scaling using Pearson's correlation coefficients based on behavioral responses were very similar to those based on neuronal responses to the same five stimuli. Furthermore, Pearson's correlation coefficients between the same five stimuli based on the neuronal responses and those based on behavioral responses were significantly correlated. The results demonstrated a pivotal role of the rat orbital cortex in olfactory sensory processing and suggest that the orbital cortex is important in the manifestation of various motivated behaviors of the animals, including odor-guided motivational behaviors (odor preference).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Yonemori
- Departments of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Japan
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Abstract
The hippocampal formation (HF) receives the final outputs from all association cortices, and processes and integrates this diverse information. Our neurophysiological data in rats and monkeys suggest active selection of relevant sensory information in the HF. In an open field, rat HF neurons strengthened their sensitivity to more relevant variables among various movement variables such as movement speed, direction, and turning angle based on navigation contexts. The HF place-related activity in the monkey, which rode on a movable cab, became obscure in passive translocation of a monkey by an experimenter. This suggests that the animal actively senses the environment surrounding it during spatial navigation, and that spatial correlates of HF neurons depend on this active sensing. In the monkey septal nuclei that receive hippocampal outputs, some neurons were differential to specific views from 4 specific locations in an experimental room (place-differential responses). Multidimensional scaling (MDS) analysis of place-differential responses indicated that the 4 locations represented in a 2-dimensional virtual space at relative positions were similar to those in the real experimental room. This might be a neurophysiological basis of a cognitive map and path finding. These results are consistent with recent human PET studies that indicated HF involvement in recalling routes and landmarks. Thus, a cognitive mapping system represented in the HF plays a pivotal role in active computation for path finding.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Ono
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sugitani, Toyama, Japan.
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Zhou TL, Tamura R, Kuriwaki J, Ono T. Comparison of medial and lateral septal neuron activity during performance of spatial tasks in rats. Hippocampus 1999; 9:220-34. [PMID: 10401638 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1098-1063(1999)9:3<220::aid-hipo3>3.0.co;2-e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The septal complex, having close and reciprocal connections with the hippocampus, is known to play an important role in learning and memory. Anatomically, the septal complex is divided into the medial and lateral areas (MS and LS). In the present study, in order to elucidate functional differences between the MS and LS, we recorded single unit activity in the MS or LS and electroencephalogram (EEG) in the hippocampus simultaneously while the rats performed the following 2 spatial tasks in an open-field chamber. In task 1, the rat received rewarding intracranial electrical stimulation (ICES) when it entered in a reward place that was set randomly in the open field in each trial. In task 2, the rat received rewarding ICES when it alternately visited two fixed reward places in the open field. Unit activity was analyzed in relation to the pattern of hippocampal EEG, and rat's location, locomotion direction and locomotion speed in the spatial tasks. A total of 47 neurons were recorded in the septal complex (MS, 19; LS, 28). The majority of neurons with activity correlated with hippocampal EEG were found in the MS (14/19). All of the neurons with place-related activity (an increase in unit activity when the rat was in a specific location in the open field) were found in the LS (n = 15). The majority of neurons with direction-related activity were found in the LS (18/23). Twenty-one neurons displayed speed-related activity (MS, 9; LS, 12). The present results indicate that (1) the MS is directly involved in the formation and control of hippocampal EEG patterns, and (2) the LS is important for the processing and integration of spatial information in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- T L Zhou
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Sugitani, Japan
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Font C, Lanuza E, Martinez-Marcos A, Hoogland PV, Martinez-Garcia F. Septal complex of the telencephalon of lizards: III. Efferent connections and general discussion. J Comp Neurol 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19981130)401:4<525::aid-cne6>3.0.co;2-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Font C, Lanuza E, Martinez-Marcos A, Hoogland PV, Martinez-Garcia F. Septal complex of the telencephalon of lizards: III. Efferent connections and general discussion. J Comp Neurol 1998. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1096-9861(19981130)401:4%3c525::aid-cne6%3e3.0.co;2-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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