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Cabral JC, Garcia CM, Solano M, de Almeida RMM. More than a feeling: Effects of competitive asymmetry on human emotions. THE JOURNAL OF GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY 2023; 150:485-511. [PMID: 36579926 DOI: 10.1080/00221309.2022.2160427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Competitive interactions have important effects on human emotions. Both victory and defeat can evoke a wide range of emotional reactions, including joy, pride, anger, fear, sadness and shame. However, little is known about what determines this variety of contestants' affective responses. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of competitive asymmetry, a common and ecologically relevant feature of animal conflicts, on human emotional responses to winning or losing a contest. To test this hypothesis, we conducted two experiments, the first with high school students (n = 331) and the second with young athletes (n = 73), in which we manipulated the outcomes of successive matches in a non-athletic competition. Thus, by inducing the competitors' scores, ranging from closer to more decisive outcomes, we were able to define the degree of competitive asymmetry in victory and defeat conditions. We then assessed participants' emotional responses to a set of affective stimuli. In the defeat condition, we found in both studies an increase in the occurrence of anger and fear due to more symmetric contests. There were also more frequent reports of shame following more decisive defeats (Experiment 1) and of pride following closer victories (Experiment 2), which were seen neither for sadness nor joy in any of the studies. Supporting our hypothesis, emotional reactions triggered by asymmetries among contestants were consistent with the behavioral patterns commonly seen in symmetric and asymmetric animal conflict, such as dominance/aggressive and defensive/escape behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Centurion Cabral
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS)
- Federal University of Rio Grande (FURG)
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2
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Abstract
The cortisol response to social evaluative stress has been well characterized. However, data regarding changes in gonadal hormones after stress are still scarce and inconsistent. The majority of studies have focused on testosterone reactivity to stress in men, while estradiol responses or gonadal stress responses in women have hardly been investigated. Furthermore, it has not been evaluated whether sex hormone reactivity to stress differs between men and women and the relationship between cortisol and gonadal reactivity to stress is still unclear. To address these questions, we re-analyzed saliva samples collected from 37 men and 30 women in their luteal cycle phase before and repeatedly after social-evaluative stress. Both, testosterone and estradiol levels were assessed. In both men and women, testosterone was significantly reduced after stress. Testosterone levels were at their lowest after 20 minutes, but did not return to baseline until 35 minutes after stress. Across the whole sample, estradiol was significantly increased after stress with two separate peaks after 15 and 30 minutes. Follow-up analyses revealed that 41 participants actually responded with a decrease in estradiol levels to stress, with lowest levels after 20 min, while the remaining participants responded with an increase in estradiol levels. These gonadal stress responses appear to be largely independent of the cortisol response to stress. These results demonstrate that the endocrinological stress response is not restricted to the HPA axis and stress responsivity of gonadal hormones is not simply driven by cortisol. Accordingly, the stress responsivity of gonadal hormones and their association to psychological variables is an additional avenue to explore in both men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda Pletzer
- Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
- Centre for Cognitive Neuroscience, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Johannes Klackl
- Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Eva Jonas
- Department of Psychology, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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3
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Bribiescas RG. Evolutionary and Life History Insights into Masculinity and Warfare. CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1086/711688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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4
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Gildner TE. Reproductive hormone measurement from minimally invasive sample types: Methodological considerations and anthropological importance. Am J Hum Biol 2020; 33:e23535. [PMID: 33174269 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.23535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Revised: 10/26/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Energetic investment in human reproduction has long been recognized as costly, influencing developmental, physiological, and behavioral patterns in males and females. These effects are largely coordinated through the actions of reproductive hormones (eg, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone). Here, the utility and limitations of minimally invasive sampling techniques are explored, providing a novel perspective on how reproductive hormone measurements can enhance reproductive endocrinology research. Salivary steroid measures are most commonly used, although several dried blood spot and urine assays are also available, and researchers continue to explore the efficacy of other sample types. These relatively simple measures have facilitated the collection of multiple samples from a single participant, allowing researchers to more accurately track the diurnal and cyclical variation exhibited by many reproductive hormones. Ultimately, the ability to collect fine-grained participant data allows biological anthropologists to better test questions central to human reproductive ecology, life history theory, and public health. For example, fieldwork using these techniques suggests that testosterone profile variation across populations is influenced by energetic constraints and reproductive status. Moreover, hormone concentrations shape the development of sex characteristics, with implications for evolutionary questions related to sexual selection. Hormone levels also can be used to identify a range of medical concerns (eg, suppressed hormone production levels linked with psychosocial stress). These findings highlight how minimally invasive collection techniques can be applied to test diverse evolutionary hypotheses and identify important health concerns. Still, more work is needed to standardize collection and laboratory analysis procedures, thereby enabling more direct data comparisons between researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa E Gildner
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, USA
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5
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Longman DP, Wells JCK, Stock JT. Human athletic paleobiology; using sport as a model to investigate human evolutionary adaptation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 171 Suppl 70:42-59. [PMID: 31957878 PMCID: PMC7217212 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 10/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The use of sport as a conceptual framework offers unprecedented opportunities to improve our understanding of what the body does, shedding new light on our evolutionary trajectory, our capacity for adaptation, and the underlying biological mechanisms. This approach has gained traction over recent years. To date, sport has facilitated exploration not only of the evolutionary history of our species as a whole, but also of human variation and adaptation at the interindividual and intraindividual levels. At the species level, analysis of lower and upper limb biomechanics and energetics with respect to walking, running and throwing have led to significant advances in the understanding of human adaptations relative to other hominins. From an interindividual perspective, investigation of physical activity patterns and endurance running performance is affording greater understanding of evolved constraints of energy expenditure, thermoregulatory energetics, signaling theory, and morphological variation. Furthermore, ultra-endurance challenges provoke functional trade-offs, allowing new ground to be broken in the study of life history trade-offs and human adaptability. Human athletic paleobiology-the recruitment of athletes as study participants and the use of contemporary sports as a model for studying evolutionary theory-has great potential. Here, we draw from examples in the literature to provide a review of how the use of athletes as a model system is enhancing understanding of human evolutionary adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Longman
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health SciencesLoughborough UniversityLoughboroughUK
| | | | - Jay T. Stock
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of Western OntarioLondonOntarioCanada
- Department of ArchaeologyMax Planck Institute for the Science of Human HistoryJenaGermany
- Department of ArchaeologyUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
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6
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Wojtaś J, Karpiński M, Czyżowski P. Salivary Cortisol Interactions in Search and Rescue Dogs and their Handlers. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10040595. [PMID: 32244683 PMCID: PMC7222771 DOI: 10.3390/ani10040595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 03/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Stress affects both people and animals every day. Working dogs are exposed to the same stressors as their handlers during work. Our research was conducted during search and rescue dog exams. The aim of the study was to investigate if handler stress during the exam affects his or her dog’s stress level. We observed a strong relationship of salivary cortisol between the dogs and their handlers, which was most prevalent in female dogs and female handlers. Abstract Search and rescue dogs are an important link in the search for missing persons. The aim of the study was to assess exam stress in search and rescue dogs and their handlers. The study included 41 rescue teams taking exams of field and rubble specialties. The level of cortisol, which is the main glucocorticosteroid modulating stress reactions in humans and dogs, was analyzed. The biological material used to assess the hormone concentration was saliva collected in a non-invasive way. In total, 164 test samples were collected: two from the dog and two from the handler before and immediately after the exam. Rescue exams were shown to significantly increase salivary cortisol in both dogs and their handlers. Strong interactions between cortisol levels in human–dog teams were also found with a more pronounced effect in female dog–female handler dyads.
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Burk CL, Mayer A, Wiese BS. Nail-biters and thrashing wins: Testosterone responses of football fans during World Cup matches. Physiol Behav 2019; 209:112596. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 06/28/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Campbell J, Fiacco S, Ditzen B, Meuwly N, Ehlert U. Endocrine Correlates of Social Comparison in Couple Relationships. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-019-00112-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Rusch TW, Sears MW, Angilletta MJ. Lizards perceived abiotic and biotic stressors independently when competing for shade in terrestrial mesocosms. Horm Behav 2018; 106:44-51. [PMID: 30218647 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2018] [Revised: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 09/10/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hormones such as glucocorticoids and androgens enable animals to respond adaptively to environmental stressors. For this reason, circulating glucocorticoids became a popular biomarker for estimating the quality of an environment, and circulating androgens are frequently used to indicate social dominance. Here, we show that access to thermal resources influence the hormones and behavior of male lizards (Sceloporus jarrovi). We exposed isolated and paired males to different thermal landscapes, ranging from one large patch of shade to sixteen smaller patches. Both the presence of a competitor and the patchiness of the thermal environment influenced hormone concentrations and movement patterns. When shade was concentrated in space, paired lizards competed more aggressively and circulated more corticosterone. Even without competitors, lizards circulated more corticosterone in landscapes with fewer patches of shade. Conversely, shifts in circulating testosterone depended only on the relative body size of a lizard; when paired, large males and small males circulated more and less testosterone, respectively. Furthermore, isolated males moved the farthest and covered the most area when shade was concentrated in a single patch, but paired males did the opposite. Because the total area of shade in each landscape was the same, these hormonal and behavioral responses of lizards reflect the ability to access shade. Thus, circulating glucocorticoids should reflect the thermal quality of an environment when researchers have controlled for other factors. Moreover, a theory of stress during thermoregulation would help ecologists anticipate physiological and behavioral responses to changing climates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Travis W Rusch
- Arizona State University, School of Life Sciences, Tempe, AZ, USA.
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10
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Makhanova A, McNulty JK, Eckel LA, Nikonova L, Maner JK. Sex differences in testosterone reactivity during marital conflict. Horm Behav 2018; 105:22-27. [PMID: 30028987 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 07/14/2018] [Accepted: 07/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
When attempting to resolve relationship problems, individuals in close relationships sometimes challenge their partners with statements that oppose their partners' point of view. Such oppositional behaviors may undermine those partners' relational value and threaten their status within the relationship. We examined whether perceptions of opposition from a partner during a series of problem-solving interactions were associated with reactivity in testosterone levels and whether those associations were different for men and women. Fifty newlywed couples discussed four marital problems. Each member of the couple reported how much oppositional behavior they perceived from their partner during the discussions. Pre- and post-discussion saliva samples were assayed for testosterone. For men, but not for women, perceptions of oppositional behavior were associated with heightened testosterone reactivity, and this result replicated across three different measures of testosterone reactivity. Findings were specific to men's perceptions of oppositional behavior, and held controlling for objective measures of oppositional behavior coded from videos of the conversations. Results highlight the benefits of considering pair-bonded relationships as a novel context for investigating associations involving hormones and behavior. Findings also raise the possibility that sex differentiated hormonal reactions to opposition partly explain why conflict among heterosexual partners can be so divisive.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lisa A Eckel
- Florida State University, United States of America
| | | | - Jon K Maner
- Florida State University, United States of America
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11
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Longman DP, Surbey MK, Stock JT, Wells JCK. Tandem Androgenic and Psychological Shifts in Male Reproductive Effort Following a Manipulated "Win" or "Loss" in a Sporting Competition. HUMAN NATURE (HAWTHORNE, N.Y.) 2018; 29:283-310. [PMID: 30090999 PMCID: PMC6132838 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-018-9323-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Male-male competition is involved in inter- and intrasexual selection, with both endocrine and psychological factors presumably contributing to reproductive success in human males. We examined relationships among men's naturally occurring testosterone, their self-perceived mate value (SPMV), self-esteem, sociosexuality, and expected likelihood of approaching attractive women versus situations leading to child involvement. We then monitored changes in these measures in male rowers (N = 38) from Cambridge, UK, following a manipulated "win" or "loss" as a result of an indoor rowing contest. Baseline results revealed that men with heightened testosterone and SPMV values typically had greater inclinations toward engaging in casual sexual relationships and a higher likelihood of approaching attractive women in a hypothetical social situation. As anticipated, both testosterone and SPMV increased following a manipulated "victory" and were associated with heightened sociosexuality, and increased expectations toward approaching attractive women versus individuals who would involve them in interacting with children after the race. SPMV and self-esteem appeared to mediate some of the effects of testosterone on post-race values. These findings are considered in the broader context of individual trade-offs between mating and parental effort and a model of the concurrent and dynamic androgenic and psychological influences contributing to male reproductive effort and success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P Longman
- Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3QG, UK.
| | - Michele K Surbey
- Department of Psychology, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, 4811, Australia
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jonathan C K Wells
- Childhood Nutrition Research Centre, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, WC1N 1EH, UK
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12
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Nofsinger JR, Patterson FM, Shank CA. Decision-making, financial risk aversion, and behavioral biases: The role of testosterone and stress. ECONOMICS AND HUMAN BIOLOGY 2018; 29:1-16. [PMID: 29413584 DOI: 10.1016/j.ehb.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 01/13/2018] [Accepted: 01/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We examine the relation between testosterone, cortisol, and financial decisions in a sample of naïve investors. We find that testosterone level is positively related to excess risk-taking, whereas cortisol level is negatively related to excess risk-taking (correlation coefficient [r]: 0.75 and -0.21, respectively). Additionally, we find support for the dual-hormone hypothesis in a financial context. Specifically, the testosterone-to-cortisol ratio is significantly related to loss aversion. Individuals with a higher ratio are 3.4 times more likely to sell losing stocks (standard error [SE]: 1.63). Furthermore, we find a positive feedback loop between financial success, testosterone, and cortisol. Specifically, financial success is significantly related to higher post-trial testosterone and cortisol by a factor of 0.53 (SE: 0.14). Finally, we find that in a competitive environment, testosterone level increases significantly, leading to greater risk-taking than in noncompetitive environment. Overall, this study underscores the importance of the endocrine system on financial decision-making. The results of this study are relevant to a broad audience, including investors looking to optimize financial performance, industry human resources, market regulators, and researchers.
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13
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Allen JJ, Anderson CA, Bushman BJ. The General Aggression Model. Curr Opin Psychol 2018; 19:75-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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14
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Strahorn J, Serpell BG, McKune A, Pumpa KL. Effect of Physical and Psychosocial Interventions on Hormone and Performance Outcomes in Professional Rugby Union Players: A Systematic Review. J Strength Cond Res 2017; 31:3158-3169. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Oxford JK, Tiedtke JM, Ossmann A, Özbe D, Schultheiss OC. Endocrine and aggressive responses to competition are moderated by contest outcome, gender, individual versus team competition, and implicit motives. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0181610. [PMID: 28750061 PMCID: PMC5531467 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0181610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
This study examined hormonal responses to competition in relation to gender, social context, and implicit motives. Participants (N = 326) were randomly assigned to win or lose in a 10-round, virtual face-to-face competition, in same-sex individual- and team-competition contexts. Saliva samples, taken before and twice after the competition, were assayed for testosterone (T), estradiol (E), progesterone (P), and cortisol (C). Implicit needs for power (nPower) and affiliation (nAffiliation) were assessed with a picture-story exercise before the competition. Aggression was measured via the volume at which participants set noise blasts for their opponents. Men competing individually and women competing as teams showed similar T increases after winning. C was differentially associated with outcome in the team matches, with higher post-match cortisol for winning women, and an opposite effect for male teams. Analyses including implicit motives indicated that situational variables interacted with motivational needs in shaping hormonal responses to competition: in naturally cycling women, nPower predicted T increases after winning and T and E decreases after losing. In men, nPower predicted T increases after losing and decreases after winning. In male teams, nPower predicted C increases after losing, but not after winning, whereas in individual competitions, nPower was a general negative predictor of C changes in women. nAffiliation predicted P increases for women competing as teams, and P decreases for women competing individually. Aggression was higher in men, losers, and teams than in women, winners, and individuals. High aggression was associated with high baseline C in women competing individually and with low baseline C and C decreases in women competing as teams and in men generally. Our findings suggest that while situational and gender factors play a role in hormonal responses to competition, they also depend on their interplay with motivational factors. They also suggest that while aggression is strongly affected by situational factors in the context of a competition, it has no direct association with motivational and hormonal correlates of dominance (nPower, T, E) and instead is associated with (mostly) low levels of C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon K Oxford
- Behavioral & Social Sciences, Southern Arkansas University, Magnolia, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Johanna M Tiedtke
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Anna Ossmann
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Dominik Özbe
- Department of Psychology, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany
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16
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Page L, Coates J. Winner and loser effects in human competitions. Evidence from equally matched tennis players. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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17
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Henry A, Sattizahn JR, Norman GJ, Beilock SL, Maestripieri D. Performance during competition and competition outcome in relation to testosterone and cortisol among women. Horm Behav 2017; 92:82-92. [PMID: 28428002 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2017.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 03/25/2017] [Accepted: 03/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition. This study investigated the relation between competition, testosterone (T), and cortisol (C) in women. One hundred and twenty female participants competed against a male confederate in a computerized laboratory task. The task was preprogrammed so that half the women won and half of the women lost the competition. T and C concentrations were measured in saliva samples collected at four time points before and after the competition. Accuracy and reaction time during the competition were recorded. T and C increased directly after the competition, though not significantly for C, and then decreased over time regardless of the competition outcome. Regression analyses demonstrated that baseline T was significantly and positively associated with competition accuracy, though only in individuals who were low in C. Individuals who were high in C showed no relation between T and accuracy. This relation was further qualified by competition outcome. Losers of the competition showed a significant positive relation between baseline T levels and competition accuracy, though only if they were low in C. No relation was found between T and accuracy in losers who were high in C. Winners of the competition showed no relation between T and accuracy, regardless of whether C levels were high or low. These results are in line with the dual-hormone hypothesis, whereby the effects of T on status-seeking behaviors are dependent on C levels for individuals whose status is threatened.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Henry
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago, USA; Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, USA.
| | | | - Greg J Norman
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago, USA
| | - Sian L Beilock
- Department of Psychology, The University of Chicago, USA; Committee on Education, The University of Chicago, USA
| | - Dario Maestripieri
- Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, USA; Department of Comparative Human Development, The University of Chicago, USA
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18
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Geniole SN, Bird BM, Ruddick EL, Carré JM. Effects of competition outcome on testosterone concentrations in humans: An updated meta-analysis. Horm Behav 2017; 92:37-50. [PMID: 27720891 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2016] [Revised: 10/03/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition. Since Archer's (2006) influential meta-analysis, there has been a major increase in the number of studies investigating the effect of competition outcome on testosterone reactivity patterns in humans. Despite this increased research output, there remains debate as to whether competition outcome modulates testosterone concentrations. The present paper examines this question using a meta-analytic approach including papers published over the last 35years. Moreover, it provides the first meta-analytic estimate of the effect of competition outcome on testosterone concentrations in women. Results from a meta-analysis involving 60 effect sizes and >2500 participants indicated that winners of a competition demonstrated a larger increase in testosterone concentrations relative to losers (D=0.20)-an effect that was highly heterogeneous. This 'winner-loser' effect was most robust in studies conducted outside the lab (e.g., in sport venues) (D=0.43); for studies conducted in the lab, the effect of competition outcome on testosterone reactivity patterns was relatively weak (D=0.08), and only found in studies of men (D=0.15; in women: D=-0.04). Further, the 'winner-loser' effect was stronger among studies in which pre-competition testosterone was sampled earlier than (D=0.38, after trim and fill correction) rather than within (D=0.09) 10min of the start of the competition. Therefore, these results also provide important insight regarding study design and methodology, and will be a valuable resource for researchers conducting subsequent studies on the 'winner loser' effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shawn N Geniole
- Department of Psychology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada; Neuropsychopharmacology and Biopsychology Unit, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Brian M Bird
- Department of Psychology, Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada; Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Erika L Ruddick
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, North Bay, Ontario, Canada
| | - Justin M Carré
- Department of Psychology, Nipissing University, North Bay, Ontario, Canada.
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Sherman GD, Rice LK, Jin ES, Jones AC, Josephs RA. Sex differences in cortisol's regulation of affiliative behavior. Horm Behav 2017; 92:20-28. [PMID: 28011060 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition. A stress perspective is used to illuminate how competitive defeat and victory shape biology and behavior. We report a field study examining how change in cortisol following perceived defeat (vs. victory) in a competition-in this case, a dog agility competition-relates to affiliative behavior. Following competition, we measured cortisol change and the extent to which dog handlers directed affiliative behaviors toward their dogs. We found striking sex differences in affiliation. First, men were more affiliative toward their dogs after victory, whereas women were more affiliative after defeat. Second, the greater a female competitor's increase in cortisol, the more time she spent affiliating with her dog, whereas for men, the pattern was the exact opposite: the greater a male competitor's increase in cortisol, the less time he spent affiliating with his dog. This pattern suggests that, in the wake of competition, men and women's affiliative behavior may serve different functions-shared celebration for men; shared consolation for women. These sex differences show not only that men and women react very differently to victory and defeat, but also that equivalent changes in cortisol across the sexes are associated with strikingly different behavioral consequences for men and women.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Leslie K Rice
- University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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20
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Eisenegger C, Kumsta R, Naef M, Gromoll J, Heinrichs M. Testosterone and androgen receptor gene polymorphism are associated with confidence and competitiveness in men. Horm Behav 2017; 92:93-102. [PMID: 27702564 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 09/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition. Studies in non-human animals and humans have demonstrated the important role of testosterone in competitive interactions. Here, we investigated whether endogenous testosterone levels predict the decision to compete, in a design excluding spite as a motive underlying competitiveness. In a laboratory experiment with real monetary incentives, 181 men solved arithmetic problems, first under a noncompetitive piece rate, followed by a competition incentive scheme. We also assessed several parameters relevant to competition, such as risk taking, performance, and confidence in one's own performance. Salivary testosterone levels were measured before and 20min after the competition task using mass spectrometry. Participants were also genotyped for the CAG repeat polymorphism of the androgen receptor gene, known to influence the efficacy of testosterone signaling in a reciprocal relationship to the number of CAG repeats. We observed a significant positive association between basal testosterone levels and the decision to compete, and that higher testosterone levels were related to greater confidence in one's own performance. Whereas the number of CAG repeats was not associated with the choice to compete, a lower number of CAG repeats was related to greater confidence in those who chose to compete, but this effect was attributable to the polymorphism's effect on actual performance. An increase in testosterone levels was observed following the experiment, and this increase varied with self-reported high-school math grades. We expand upon the latest research by documenting effects of the androgen system in confidence in one's own ability, and conclude that testosterone promotes competitiveness without spite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Eisenegger
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Biopsychology Unit, Faculty of Psychology, University of Vienna, Austria.
| | - Robert Kumsta
- Department of Genetic Psychology, Faculty of Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany.
| | - Michael Naef
- Department of Economics, Royal Holloway, University of London, United Kingdom
| | - Jörg Gromoll
- Department of Reproductive Medicine, University of Münster, Germany
| | - Markus Heinrichs
- Department of Psychology, Laboratory for Biological and Personality Psychology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany; Freiburg Brain Imaging Center, University Medical Center, University of Freiburg, Germany
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Abstract
A contribution to a special issue on Hormones and Human Competition. The author looks back at his four decades of research on testosterone in the context of biosociology - its accomplishments, pitfalls, outstanding questions, and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allan Mazur
- Maxwell School, Syracuse University, 435 Crouse-Hinds Hall, Syracuse, NY 13244, USA.
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Wade TJ. Evolutionary Theory and African American Self-Perception: Sex Differences in Body-Esteem Predictors of Self-Perceived Physical and Sexual Attractiveness, and Self-Esteem. JOURNAL OF BLACK PSYCHOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1177/0095798403029002001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Evolutionary biological theory has been shown to be relevant to an understanding of how individuals assess others' physical and sexual attractiveness. This research used the Body-Esteem Scale and multiple regression to determine if this theory is also relevant to an understanding of self-perceived physical and sexual attractiveness and self-esteem for a sample of 91 African Americans. The hypotheses that regression models of physical and sexual attractiveness would differ within and across sex groups and that models of self-esteem would differ across sex groups in accordance with evolutionary theory were supported. Attributes of the body related to fecundity and successful mothering characteristics predicted for women and attributes of the body related to strength and dominance predicted for men. In addition, attributes of the body dealing with sexual maturity were stronger predictors of sexual attractiveness for women. This research indicates that evolutionary biological theory can provide relevant insight for an understanding of self-perceived attractiveness and self-esteem for African Americans.
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Tremblay RE, Schaal B, Boulerice B, Arseneault L, Soussignan RG, Paquette D, Laurent D. Testosterone, Physical Aggression, Dominance, and Physical Development in Early Adolescence. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DEVELOPMENT 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/016502598384153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The associations among testosterone, physical development, social dominance, and antisocial behaviour during early adolescence were assessed in a sample of boys followed from 6 to 13 years. Saliva testosterone level was positively correlated with height, and uncorrelated with measures of fatness, including the body mass index. Physical aggression and social dominance were not significantly correlated. Regression analyses revealed that testosterone level and body mass additively predicted social dominance, whereas only body mass predicted physical aggression. Thus, early adolescents with high levels of testosterone were more likely to be socially dominant, especially if they had a large body mass. Those who had a large body mass were more likely to be physically aggressive, independently of their testosterone level. The observed pattern of correlations between testosterone, body mass, dominance, and physical aggression offers an interesting example of the complex hormone-physique-behaviour relations at puberty. They support the hypothesis that testosterone level and social dominance are related, and that the association between testosterone level and physical aggression is probably observed in contexts where physical aggression leads to social dominance.
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Abstract
Testosterone and cortisol figure prominently in the research literature having to do with human competition. In this review, we track the history of this literature, concentrating particularly on major theoretical and empirical contributions, and provide commentary on what we see as important unresolved issues. In men and women, athletic competition is typically associated with an increase in testosterone (T) and cortisol (C). Hormone changes in response to non-athletic competition are less predictable. Person (e.g., power motivation, mood, aggressiveness, social anxiety, sex, and baseline levels of T and C) and context (e.g., whether a competition is won or lost, the closeness of the competition, whether the outcome is perceived as being influenced by ability vs. chance, provocations) factors can influence hormone responses to competition. From early on, studies pointed to a positive relationship between T and dominance motivation/status striving. Recent research, however, suggests that this relationship only holds for individuals with low levels of C - this is the core idea of the dual-hormone hypothesis, and it is certain that the broadest applications of the hypothesis have not yet been realized. Individuals differ with respect to the extent to which they embrace competition, but the hormonal correlates of competitiveness remain largely unexplored. Although rapid increases in both T and C associated with competition are likely adaptive, we still know very little about the psychological benefits of these hormonal changes. Administration studies have and will continue to contribute to this inquiry. We close with a discussion of what, we think, are important methodological and mechanistic issues for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen V Casto
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States
| | - David A Edwards
- Department of Psychology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, United States.
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25
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How the influence of the implicit power motive on negotiation performance can be neutralized by a conflicting explicit affiliation motive. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2015.12.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Cikara M, Van Bavel JJ. The Neuroscience of Intergroup Relations: An Integrative Review. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2015; 9:245-74. [PMID: 26173262 DOI: 10.1177/1745691614527464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 159] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
We review emerging research on the psychological and biological factors that underlie social group formation, cooperation, and conflict in humans. Our aim is to integrate the intergroup neuroscience literature with classic theories of group processes and intergroup relations in an effort to move beyond merely describing the effects of specific social out-groups on the brain and behavior. Instead, we emphasize the underlying psychological processes that govern intergroup interactions more generally: forming and updating our representations of "us" and "them" via social identification and functional relations between groups. This approach highlights the dynamic nature of social identity and the context-dependent nature of intergroup relations. We argue that this theoretical integration can help reconcile seemingly discrepant findings in the literature, provide organizational principles for understanding the core elements of intergroup dynamics, and highlight several exciting directions for future research at the interface of intergroup relations and neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Cikara
- Department of Social and Decision Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA
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Gaviglio CM, Cook CJ. Relationship Between Midweek Training Measures of Testosterone and Cortisol Concentrations and Game Outcome in Professional Rugby Union Matches. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 28:3447-52. [DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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29
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Zilioli S, Mehta PH, Watson NV. Losing the battle but winning the war: Uncertain outcomes reverse the usual effect of winning on testosterone. Biol Psychol 2014; 103:54-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2014.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/30/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Social neuroendocrinology of human aggression: examining the role of competition-induced testosterone dynamics. Neuroscience 2014; 286:171-86. [PMID: 25463514 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 194] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2014] [Revised: 10/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A large body of evidence indicates that individual differences in baseline concentrations of testosterone (T) are only weakly correlated with human aggression. Importantly, T concentrations are not static, but rather fluctuate rapidly in the context of competitive interactions, suggesting that acute fluctuations in T may be more relevant for our understanding of the neuroendocrine mechanisms underlying variability in human aggression. In this paper, we provide an overview of the literature on T and human competition, with a primary focus on the role of competition-induced T dynamics in the modulation of human aggression. In addition, we discuss potential neural mechanisms underlying the effect of T dynamics on human aggression. Finally, we highlight several challenges for the field of social neuroendocrinology and discuss areas of research that may enhance our understanding of the complex bi-directional relationship between T and human social behavior.
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Close Versus Decisive Victory Moderates the Effect of Testosterone Change on Competitive Decisions and Task Enjoyment. ADAPTIVE HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND PHYSIOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s40750-014-0014-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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32
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Vongas JG, Al Hajj R. Competing Sexes, Power, and Testosterone: How Winning and Losing Affect People's Empathic Responses and What this Means for Organisations. APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY-AN INTERNATIONAL REVIEW-PSYCHOLOGIE APPLIQUEE-REVUE INTERNATIONALE 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/apps.12030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John G. Vongas
- John Molson School of Business; Concordia University; Canada
| | - Raghid Al Hajj
- John Molson School of Business; Concordia University; Canada
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Schoel C, Zimmer K, Stahlberg D. The Spatial Power Motivation Scale: a semi-implicit measure of situational power motivation. J Pers Assess 2014; 97:66-80. [PMID: 24815377 DOI: 10.1080/00223891.2014.914524] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
We introduce a new nonverbal and unobtrusive measure to assess power motive activation, the Spatial Power Motivation Scale (SPMS). The unique features of this instrument are that it is (a) very simple and economical, (b) reliable and valid, and (c) sensitive to situational changes. Study 1 demonstrates the instrument's convergent and discriminant validity with explicit measures. Study 2 demonstrates the instrument's responsiveness to situational power motive salience: anticipating and winning competition versus losing competition and watching television. Studies 3 and 4 demonstrate that thoughts of competition result in higher power motivation specifically for individuals with a high dispositional power motive.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christiane Schoel
- a Department of Social Psychology, School of Social Sciences University of Mannheim , Germany
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Relationship Between Pregame Concentrations of Free Testosterone and Outcome in Rugby Union. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014; 9:324-31. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2013-0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose:To assess the measures of salivary free testosterone and cortisol concentrations across selected rugby union matches according to game outcome.Methods:Twenty-two professional male rugby union players were studied across 6 games (3 wins and 3 losses). Hormone samples were taken 40 min before the game and 15 min after. The hormonal data were grouped and compared against competition outcomes. These competition outcomes included wins and losses and a game-ranked performance score (1–6).Results:Across the entire team, pregame testosterone concentrations were significantly higher during winning games than losses (P = 5.8 × 10−5). Analysis by playing position further revealed that, for the backs, pregame testosterone concentrations (P = 3.6 × 10−5) and the testosterone-to-cortisol ratio T:C (P = .038) were significantly greater before a win than a loss. Game-ranked performance score correlated to the team’s pregame testosterone concentrations (r = .81, P = .049). In backs, pregame testosterone (r = .91, P = .011) and T:C (r = .81, P = .05) also correlated to game-ranked performance. Analysis of the forwards’ hormone concentrations did not distinguish between game outcomes, nor did it correlate with game-ranked performance. Game venue (home vs away) only affected postgame concentrations of testosterone (P = .018) and cortisol (P = 2.58 × 10−4).Conclusions:Monitoring game-day concentrations of salivary free testosterone may help identify competitive readiness in rugby union matches. The link between pregame T:C and rugby players in the back position suggests that monitoring weekly training loads and enhancing recovery modalities between games may also assist with favorable performance and outcome in rugby union matches.
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Kruger DJ. Social and Environmental Conditions Intensifying Male Competition for Resources, Status, and Mates Lead to Increased Male Mortality. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-0314-6_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
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Carré JM, Campbell JA, Lozoya E, Goetz SMM, Welker KM. Changes in testosterone mediate the effect of winning on subsequent aggressive behaviour. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2013; 38:2034-41. [PMID: 23587440 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 02/27/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Testosterone concentrations rise rapidly in the context of competitive interactions and remain elevated in winners relative to losers. Theoretical models suggest that this divergent neuroendocrine response serves to mediate future dominance behaviours. Although research in animal models provides compelling support for this model, evidence for its applicability to human social behaviour is limited. In the current study, men and women were randomly assigned to experience a series of victories or defeats, after which aggressive behaviour was assessed using a well-validated behavioural measure. Winning produced elevated testosterone concentrations relative to losing in men, but not women. More importantly, testosterone reactivity to competition mediated the effect of winning on subsequent aggressive behaviour in men, but not women. We discuss limitations of the current study (e.g., the status manipulation may have affected other variables not measured in the study including competitiveness and physical activity expended), as well as discuss a potential neural mechanism underlying the effect of testosterone reactivity on aggressive behaviour.
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Zilioli S, Watson NV. The hidden dimensions of the competition effect: basal cortisol and basal testosterone jointly predict changes in salivary testosterone after social victory in men. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2012; 37:1855-65. [PMID: 22520298 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2012.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Dominance struggles appear to affect hormone concentrations in many mammalian species, such that higher concentrations of testosterone are seen in winners of competitions, compared to losers. This so-called, "competition effect" has received inconsistent empirical support, suggesting that additional psychological (e.g., mood), situational (i.e., nature of the competition) and physiological (e.g., cortisol) variables might intervene in modulating testosterone fluctuations after social contests. We investigated possible interactions between the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) stress axis in predicting transient changes in testosterone after social victory or defeat on a familiar competitive task. In particular, the present study examined the dual-hormone hypothesis - proposing that baseline cortisol potently modulates the competition effect (Mehta and Josephs, 2010) - in a sample of healthy young men engaged in head-to-head competition on a widely played commercial videogame, Tetris. We found a significant interaction between HPG and HPA axes status and the competition effect on testosterone in the randomly assigned videogame winners, such that winners with a pre-competition combination of high baseline testosterone and low baseline cortisol exhibited significantly greater post-competition testosterone concentrations. The randomly assigned videogame losers showed significantly decreased post-competition levels of testosterone. Possible biological and evolutionary mechanisms underlying this phenomenon are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuele Zilioli
- Behavioral Endocrinology Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Simon Fraser University, Canada
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38
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Testosterone and cortisol release among Spanish soccer fans watching the 2010 World Cup final. PLoS One 2012; 7:e34814. [PMID: 22529940 PMCID: PMC3329546 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0034814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This field study investigated the release of testosterone and cortisol of a vicarious winning experience in Spanish fans watching the finals between Spain and the Netherlands in the 2010 FIFA World Cup Soccer. Spanish fans (n = 50) watched the match with friends or family in a public place or at home and also participated in a control condition. Consistent with hypotheses, results revealed that testosterone and cortisol levels were higher when watching the match than on a control day. However, neither testosterone nor cortisol levels increased after the victory of the Spanish team. Moreover, the increase in testosterone secretion was not related to participants' sex, age or soccer fandom, but the increase in total cortisol secretion during the match was higher among men than among women and among fans that were younger. Also, increases in cortisol secretion were greater to the degree that people were a stronger fan of soccer. Level of fandom further appeared to account for the sex effect, but not for the age effect. Generally, the testosterone data from this study are in line with the challenge hypothesis, as testosterone levels of watchers increased to prepare their organism to defend or enhance their social status. The cortisol data from this study are in line with social self-preservation theory, as higher cortisol secretion among young and greater soccer fans suggests that especially they perceived that a negative outcome of the match would threaten their own social esteem.
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Flinn MV, Ponzi D, Muehlenbein MP. Hormonal Mechanisms for Regulation of Aggression in Human Coalitions. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2012; 23:68-88. [DOI: 10.1007/s12110-012-9135-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Adaptive attunement to the sex of individuals at a competition: the ratio of opposite- to same-sex individuals correlates with changes in competitors' testosterone levels. EVOL HUM BEHAV 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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41
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Wood RI, Stanton SJ. Testosterone and sport: current perspectives. Horm Behav 2012; 61:147-55. [PMID: 21983229 PMCID: PMC3264812 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Revised: 09/06/2011] [Accepted: 09/11/2011] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Testosterone and other anabolic-androgenic steroids enhance athletic performance in men and women. As a result, exogenous androgen is banned from most competitive sports. However, due to variability in endogenous secretion, and similarities with exogenous testosterone, it has been challenging to establish allowable limits for testosterone in competition. Endogenous androgen production is dynamically regulated by both exercise and winning in competition. Furthermore, testosterone may promote athletic performance, not only through its long-term anabolic actions, but also through rapid effects on behavior. In women, excess production of endogenous testosterone due to inborn disorders of sexual development (DSD) may convey a competitive advantage. For many years, female competitors have been subject to tests of sexual genotype and phenotype known as gender verification. Although gender verification has not identified any normal man competing as a woman, this process has identified women athletes with DSD. As understanding of DSD has expanded in recent years, women with DSD are increasingly able to continue athletic competition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth I Wood
- Department of Cell and Neurobiology, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA.
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Trawalter S, Chung VS, DeSantis AS, Simon CD, Adam EK. Physiological stress responses to the 2008 U.S. presidential election: The role of policy preferences and social dominance orientation. GROUP PROCESSES & INTERGROUP RELATIONS 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/1368430211428163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study examines physiological stress responses to the 2008 U.S. presidential election. The week before and after Election Day, participants provided three daily saliva samples, assayed for cortisol (a principal “stress hormone”) and testosterone. Results revealed that, on Election Day, all participants on average and Republicans in particular exhibited stunted cortisol and testosterone rhythms, perhaps reflecting participants’ anticipation. After Election Day, participants’ political affiliation was not a strong predictor of physiological responses. Their social dominance orientation—that is, their tolerance of social inequalities—was predictive of responses. Those higher in social dominance orientation had higher cortisol and testosterone morning values. These changes suggest that individuals higher in social dominance orientation were distressed but ready to fight back. The present findings add to an emerging body of work showing that sociopolitical differences can influence biological systems relevant to health and behavior.
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Faurie C, Llaurens V, Alvergne A, Goldberg M, Zins M, Raymond M. Left-Handedness and Male-Male Competition: Insights from Fighting and Hormonal Data. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.1177/147470491100900307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Male-male competition can shape some behavioral or morphological traits of males. Here we investigate if this competition could play a role in the persistence of the polymorphism of handedness in human populations. A negative frequency-dependent selection mechanism has been hypothesized, based on the fact that left-handed men may benefit from a “surprise” advantage during fighting interactions because they are rare in human populations. This advantage may thereby enhance the probability of survival of left-handed men and/or their reproductive success through an increase in social status. In this study, we first explored the association between hand preference and lifetime fighting behavior in a population of 1,161 French men. No effect of hand preference on the probability of fighting was detected, suggesting that the innate propensity to fight does not differ between left- and right-handers. However, among men who had been involved in at least one fight during their lifetime, left-handers reported significantly more fights than right-handers. To explore the biological basis of this behavior, we also investigated the testosterone concentration in saliva samples from 64 French university students. Consistent with frequencies of fights, we found a significantly higher average testosterone concentration in left-handers than in right-handers. We suggest that these behavioral and hormonal differences may be acquired throughout life due to previous experiences in a social context and may favor the persistence of left-handers in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Faurie
- CNRS, Institute of Evolutionary Sciences, Université de Montpellier 2, Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Violaine Llaurens
- CNRS, Institute of Evolutionary Sciences, Université de Montpellier 2, Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Alexandra Alvergne
- Human Evolutionary Ecology Group, Department of Anthropology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcel Goldberg
- INSERM Unit 687 –IFR 69, Hôpital National de Saint-Maurice, Saint-Maurice cedex, France
| | - Marie Zins
- INSERM Unit 687 –IFR 69, Hôpital National de Saint-Maurice, Saint-Maurice cedex, France
| | - Michel Raymond
- CNRS, Institute of Evolutionary Sciences, Université de Montpellier 2, Montpellier cedex 5, France
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Schoofs D, Wolf OT. Are salivary gonadal steroid concentrations influenced by acute psychosocial stress? A study using the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST). Int J Psychophysiol 2011; 80:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2010] [Revised: 01/11/2011] [Accepted: 01/12/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Differential changes in steroid hormones before competition in bonobos and chimpanzees. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:12457-62. [PMID: 20616027 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1007411107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
A large body of research has demonstrated that variation in competitive behavior across species and individuals is linked to variation in physiology. In particular, rapid changes in testosterone and cortisol during competition differ according to an individual's or species' psychological and behavioral responses to competition. This suggests that among pairs of species in which there are behavioral differences in competition, there should also be differences in the endocrine shifts surrounding competition. We tested this hypothesis by presenting humans' closest living relatives, chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and bonobos (Pan paniscus), with a dyadic food competition and measuring their salivary testosterone and cortisol levels. Given that chimpanzees and bonobos differ markedly in their food-sharing behavior, we predicted that they would differ in their rapid endocrine shifts. We found that in both species, males showed an anticipatory decrease (relative to baseline) in steroids when placed with a partner in a situation in which the two individuals shared food, and an anticipatory increase when placed with a partner in a situation in which the dominant individual obtained more food. The species differed, however, in terms of which hormone was affected; in bonobo males the shifts occurred in cortisol, whereas in chimpanzee males the shifts occurred in testosterone. Thus, in anticipation of an identical competition, bonobo and chimpanzee males showed differential endocrine shifts, perhaps due to differences in perception of the situation, that is, viewing the event either as a stressor or a dominance contest. In turn, common selection pressures in human evolution may have acted on the psychology and the endocrinology of our competitive behavior.
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The Relationships between Symmetry and Attractiveness and Mating Relevant Decisions and Behavior: A Review. Symmetry (Basel) 2010. [DOI: 10.3390/sym2021081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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DeSoto MC, Hitlan RT, Deol RSS, McAdams D. Testosterone Fluctuations in Young Men: The Difference between Interacting with like and Not-Like others. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY 2010. [DOI: 10.1177/147470491000800203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study investigated young men's testosterone level changes as a result of interacting with other men. Male participants ( n = 84) were led to believe that a group they would be interacting with was either similar to them or not similar. The interaction was then one of two types: the other group members were inclusive, or the others excluded the participant during the group interaction. Participants provided saliva samples before and after the interaction. Results suggest that interacting with highly similar men increases circulating testosterone whereas interacting with highly dissimilar men actually lowers testosterone. The nature of the interaction was less important than similarity. Considering that testosterone surges may relate to attempts to gain status within one's group, the results are interpreted as consistent with viewing hormonal changes as a mechanism to alter current behavioral propensities in ways that are likely to be most adaptive. Exploratory analyses suggest a methodologically interesting suppressor effect of the self-report items in predicting testosterone changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Catherine DeSoto
- Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
| | - Robert T. Hitlan
- Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
| | - Rory-Sean S. Deol
- Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
| | - Derrick McAdams
- Department of Psychology, University of Northern Iowa, Cedar Falls, Iowa, USA
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Coates JM, Gurnell M, Sarnyai Z. From molecule to market: steroid hormones and financial risk-taking. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2010; 365:331-43. [PMID: 20026470 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2009.0193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the role of the endocrine system in financial decision-making. Here, we survey research on steroid hormones and their cognitive effects, and examine potential links to trader performance in the financial markets. Preliminary findings suggest that cortisol codes for risk and testosterone for reward. A key finding of this endocrine research is the different cognitive effects of acute versus chronic exposure to hormones: acutely elevated steroids may optimize performance on a range of tasks; but chronically elevated steroids may promote irrational risk-reward choices. We present a hypothesis suggesting that the irrational exuberance and pessimism observed during market bubbles and crashes may be mediated by steroid hormones. If hormones can exaggerate market moves, then perhaps the age and sex composition among traders and asset managers may affect the level of instability witnessed in the financial markets.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Coates
- Judge Business School, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1AG, UK.
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Sagarin BJ, Cutler B, Cutler N, Lawler-Sagarin KA, Matuszewich L. Hormonal changes and couple bonding in consensual sadomasochistic activity. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2009; 38:186-200. [PMID: 18563549 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-008-9374-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2006] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/22/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
In two studies, 58 sadomasochistic (SM) practitioners provided physiological measures of salivary cortisol and testosterone (hormones associated with stress and dominance, respectively) and psychological measures of relationship closeness before and after participating in SM activities. Observed activities included bondage, sensory deprivation, a variety of painful and pleasurable stimulation, verbal and non-verbal communication, and expressions of caring and affection. During the scenes, cortisol rose significantly for participants who were bound, receiving stimulation, and following orders, but not for participants who were providing stimulation, orders, or structure. Female participants who were bound, receiving stimulation, and following orders also showed increases in testosterone during the scenes. Thereafter, participants who reported that their SM activities went well showed reductions in physiological stress (cortisol) and increases in relationship closeness. Among participants who reported that their SM activities went poorly, some showed decreases in relationship closeness whereas others showed increases. The increases in relationship closeness combined with the displays of caring and affection observed as part of the SM activities offer support for the modern view that SM, when performed consensually, has the potential to increase intimacy between participants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad J Sagarin
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL 60115, USA.
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Pound N, Penton-Voak IS, Surridge AK. Testosterone responses to competition in men are related to facial masculinity. Proc Biol Sci 2009; 276:153-9. [PMID: 18796396 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2008.0990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Relationships between androgens and the size of sexually dimorphic male traits have been demonstrated in several non-human species. It is often assumed that a similar relationship exists for human male faces, but clear evidence of an association between circulating testosterone levels and the size of masculine facial traits in adulthood is absent. Here we demonstrate that, after experimentally determined success in a competitive task, men with more a masculine facial structure show higher levels of circulating testosterone than men with less masculine faces. In participants randomly allocated to a 'winning' condition, testosterone was elevated relative to pre-task levels at 5 and 20 min post-task. In a control group of participants allocated to a 'losing' condition there were no significant differences between pre- and post-task testosterone. An index of facial masculinity based on the measurement of sexually dimorphic facial traits was not associated with pre-task (baseline) testosterone levels, but was associated with testosterone levels 5 and 20 min after success in the competitive task. These findings indicate that a man's facial structure may afford important information about the functioning of his endocrine system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Pound
- Department of Psychology, School of Social Sciences, Brunel University, Uxbridge UB8 3PH, UK.
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