Cognitive rehabilitation for memory deficits after stroke

Evaluating practice effects across learning trials - ceiling effects or something more?

BACKGROUND

Practice effects (PE) are traditionally considered improvements in performance observed resulting from repeated exposure to test materials across multiple testing sessions. While PE are commonly observed for memory tests, this effect has only been considered in summary total scores. The current objective was to consider PE in summary total scores, individual learning trials, and learning slopes.

METHOD

One-week PE for individual trial and learning slope performance was examined on the BVMT-R and HVLT-R in 151 cognitively intact participants and 131 participants with Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) aged 65 years and older.

RESULTS

One-week PE were observed across all trials and summary total scores for both memory measures and diagnostic classifications, despite the potential for ceiling effects to limit improvement on retesting. PE were largest on the first trial relative to subsequent learning trials. This effect was diminished - but not eliminated - in participants with MCI. Conversely, no PE were observed for learning slope scores, which was counter to expectations and likely confounded by ceiling effects.

CONCLUSIONS

PE were present across learning trials but not learning slopes, and the initial learning trial at follow-up tended to benefit most from PE relative to subsequent learning trials. Ceiling effects appeared to influence PE for learning slopes more than learning trials. These results highlight the potential diagnostic utility of PE across individual learning trials and inform how they are distributed at follow-up, while also suggesting that learning slopes may be generally stable during longitudinal assessment.

Brain activation patterns in patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment during working memory task: a functional near-infrared spectroscopy study

Objective

To explore the activation patterns in the frontal cortex of patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment during the execution of working memory tasks.

Methods

15 patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment, 17 patients without cognitive impairment, and 15 healthy controls of similar age and sex were included. All participants under-went immediate recall task testing and near-infrared spectroscopy imaging to measure frontal cortex activation during the task.

Results

The healthy control group performed the best in the immediate recall task, followed by the post-stroke non-cognitive impairment group. The post-stroke cognitive impairment group had the poorest performance. The near-infrared spectroscopy results revealed that during the immediate recall task, the healthy control group primarily activated the left frontal lobe region. In contrast, post-stroke patients exhibited reduced activation in the left frontal lobe and increased activation in the right frontal cortex, particularly in the right frontopolar and orbitofrontal regions, with the post-stroke cognitive impairment group displaying the most pronounced changes.

Conclusion

Patients with post-stroke cognitive impairment exhibit reduced activation in the left prefrontal cortex during the working memory tasks. They rely on compensatory activation in the right prefrontal cortex, particularly in the frontopolar and orbitofrontal cortex, to successfully complete the task.

A literature review of outcome and treatment options after acquired brain injury: Suggestions for adult offenders using knowledge from the general population

BACKGROUND

Acquired brain injury (ABI) is a major health problem, often with negative effects on behaviour and mental health as well as cognition. Prevalence of ABI is exceptionally high among offenders and increases their re-offending risk. Information on risk factors for ABI and its outcomes among offenders that could guide effective treatment for them is, nevertheless, scarce and dispersed. However, there is a more substantial literature about the general population that could inform work with brain-injured offenders, especially when selecting for samples or subgroups with similar relevant characteristics, such as lower socio-economic status (SES), pre-injury lower tested intelligence score (<85) and pre-injury mental health problems.

AIMS

To explore brain injury data from non-offender samples of otherwise similar socio-economic and mental health and ability characteristics to offenders then, first, to describe their untreated outcomes and, secondly, outcomes after frequently used interventions in these circumstances, noting factors associated with their effectiveness.

METHOD

Three databases were systematically searched for the years 2010-2022; first, using terms for brain injury or damage and cognitive (dys)function, mental health or quality of life. Second, in a separate search, we used these terms and terms for interventions and rehabilitation. In the second review, studies were selected for clear, distinguishable data on age, sex, SES and lifestyle factors to facilitate inferences for offenders. A narrative analytical approach was adopted for both reviews.

RESULTS

Samples with characteristics that are typical in offender groups, including lower SES, lower pre-injury intelligence quotient (<85), prior cognitive impairments and prior mental health problems, had poorer cognitive and behavioural outcomes following ABI than those without such additional problems, together with lower treatment adherence. With respect to treatment, adequate motivation and self-awareness were associated with better cognitive and behavioural outcomes than when these were low or absent, regardless of the outcome measured.

CONCLUSIONS

More complex pre-injury mental health problems and social disadvantages typical of offenders are associated with poorer post-brain injury recovery. This paper adds to practical knowledge by bringing together work that follows specific outcome trajectories. Overall, succesful ABI-interventions in the general population that aim at pre-injury difficulties comparable to those seen among offenders, show that personalising injury-specific treatments and taking account of these difficulties, maximised positive outcomes.

Psychological interventions for mood and cognition after stroke and transient ischaemic attack: A protocol for an umbrella review

Background

People who have had a stroke or a Transient Ischaemic Attack (TIA) can experience psychological and/or cognitive difficulties. The body of research for psychological and neuropsychological interventions after stroke is growing, however, published systematic reviews vary in scope and methodology, with different types and severity of strokes included, and at times, diverse conclusions drawn about the effectiveness of the interventions evaluated. In this umbrella review, we aim to systematically summarise the existing systematic reviews evaluating psychological interventions for mood and cognition post-stroke/TIA.

Methods

We will conduct this umbrella review according to the JBI Manual for Evidence Synthesis. The following databases will be searched from inception: Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Database of Reviews of Effects (DARE), MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Epistemonikos. Systematic reviews with or without meta-analysis published until the search date will be included. Reviews including psychological interventions addressing mood and/or cognition outcomes for any stroke type or severity will be screened for eligibility. A narrative synthesis, including content analysis, will be used. Each stage of the review will be processed by two independent reviewers and a third reviewer will be considered to resolve disagreements. The methodological quality of the included reviews will be assessed using AMSTAR 2.

Discussion

Existing systematic reviews provide varied evidence on the effectiveness of psychological interventions post-stroke/TIA. This umbrella review aims to summarise knowledge and evidence on different types of psychological and neuropsychological interventions targeting mood and cognition. Findings will highlight important knowledge gaps and help prioritise future research questions.

Systematic Review Registration

This protocol was prospectively registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) on November 15, 2022; PROSPERO CRD42022375947.

Transparency in Cognitive Training Meta-analyses: A Meta-review

Meta-analyses often present flexibility regarding their inclusion criteria, outcomes of interest, statistical analyses, and assessments of the primary studies. For this reason, it is necessary to transparently report all the information that could impact the results. In this meta-review, we aimed to assess the transparency of meta-analyses that examined the benefits of cognitive training, given the ongoing controversy that exists in this field. Ninety-seven meta-analytic reviews were included, which examined a wide range of populations with different clinical conditions and ages. Regarding the reporting, information about the search of the studies, screening procedure, or data collection was detailed by most reviews. However, authors usually failed to report other aspects such as the specific meta-analytic parameters, the formula used to compute the effect sizes, or the data from primary studies that were used to compute the effect sizes. Although some of these practices have improved over the years, others remained the same. Moreover, examining the eligibility criteria of the reviews revealed a great heterogeneity in aspects such as the training duration, age cut-offs, or study designs that were considered. Preregistered meta-analyses often specified poorly how they would deal with the multiplicity of data or assess publication bias in their protocols, and some contained non-disclosed deviations in their eligibility criteria or outcomes of interests. The findings shown here, although they do not question the benefits of cognitive training, illustrate important aspects that future reviews must consider.

Role of the SARS-CoV-2 Virus in Brain Cells

COVID-19, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, can have neurological effects, including cognitive symptoms like brain fog and memory problems. Research on the neurological effects of COVID-19 is ongoing, and factors such as inflammation, disrupted blood flow, and damage to blood vessels may contribute to cognitive symptoms. Notably, some authors and existing evidence suggest that the SARS-CoV-2 virus can enter the central nervous system through different routes, including the olfactory nerve and the bloodstream. COVID-19 infection has been associated with neurological symptoms such as altered consciousness, headaches, dizziness, and mental disorders. The exact mechanisms and impact on memory formation and brain shrinkage are still being studied. This review will focus on pathways such as the olfactory nerve and blood-brain barrier disruption, and it will then highlight the interactions of the virus with different cell types in the brain, namely neurons, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, and microglia.

The effect of processing speed on verbal and visual memory of adults with a chronic acquired brain injury

OBJECTIVE

Memory problems are among the most frequently reported cognitive complaints by individuals with an acquired brain injury (ABI). Processing speed and working memory deficits are often the result of ABI. These cognitive deficits significantly impact the acquisition and retention of information necessary for memory formation. This study investigated the influence of processing speed and working memory on immediate and delayed recall for verbal and visual memory, as well as overall memory recall in adults living with a chronic ABI.

METHODS

Sixty-three participants living with a chronic ABI, who were at least one-year post-injury, were cognitively assessed with the CNS-Vital Signs (CNS-VS) computerized cognitive battery and Wechsler Test of Adult Reading.

RESULTS

The CNS-VS Processing Speed significantly predicted delayed recall for verbal memory and overall memory performance. The CNS-VS Working Memory was not a significant predictor of memory recall.

CONCLUSIONS

Processing speed deficits negatively impact memory in individuals with a chronic ABI. These findings suggest the memory recall of adults with a chronic ABI is associated with poor processing speed and poor acquisition of information. Therefore, cognitive rehabilitation that improves processing speed should be the focus for individuals with ABI to improve memory performance as well as impaired processing speed.

Delivery of Neuropsychological Interventions for Adult and Older Adult Clinical Populations: An Australian Expert Working Group Clinical Guidance Paper

Delivery of neuropsychological interventions addressing the cognitive, psychological, and behavioural consequences of brain conditions is increasingly recognised as an important, if not essential, skill set for clinical neuropsychologists. It has the potential to add substantial value and impact to our role across clinical settings. However, there are numerous approaches to neuropsychological intervention, requiring different sets of skills, and with varying levels of supporting evidence across different diagnostic groups. This clinical guidance paper provides an overview of considerations and recommendations to help guide selection, delivery, and implementation of neuropsychological interventions for adults and older adults. We aimed to provide a useful source of information and guidance for clinicians, health service managers, policy-makers, educators, and researchers regarding the value and impact of such interventions. Considerations and recommendations were developed by an expert working group of neuropsychologists in Australia, based on relevant evidence and consensus opinion in consultation with members of a national clinical neuropsychology body. While the considerations and recommendations sit within the Australian context, many have international relevance. We include (i) principles important for neuropsychological intervention delivery (e.g. being based on biopsychosocial case formulation and person-centred goals); (ii) a description of clinical competencies important for effective intervention delivery; (iii) a summary of relevant evidence in three key cohorts: acquired brain injury, psychiatric disorders, and older adults, focusing on interventions with sound evidence for improving activity and participation outcomes; (iv) an overview of considerations for sustainable implementation of neuropsychological interventions as 'core business'; and finally, (v) a call to action.

Combined Cognitive and Psychological Interventions Improve Meaningful Outcomes after Acquired Brain Injury: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Interventions addressing cognitive and emotional difficulties after acquired brain injury (ABI) often focus on specific impairments in cognition or mood. These interventions can be effective at addressing their specific target, but do not routinely translate to improved activity and participation outcomes. Approaches that combine cognitive and psychological rehabilitation are increasingly popular; however, to date, there have been no systematic evaluations of their efficacy. We conducted a systematic review of five databases, searching for randomised controlled trials of adults with diagnoses of non-progressive ABI at least 1-month post injury, in receipt of interventions that combined cognitive and psychological components compared to any control. Screening and data extraction were evaluated by two independent reviewers using a standardised protocol. Effect sizes were calculated using Hedge's g and estimated using a random-effects model. Risk of bias was assessed using the PEDro-P rating system, and quality of evidence evaluated using the grading of recommendation, assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) approach. Thirteen studies were included in the meta-analysis (n = 684). There was an overall small-to-medium effect (g = 0.42) for combined interventions compared with controls, with gains maintained at 6-month follow-up. Improvements were observed at the level of impairment, activity, participation and quality of life. GRADE ratings and analyses investigating sensitivity, heterogeneity and publication bias indicated that these effects were robust. No a priori variables moderated these effects. Overall, this review provides strong evidence that combined cognitive and psychological interventions create meaningful change in the lives of people with ABI.

Occupational therapy for persons with cognitive impairments

Background

Damage to the central nervous system can occur in adulthood, for example, due to stroke, trauma, tumours, or chronic diseases. After damage to the central nervous system, cognitive impairments occur in addition to physical limitations. Occupational therapy is most often prescribed for neurological diagnoses, including stroke and traumatic brain injury.

Methods

The health technology assessment (HTA) report this HTA article is based on investigates the clinical effectiveness, cost-effectiveness, and patient-related, social and ethical aspects of occupational therapy for patients with cognitive impairments compared to no occupational therapy. In addition, the effects of different occupational therapy interventions with and without cognitive components were compared in an explorative overview. Patients with moderate or severe dementia are excluded from the assessment. Systematic overviews, that is, systematic reviews of systematic reviews, were conducted.

Results

For the evaluation of clinical effectiveness, a total of nine systematic reviews were included. No systematic review was identified for the assessment of costs or cost-effectiveness. Five systematic reviews were included for the assessment of patient and social aspects. For the assessment of clinical effectiveness compared with no occupational therapy, five systematic reviews comprising 20 randomised controlled trials with a total of 1,316 subjects reported small positive effects for the outcomes "global cognitive function" and "activities of daily living" as well as a non-quantified positive effect on the outcomes "health-related quality of life" and "behavioural control". No effect was found for individual components of cognition and measures of perception. The quality of the evidence for all outcomes is low due to a high risk of bias. In the supplementary presentations, no positive effects could be demonstrated on the basis of the available evidence. The quality of this evidence was not assessed. For the assessment of patient and social aspects, five systematic reviews on patients with a stroke or a traumatic brain injury - without specification regarding cognitive deficits or studies with their relatives - were included. It was reported that patients and family caregivers go through different phases of rehabilitation in which the discharge home is a decisive turning point. The discharge home represents a crucial breaking point. Regaining an active, self-determining role is a process that requires therapists to find the right level of support for patients and relatives. For the assessment of ethical aspects, nine documents were included. We identified ethical problem-solving models for occupational therapy and 16 ethical aspects in occupational therapy for cognitive deficits. The central theme of the analysis is the limited autonomy due to the consequences of the disease as well as the resulting tensions with those treating the patient.

Conclusions

Based on this systematic overview, it can neither be proven nor excluded with certainty that occupational therapy for cognitive impairment is an effective therapy for adult patients with central nervous system injuries compared to no occupational therapy. There is a lack of randomised trials with sufficient sample size, well-defined interventions, and comparable concomitant therapies in the control groups, but there is also a lack of well-designed observational studies in routine care and health economic studies. The identified systematic reviews on patient and social aspects provide information on the needs of patients after stroke or traumatic brain injury and their relatives, but there is a lack of studies on this aspect in German-speaking countries. For the ethical assessment, in addition to the identified theoretical models for solving ethical conflicts in occupational therapy, more empirical studies on ethical aspects with patients with cognitive deficits and their relatives as well as occupational therapists are needed.

Outcomes in Patients with Minor Stroke: Diagnosis and Management in the Post-thrombectomy Era

In the era of mechanical thrombectomy and better preventative strategies, a higher number of patients are being discharged home from the hospital with the so-called minor strokes. This has significantly changed the landscape of stroke recovery. Unfortunately, while symptoms may be categorized as mild compared to individuals with higher NIH Stroke Scale scores, the physical, cognitive, and emotional sequelae can be disabling and result in failure to return to work and poor quality of life in a population with significant potential to recover fully. In this review, we discuss the current state of minor stroke, the most common pattern of resulting deficits, what is known about the underlying pathophysiology that leads to a relatively global pattern of impaired cognition following an infarct in any location, and special considerations for treatment based on this population's unique needs. Raising awareness of the current morbidity associated with minor stroke, the need for a uniform definition that allows for comparisons of individuals across studies, and further research focused on this population to optimize outcomes, has the potential to significantly improve recovery.

Dual-task versus single-task gait rehabilitation after stroke: the protocol of the cognitive-motor synergy multicenter, randomized, controlled superiority trial (SYNCOMOT)

BACKGROUND

Gait disorders and cognitive impairments are prime causes of disability and institutionalization after stroke. We hypothesized that relative to single-task gait rehabilitation (ST GR), cognitive-motor dual-task (DT) GR initiated at the subacute stage would be associated with greater improvements in ST and DT gait, balance, and cognitive performance, personal autonomy, disability, and quality of life in the short, medium and long terms after stroke.

METHODS

This multicenter (n=12), two-arm, parallel-group, randomized (1:1), controlled clinical study is a superiority trial. With p<0.05, a power of 80%, and an expected loss to follow-up rate of 10%, the inclusion of 300 patients will be required to evidence a 0.1-m.s-1 gain in gait speed. Trial will include adult patients (18-90 years) in the subacute phase (0 to 6 months after a hemispheric stroke) and who are able to walk for 10 m (with or without a technical aid). Registered physiotherapists will deliver a standardized GR program (30 min three times a week, for 4 weeks). The GR program will comprise various DTs (phasic, executive function, praxis, memory, and spatial cognition tasks during gait) in the DT (experimental) group and gait exercises only in the ST (control) group. The primary outcome measure is gait speed 6 months after inclusion. The secondary outcomes are post-stroke impairments (National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale and the motor part of the Fugl-Meyer Assessment of the lower extremity), gait speed (10-m walking test), mobility and dynamic balance (timed up-and-go test), ST and DT cognitive function (the French adaptation of the harmonization standards neuropsychological battery, and eight cognitive-motor DTs), personal autonomy (functional independence measure), restrictions in participation (structured interview and the modified Rankin score), and health-related quality of life (on a visual analog scale). These variables will be assessed immediately after the end of the protocol (probing the short-term effect), 1 month thereafter (the medium-term effect), and 5 months thereafter (the long-term effect).

DISCUSSION

The main study limitation is the open design. The trial will focus on a new GR program applicable at various stages after stroke and during neurological disease.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

NCT03009773 . Registered on January 4, 2017.

Machine learning-based prediction of clinical outcomes after first-ever ischemic stroke

Background

Accurate prediction of clinical outcomes in individual patients following acute stroke is vital for healthcare providers to optimize treatment strategies and plan further patient care. Here, we use advanced machine learning (ML) techniques to systematically compare the prediction of functional recovery, cognitive function, depression, and mortality of first-ever ischemic stroke patients and to identify the leading prognostic factors.

Methods

We predicted clinical outcomes for 307 patients (151 females, 156 males; 68 ± 14 years) from the PROSpective Cohort with Incident Stroke Berlin study using 43 baseline features. Outcomes included modified Rankin Scale (mRS), Barthel Index (BI), Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE), Modified Telephone Interview for Cognitive Status (TICS-M), Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) and survival. The ML models included a Support Vector Machine with a linear kernel and a radial basis function kernel as well as a Gradient Boosting Classifier based on repeated 5-fold nested cross-validation. The leading prognostic features were identified using Shapley additive explanations.

Results

The ML models achieved significant prediction performance for mRS at patient discharge and after 1 year, BI and MMSE at patient discharge, TICS-M after 1 and 3 years and CES-D after 1 year. Additionally, we showed that National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) was the top predictor for most functional recovery outcomes as well as education for cognitive function and depression.

Conclusion

Our machine learning analysis successfully demonstrated the ability to predict clinical outcomes after first-ever ischemic stroke and identified the leading prognostic factors that contribute to this prediction.

Effectiveness and safety of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on memory disorder in stroke: A protocol for systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Approximately 23% to 55% of patients have memory impairments with a greatly negative effect on daily life 3 months after stroke. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) has been widely used in the rehabilitation of stroke as it is safe, painless, and noninvasive. Moreover, few studies have investigated the effect of rTMS on poststroke memory disorder (PSMD). However, the efficacy of rTMS is not consistent and the optional stimulation frequency is unclear. Therefore, this protocol aims to evaluate the clinical effect and safety of rTMS on PSMD by analyzing results from randomized controlled trials.

METHODS

Search strategies will be performed on seven databases: PubMed, EMBASE, CENTRAL, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database (CBM), Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wan Fang, and Technology Periodical Database (VIP). Only randomized controlled trials registered before August 2021 will be included. Additionally, the language will be limited to English or Chinese. For the outcome, we will focus on the Rivermead Behavioral Memory Test. Additionally, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Mini-mental State Examination, Modified Barthel Index, and advent events will be included. Two authors will independently select the study, extract data, and assess quality. Moreover, disagreements will be resolved by the third author. STATA 14 and Review Manager 5.4 will be used to perform the analysis. We will evaluate bias risk in accordance with the Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions. To assess the quality of evidence, the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation method will be employed.

RESULTS

This study will provide a comprehensive analysis of the current evidence on rTMS for PSMD.

CONCLUSION

A reliable conclusion regarding whether rTMS is an effective and safe intervention for patients with PSMD and the effect of stimulation frequency and sham stimulation will be provided. This study will provide new insights for TMS in treating PSMD, and offer appropriate treatmentoptions to patients and clinicians.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42021282439.

Multicomponent Educational-Rehabilitation Approach in Rehabilitation of Patients After Stroke

Rehabilitation must be based on the individual needs and specific goals of the person and must be adapted to his abilities. According to the recommendation of the World Stroke Organization, the team involved in conducting rehabilitation should be multidisciplinary. One of the treatments that are applied within the multidisciplinary approach to a neurological patient is educational-rehabilitation treatment, which is multicomponent in nature. Before starting educational-rehabilitation treatment, an educational-rehabilitation clinical assessment is necessary, which aims to detect difficulties caused by impairment; identify potentials and constraints in these areas; determine the specifics, course, and forecasts of difficulties; formulate clear treatment recommendations; form a watch list that will be available to all team members in the process of diagnosis, treatment, education, and to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment; and continuously monitor the ability and adaptive behavior of the person. Educational-rehabilitation clinical treatment includes treatment of cognitive abilities, treatment of motor skills, relaxation, treatment of adaptive skills, as well as informing the person about the disease and counseling. This review focuses on some aspects of rehabilitation such as treatment of cognitive and motor disorders, treatment of adaptive skills, relaxation issues, and informing and counseling patients from the perspective of an educational rehabilitator with practical experiences in this area of rehabilitation.

Chinese version of the auditory verbal learning test: normative study and clinical applications in Chinese-speaking population in Shijiazhuang city

OBJECTIVE

The purposes were to establish standardized values for the Auditory Verbal Learning Test (AVLT) in the communities of Shijiazhuang city (China), with particular focus on the influences of age, education and sex, and to detect the discriminant validity data of the AVLT in patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS).

METHODS

406 Chinese-speaking subjects (age: 50-84 years old) from Shijiazhuang city, were brought into this study. Using linear regression analyses, standardized values were developed for three variables of interest, including scores on short-term memory (sum of AVLT trials 1-3), delayed recall (AVLT trial 4), and an index representing recognition memory corrected for false-positive identifications (AVLT trial 5). 177 patients with AIS were included to probe the discriminant validity of the AVLT.

RESULTS

The linear regression analysis showed statistically significant effect of age and sex on all trials of the AVLT. Years of education contributed significantly to trial 1-3 and trial 4 but not trial 5. Based on the results obtained, trail 1-3 and trail 4 of AVLT norms were stratified by age (3 strata), education (2 strata), and sex (2 strata). Trail 5 norms were stratified by age (3 strata) and sex (2 strata). Moreover, AIS groups performed significantly worse on most AVLT trials than matched cognitively healthy controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Normative data stratified by age, education and sex for the Chinese-speaking community-residents in Shijiazhuang was presented for use in research and clinical settings. The AVLT measures adequately differentiated between the cognitive performance (especially memory decline) of healthy adults and patients with AIS.

Memory rehabilitation: restorative, specific knowledge acquisition, compensatory, and holistic approaches

Memory impairment following an acquired brain injury can negatively impact daily living and quality of life—but can be reduced by memory rehabilitation. Here, we review the literature on four approaches for memory rehabilitation and their associated strategies: (1) the restorative approach, aimed at a return to pre-morbid functioning, (2) the knowledge acquisition approach, involving training on specific information relevant to daily life, (3) the compensatory approach, targeted at improving daily functioning, and (4) the holistic approach, in which social, emotional, and behavioral deficits are addressed alongside cognitive consequences of acquired brain injury. Each memory rehabilitation approach includes specific strategies such as drill and practice (restorative), spaced retrieval (knowledge acquisition), memory aids (compensatory), or a combination of psychotherapy and cognitive strategies (holistic). Past research has demonstrated mixed support for the use of restorative strategies to improve memory function, whereas knowledge acquisition strategies show promising results on trained tasks but little generalization to untrained tasks and activities of daily living. Compensatory strategies remain widely used but require intensive training to be effectively employed. Finally, the holistic approach is becoming more widespread due to improvements in psychosocial wellbeing, yet there are considerable resource and cost requirements. Several factors can influence rehabilitation outcomes including metacognition and emotional disturbances. Considerations for future research to improve the applicability of strategies for memory rehabilitation include assessing memory impairment severity, examining memory needs in daily life, and exploring the long-term effects of memory rehabilitation.

Prospective Memory Training in Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Prospective memory (PM), which enables one to remember to carry out delayed intentions, is crucial for everyday functioning. PM commonly deteriorates upon cognitive decline in older adults, but several studies have shown that PM in older adults can be improved by training. The current study aimed to summarise this evidence by conducting a qualitative systematic analysis and quantitative meta-analysis of the effects of PM training in older adults, for which systematic searches were conducted across seven databases (Cochrane Library, Embase, PubMed, PsycInfo, Web of Science, CINAHL and Scopus). Forty-eight studies were included in the qualitative analysis, and 43% of the assessed PM training interventions showed positive gains in enhancing PM. However, the methodological quality varied across the studies, with 41% of the non-randomised control trials (non-RCTs) rated as having either serious or critical risk of bias. Therefore, only 29 RCTs were included in the subsequent quantitative meta-analysis. We found a significant and moderate immediate efficacy (Hedges' g = 0.54) of PM training in enhancing PM performance in older adults, but no significant long-term efficacy (Hedges' g = 0.21). Two subgroup analyses also revealed a robust training efficacy across the study population (i.e., healthy and clinical population) and the number of training sessions (i.e., single session and programme-based). Overall, this study provided positive evidence to support PM training in older adults. Further studies are warranted to explore the mechanisms by which PM training exerts its effects, and better-quality RCTs are needed to provide more robust evidence supporting our findings.

Occupational therapy for cognitive impairment in stroke patients

BACKGROUND

Cognitive impairment is a frequent consequence of stroke and can impact on a person's ability to perform everyday activities. Occupational therapists use a range of interventions when working with people who have cognitive impairment poststroke. This is an update of a Cochrane Review published in 2010.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the impact of occupational therapy on activities of daily living (ADL), both basic and instrumental, global cognitive function, and specific cognitive abilities in people who have cognitive impairment following a stroke.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group Trials Register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, four other databases (all last searched September 2020), trial registries, and reference lists.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised and quasi-randomised controlled trials that evaluated an intervention for adults with clinically defined stroke and confirmed cognitive impairment. The intervention needed either to be provided by an occupational therapist or considered within the scope of occupational therapy practice as defined in the review. We excluded studies focusing on apraxia or perceptual impairments or virtual reality interventions as these are covered by other Cochrane Reviews. The primary outcome was basic activities of daily living (BADL) such as dressing, feeding, and bathing. Secondary outcomes were instrumental ADL (IADL) (e.g. shopping and meal preparation), community integration and participation, global cognitive function and specific cognitive abilities (including attention, memory, executive function, or a combination of these), and subdomains of these abilities. We included both observed and self-reported outcome measures.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently selected studies that met the inclusion criteria, extracted data, and assessed the certainty of the evidence. A third review author moderated disagreements if consensus was not reached. We contacted trial authors for additional information and data, where available. We assessed the certainty of key outcomes using GRADE.  MAIN RESULTS: We included 24 trials from 11 countries involving 1142 (analysed) participants (two weeks to eight years since stroke onset). This update includes 23 new trials in addition to the one study included in the previous version. Most were parallel randomised controlled trials except for one cross-over trial and one with a two-by-two factorial design. Most studies had sample sizes under 50 participants. Twenty studies involved a remediation approach to cognitive rehabilitation, particularly using computer-based interventions. The other four involved a compensatory and adaptive approach. The length of interventions ranged from 10 days to 18 weeks, with a mean total length of 19 hours. Control groups mostly received usual rehabilitation or occupational therapy care, with a few receiving an attention control that was comparable to usual care; two had no intervention (i.e. a waiting list). Apart from high risk of performance bias for all but one of the studies, the risk of bias for other aspects was mostly low or unclear.  For the primary outcome of BADL, meta-analysis found a small effect on completion of the intervention with a mean difference (MD) of 2.26 on the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.17 to 4.22; P = 0.03, I2 = 0%; 6 studies, 336 participants; low-certainty evidence). Therefore, on average, BADL improved by 2.26 points on the FIM that ranges from 18 (total assist) to 126 (complete independence). On follow-up, there was insufficient evidence of an effect at three months (MD 10.00, 95% CI -0.54 to 20.55; P = 0.06, I2 = 53%; 2 studies, 73 participants; low-certainty evidence), but evidence of an effect at six months (MD 11.38, 95% CI 1.62 to 21.14, I2 = 12%; 2 studies, 73 participants; low-certainty evidence). These differences are below 22 points which is the established minimal clinically important difference (MCID) for the FIM for people with stroke. For IADL, the evidence is very uncertain about an effect (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.94, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.47; P = 0.0005, I2 = 98%; 2 studies, 88 participants). For community integration, we found insufficient evidence of an effect (SMD 0.09, 95% CI -0.35 to 0.54; P = 0.68, I2 = 0%; 2 studies, 78 participants). There was an improvement of clinical importance in global cognitive functional performance after the intervention (SMD 0.35, 95% CI 0.16 to 0.54; P = 0.0004, I2 = 0%; 9 studies, 432 participants; low-certainty evidence), equating to 1.63 points on the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (95% CI 0.75 to 2.52), which exceeds the anchor-based MCID of the MoCA for stroke rehabilitation patients of 1.22. We found some effect for attention overall (SMD -0.31, 95% CI -0.47 to -0.15; P = 0.0002, I2 = 20%; 13 studies, 620 participants; low-certainty evidence), equating to a difference of 17.31 seconds (95% CI 8.38 to 26.24), and for executive functional performance overall (SMD 0.49, 95% CI 0.31 to 0.66; P < 0.00001, I2 = 74%; 11 studies, 550 participants; very low-certainty evidence), equating to 1.41 points on the Frontal Assessment Battery (range: 0-18). Of the cognitive subdomains, we found evidence of effect of possible clinical importance, immediately after intervention, for sustained visual attention (moderate certainty) equating to 15.63 seconds, for working memory (low certainty) equating to 59.9 seconds, and thinking flexibly (low certainty), compared to control.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

The effectiveness of occupational therapy for cognitive impairment poststroke remains unclear. Occupational therapy may result in little to no clinical difference in BADL immediately after intervention and at three and six months' follow-up. Occupational therapy may slightly improve global cognitive performance of a clinically important difference immediately after intervention, likely improves sustained visual attention slightly, and may slightly increase working memory and flexible thinking after intervention. There is evidence of low or very low certainty or insufficient evidence for effect on other cognitive domains, IADL, and community integration and participation.  Given the low certainty of much of the evidence in our review, more research is needed to support or refute the effectiveness of occupational therapy for cognitive impairment after stroke. Future trials need improved methodology to address issues including risk of bias and to better report the outcome measures and interventions used.

Resting-State Beta-Band Recovery Network Related to Cognitive Improvement After Stroke

Background

Stroke is the second leading cause of death worldwide and it causes important long-term cognitive and physical deficits that hamper patients' daily activity. Neuropsychological rehabilitation (NR) has increasingly become more important to recover from cognitive disability and to improve the functionality and quality of life of these patients. Since in most stroke cases, restoration of functional connectivity (FC) precedes or accompanies cognitive and behavioral recovery, understanding the electrophysiological signatures underlying stroke recovery mechanisms is a crucial scientific and clinical goal.

Methods

For this purpose, a longitudinal study was carried out with a sample of 10 stroke patients, who underwent two neuropsychological assessments and two resting-state magnetoencephalographic (MEG) recordings, before and after undergoing a NR program. Moreover, to understand the degree of cognitive and neurophysiological impairment after stroke and the mechanisms of recovery after cognitive rehabilitation, stroke patients were compared to 10 healthy controls matched for age, sex, and educational level.

Findings

After intra and inter group comparisons, we found the following results: (1) Within the stroke group who received cognitive rehabilitation, almost all cognitive domains improved relatively or totally; (2) They exhibit a pattern of widespread increased in FC within the beta band that was related to the recovery process (there were no significant differences between patients who underwent rehabilitation and controls); (3) These FC recovery changes were related with the enhanced of cognitive performance. Furthermore, we explored the capacity of the neuropsychological scores before rehabilitation, to predict the FC changes in the brain network. Significant correlations were found in global indexes from the WAIS-III: Performance IQ (PIQ) and Perceptual Organization index (POI) (i.e., Picture Completion, Matrix Reasoning, and Block Design).

Does Integrating Cognitive and Psychological Interventions Enhance Wellbeing After Acquired Brain Injury? Study Protocol for a Phase II Randomized Controlled Trial of the VaLiANT (Valued Living After Neurological Trauma) Group Program

Background and Objectives

Cognitive and emotional changes affect the majority of individuals with acquired brain injury (ABI) and are associated with poorer outcomes. The evidence for “siloed” rehabilitation approaches targeting cognition and mood separately remains mixed. Valued living (i.e., acting consistently with personal values) is associated with better psychological functioning and participation in work and other productive activities. Rehabilitation interventions that concurrently address cognitive and emotional barriers to valued living may therefore result in improved outcomes. VaLiANT (Valued Living After Neurological Trauma) is an 8-week group intervention developed by our team, which uniquely combines cognitive rehabilitation and psychological therapy to improve wellbeing and meaningful participation (i.e., valued living) following ABI.

Method

This protocol describes the design and implementation of a Phase II parallel-group randomized controlled trial with blinded outcome assessors, to evaluate the potential efficacy of VaLiANT and the feasibility of a Phase III trial. Participants are adults with a history of ABI at least 3 months prior to study entry, who experience cognitive and/or emotional difficulties and associated reduced participation in valued activities. Random allocation to the treatment condition (8-week VaLiANT group program) or a usual care waitlist control condition occurs at a 2:1 treatment: control ratio. The primary outcome is wellbeing, measured by the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale. Secondary outcomes include measures of valued living, mood, cognitive complaints, quality of life, community participation, post-traumatic growth, and self-efficacy. All measures are collected across three time points by blinded assessors (baseline, 8-week follow-up, 16-week follow-up). Trial feasibility will be evaluated against recruitment rates, drop-out rates, intervention acceptability, and treatment fidelity (manual adherence and therapist competence).

Discussion

This trial will extend current knowledge on how to improve long-term outcomes following ABI by evaluating an innovative integrated, multi-domain approach to rehabilitation concurrently addressing cognitive and emotional barriers to participation in meaningful life roles.

The effect of time spent in rehabilitation on activity limitation and impairment after stroke

BACKGROUND

Stroke affects millions of people every year and is a leading cause of disability, resulting in significant financial cost and reduction in quality of life. Rehabilitation after stroke aims to reduce disability by facilitating recovery of impairment, activity, or participation. One aspect of stroke rehabilitation that may affect outcomes is the amount of time spent in rehabilitation, including minutes provided, frequency (i.e. days per week of rehabilitation), and duration (i.e. time period over which rehabilitation is provided). Effect of time spent in rehabilitation after stroke has been explored extensively in the literature, but findings are inconsistent. Previous systematic reviews with meta-analyses have included studies that differ not only in the amount provided, but also type of rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effect of 1. more time spent in the same type of rehabilitation on activity measures in people with stroke; 2. difference in total rehabilitation time (in minutes) on recovery of activity in people with stroke; and 3. rehabilitation schedule on activity in terms of: a. average time (minutes) per week undergoing rehabilitation, b. frequency (number of sessions per week) of rehabilitation, and c. total duration of rehabilitation.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Stroke Group trials register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, eight other databases, and five trials registers to June 2021. We searched reference lists of identified studies, contacted key authors, and undertook reference searching using Web of Science Cited Reference Search.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of adults with stroke that compared different amounts of time spent, greater than zero, in rehabilitation (any non-pharmacological, non-surgical intervention aimed to improve activity after stroke). Studies varied only in the amount of time in rehabilitation between experimental and control conditions. Primary outcome was activities of daily living (ADLs); secondary outcomes were activity measures of upper and lower limbs, motor impairment measures of upper and lower limbs, and serious adverse events (SAE)/death.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two review authors independently screened studies, extracted data, assessed methodological quality using the Cochrane RoB 2 tool, and assessed certainty of the evidence using GRADE. For continuous outcomes using different scales, we calculated pooled standardised mean difference (SMDs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We expressed dichotomous outcomes as risk ratios (RR) with 95% CIs.

MAIN RESULTS

The quantitative synthesis of this review comprised 21 parallel RCTs, involving analysed data from 1412 participants.  Time in rehabilitation varied between studies. Minutes provided per week were 90 to 1288. Days per week of rehabilitation were three to seven. Duration of rehabilitation was two weeks to six months. Thirteen studies provided upper limb rehabilitation, five general rehabilitation, two mobilisation training, and one lower limb training. Sixteen studies examined participants in the first six months following stroke; the remaining five included participants more than six months poststroke. Comparison of stroke severity or level of impairment was limited due to variations in measurement. The risk of bias assessment suggests there were issues with the methodological quality of the included studies. There were 76 outcome-level risk of bias assessments: 15 low risk, 37 some concerns, and 24 high risk. When comparing groups that spent more time versus less time in rehabilitation immediately after intervention, we found no difference in rehabilitation for ADL outcomes (SMD 0.13, 95% CI -0.02 to 0.28; P = 0.09; I2 = 7%; 14 studies, 864 participants; very low-certainty evidence), activity measures of the upper limb (SMD 0.09, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.29; P = 0.36; I2 = 0%; 12 studies, 426 participants; very low-certainty evidence), and activity measures of the lower limb (SMD 0.25, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.53; P = 0.08; I2 = 48%; 5 studies, 425 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We found an effect in favour of more time in rehabilitation for motor impairment measures of the upper limb (SMD 0.32, 95% CI 0.06 to 0.58; P = 0.01; I2 = 10%; 9 studies, 287 participants; low-certainty evidence) and of the lower limb (SMD 0.71, 95% CI 0.15 to 1.28; P = 0.01; 1 study, 51 participants; very low-certainty evidence). There were no intervention-related SAEs. More time in rehabilitation did not affect the risk of SAEs/death (RR 1.20, 95% CI 0.51 to 2.85; P = 0.68; I2 = 0%; 2 studies, 379 participants; low-certainty evidence), but few studies measured these outcomes. Predefined subgroup analyses comparing studies with a larger difference of total time spent in rehabilitation between intervention groups to studies with a smaller difference found greater improvements for studies with a larger difference. This was statistically significant for ADL outcomes (P = 0.02) and activity measures of the upper limb (P = 0.04), but not for activity measures of the lower limb (P = 0.41) or motor impairment measures of the upper limb (P = 0.06).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

An increase in time spent in the same type of rehabilitation after stroke results in little to no difference in meaningful activities such as activities of daily living and activities of the upper and lower limb but a small benefit in measures of motor impairment (low- to very low-certainty evidence for all findings). If the increase in time spent in rehabilitation exceeds a threshold, this may lead to improved outcomes. There is currently insufficient evidence to recommend a minimum beneficial daily amount in clinical practice. The findings of this study are limited by a lack of studies with a significant contrast in amount of additional rehabilitation provided between control and intervention groups. Large, well-designed, high-quality RCTs that measure time spent in all rehabilitation activities (not just interventional) and provide a large contrast (minimum of 1000 minutes) in amount of rehabilitation between groups would provide further evidence for effect of time spent in rehabilitation.

Memory rehabilitation for people with multiple sclerosis

BACKGROUND

Problems with cognition, particularly memory, are common in people with multiple sclerosis (MS) and can affect their ability to complete daily activities and can negatively affect quality of life. Over the last few years, there has been considerable growth in the number of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) of memory rehabilitation in MS. To guide clinicians and researchers, this review provides an overview of the effectiveness of memory rehabilitation for people with MS.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether people with MS who received memory rehabilitation compared to those who received no treatment, or an active control showed better immediate, intermediate, or longer-term outcomes in their: 1. memory functions, 2. other cognitive abilities, and 3. functional abilities, in terms of activities of daily living, mood, and quality of life.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched CENTRAL which includes Clinicaltrials.gov, World Health Organization (The Whoqol) International Clinical Trials Registry Portal, Embase and PubMed (MEDLINE), and the following electronic databases (6 September 2020): CINAHL, LILACS, the NIHR Clinical Research Network Portfolio database, The Allied and Complementary Medicine Database, PsycINFO, and CAB Abstracts.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We selected RCTs or quasi-RCTs of memory rehabilitation or cognitive rehabilitation for people with MS in which a memory rehabilitation treatment group was compared with a control group. Selection was conducted independently first and then confirmed through group discussion. We excluded studies that included participants whose memory deficits were the result of conditions other than MS, unless we could identify a subgroup of participants with MS with separate results.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Eight review authors were involved in this update in terms of study selection, quality assessment, data extraction and manuscript review. We contacted investigators of primary studies for further information where required. We conducted data analysis and synthesis in accordance with Cochrane methods. We performed a 'best evidence' synthesis based on the methodological quality of the primary studies included. Outcomes were considered separately for 'immediate' (within the first month after completion of intervention), 'intermediate' (one to six months), and 'longer-term' (more than six months) time points.

MAIN RESULTS

We added 29 studies during this update, bringing the total to 44 studies, involving 2714 participants. The interventions involved various memory retraining techniques, such as computerised programmes and training on using internal and external memory aids. Control groups varied in format from assessment-only groups, discussion and games, non-specific cognitive retraining, and attention or visuospatial training. The risk of bias amongst the included studies was generally low, but we found eight studies to have high risk of bias related to certain aspects of their methodology. In this abstract, we are only reporting outcomes at the intermediate timepoint (i.e., between one and six months). We found a slight difference between groups for subjective memory (SMD 0.23, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.35; 11 studies; 1045 participants; high-quality evidence) and quality of life (SMD 0.30, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.58; 6 studies; 683 participants; high-quality evidence) favoring the memory rehabilitation group. There was a small difference between groups for verbal memory (SMD 0.25, 95% CI 0.11 to 0.40; 6 studies; 753 participants; low-quality evidence) and information processing (SMD 0.27, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.54; 8 studies; 933 participants; low-quality evidence), favoring the memory rehabilitation group.  We found little to no difference between groups for visual memory (SMD 0.20, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.50; 6 studies; 751 participants; moderate-quality evidence), working memory (SMD 0.16, 95% CI -0.09 to 0.40; 8 studies; 821 participants; moderate-quality evidence), or activities of daily living (SMD 0.06, 95% CI -0.36 to 0.24; 4 studies; 400 participants; high-quality evidence).  AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is evidence to support the effectiveness of memory rehabilitation on some outcomes assessed in this review at intermediate follow-up. The evidence suggests that memory rehabilitation results in between-group differences favoring the memory rehabilitation group at the intermediate time point for subjective memory, verbal memory, information processing, and quality of life outcomes, suggesting that memory rehabilitation is beneficial and meaningful to people with MS. There are differential effects of memory rehabilitation based on the quality of the trials, with studies of high risk of bias inflating (positive) outcomes. Further robust, large-scale, multi-centre RCTs, with better quality reporting, using ecologically valid outcome assessments (including health economic outcomes) assessed at longer-term time points are still needed to be certain about the effectiveness of memory rehabilitation in people with MS.

Possible Engagement of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors in Pathophysiology of Brain Ischemia-Induced Cognitive Impairment

Post-stroke disabilities like cognitive impairment impose are complex conditions with great economic burdens on health care systems. For these comorbidities, no effective therapies have been identified yet. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are multifunctional receptors participating in various behavioral and neurobiological functions. During brain ischemia, the increased glutamate accumulation leads to neuronal excitotoxicity as well as mitochondrial dysfunction. These abnormalities then cause the increased levels of oxidants, which play key roles in neuronal death and apoptosis in the infarct zone. Additionally, recall of cytokines and inflammatory factors play a prominent role in the exacerbation of ischemic injury. As well, neurotrophic factors' insufficiency results in synaptic dysfunction and cognitive impairments in ischemic brain. Of note, nAChRs through various signaling pathways can participate in therapeutic approaches such as cholinergic system's stimulation, and reduction of excitotoxicity, inflammation, apoptosis, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and autophagy. Moreover, the possible roles of nAChRs in neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, and stimulation of neurotrophic factors expression have been reported previously. On the other hand, the majority of the above-mentioned mechanisms were found to be common in both brain ischemia pathogenesis and cognitive function tuning. Therefore, it seems that nAChRs might be known as key regulators in the control of ischemia pathology, and their modulation could be considered as a new avenue in the multi-target treatment of post-stroke cognitive impairment.

Novel Advances to Post-Stroke Aphasia Pharmacology and Rehabilitation

Aphasia is one of the most common clinical features of functional impairment after a stroke. Approximately 21–40% of stroke patients sustain permanent aphasia, which progressively worsens one’s quality of life and rehabilitation outcomes. Post-stroke aphasia treatment strategies include speech language therapies, cognitive neurorehabilitation, telerehabilitation, computer-based management, experimental pharmacotherapy, and physical medicine. This review focuses on current evidence of the effectiveness of impairment-based aphasia therapies and communication-based therapies (as well as the timing and optimal treatment intensities for these interventions). Moreover, we present specific interventions, such as constraint-induced aphasia therapy (CIAT) and melodic intonation therapy (MIT). Accumulated data suggest that using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is safe and can be used to modulate cortical excitability. Therefore, we review clinical studies that present TMS and tDCS as (possible) promising therapies in speech and language recovery, stimulating neuroplasticity. Several drugs have been used in aphasia pharmacotherapy, but evidence from clinical studies suggest that only nootropic agents, donepezil and memantine, may improve the prognosis of aphasia. This article is an overview on the current state of knowledge related to post-stroke aphasia pharmacology, rehabilitation, and future trends.

Clinical Use of PROMIS, Neuro-QoL, TBI-QoL, and Other Patient-Reported Outcome Measures for Individual Adult Clients with Cognitive and Language Disorders

Patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) assess health outcomes from the patient's perspective. The National Institutes of Health has invested in the creation of numerous PROMs that comprise the PROMIS, Neuro-QoL, and TBI-QoL measurement systems. Some of these PROMs are potentially useful as primary or secondary outcome measures, or as contextual variables for the treatment of adults with cognitive/language disorders. These PROMs were primarily created for clinical research and interpretation of group means. They also have potential for use with individual clients; however, at present there is only sparse evidence and direction for this application of PROMs. Previous research by Cohen and Hula (2020) described how PROMs could support evidence-based practices in speech-language pathology. This companion article extends upon that work to present clinicians with implementation information about obtaining, administering, scoring, and interpreting PROMs for individual clients with cognitive/language disorders. This includes considerations of the type and extent of communication support that is appropriate, implications of the relatively large measurement error that accompanies individual scores and pairs of scores, and recommendations for applying minimal detectable change values depending on the clinician's desired level of measurement precision. However, more research is needed to guide the interpretation of PROM scores for an individual client.

MRI correlates of cognitive improvement after home-based EEG neurofeedback training in patients with multiple sclerosis: a pilot study

OBJECTIVE

Neurofeedback training may improve cognitive function in patients with neurological disorders. However, the underlying cerebral mechanisms of such improvements are poorly understood. Therefore, we aimed to investigate MRI correlates of cognitive improvement after EEG-based neurofeedback training in patients with MS (pwMS).

METHODS

Fourteen pwMS underwent ten neurofeedback training sessions within 3-4 weeks at home using a tele-rehabilitation system. Half of the pwMS (N = 7, responders) learned to self-regulate sensorimotor rhythm (SMR, 12-15 Hz) by visual feedback and improved cognitively after training, whereas the remainder (non-responders, n = 7) did not. Diffusion-tensor imaging and resting-state fMRI of the brain was performed before and after training. We analyzed fractional anisotropy (FA) and functional connectivity (FC) of the default-mode, sensorimotor (SMN) and salience network (SAL).

RESULTS

At baseline, responders and non-responders were comparable regarding sex, age, education, disease duration, physical and cognitive impairment, and MRI parameters. After training, compared to non-responders, responders showed increased FA and FC within the SAL and SMN. Cognitive improvement correlated with increased FC in SAL and a correlation trend with increased FA was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

This exploratory study suggests that successful neurofeedback training may not only lead to cognitive improvement, but also to increases in brain microstructure and functional connectivity.

A decision-neuroscientific intervention to improve cognitive recovery after stroke

Functional recovery after stroke is dose-dependent on the amount of rehabilitative training. However, rehabilitative training is subject to motivational hurdles. Decision neuroscience formalizes drivers and dampers of behaviour and provides strategies for tipping motivational trade-offs and behaviour change. Here, we used one such strategy, upfront voluntary choice restriction (‘precommitment’), and tested if it can increase the amount of self-directed rehabilitative training in severely impaired stroke patients. In this randomized controlled study, stroke patients with working memory deficits (n = 83) were prescribed daily self-directed gamified cognitive training as an add-on to standard therapy during post-acute inpatient neurorehabilitation. Patients allocated to the precommitment intervention could choose to restrict competing options to self-directed training, specifically the possibility to meet visitors. This upfront choice restriction was opted for by all patients in the intervention group and highly effective. Patients in the precommitment group performed the prescribed self-directed gamified cognitive training twice as often as control group patients who were not offered precommitment [on 50% versus 21% of days, P_corr = 0.004, d = 0.87, 95% confidence interval (CI_95%) = 0.31 to 1.42], and, as a consequence, reached a 3-fold higher total training dose (90.21 versus 33.60 min, P_corr = 0.004, d = 0.83, CI_95% = 0.27 to 1.38). Moreover, add-on self-directed cognitive training was associated with stronger improvements in visuospatial and verbal working memory performance (P_corr = 0.002, d = 0.72 and P_corr = 0.036, d = 0.62). Our neuroscientific decision add-on intervention strongly increased the amount of effective cognitive training performed by severely impaired stroke patients. These results warrant a full clinical trial to link decision-based neuroscientific interventions directly with clinical outcome.

Eye Movement Technique to Improve Executive Function in Patients With Stroke: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Objective: To investigate the efficacy of eye movement technique for the treatment of executive dysfunction of patients with stroke.

Methods: This was a prospective, single-blinded, randomized, controlled, single-center clinical trial conducted from June 2018 to December 2019 in patients with stroke. The patients were randomized 1:1 to the routine (conventional management) and eye-move group (routine management plus eye movement technique: 5-min goal management training, 5-min computer-aided working memory, and 10 min of inhibitory control training and set conversion training). The intervention lasted 6 weeks, followed by a 4-week follow-up. The primary endpoint was the Behavioral Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome (BADS) score. The secondary endpoints mainly included the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA), Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), and modified Barthel Index (MBI) scores.

Results: Sixty-four patients were enrolled (32/group). After the 6-week intervention, the BADS and WCST scores of the eye-move group were significantly improved than those of the routine group (all P < 0.05), but the effects were attenuated in certain subscores after follow-up (all P > 0.05). The MoCA and MBI scores of the eye-move group were significantly higher, and the reaction time was significantly lower than those of the routine group at 4 weeks after the intervention (all P < 0.05). After follow-up, the MBI scores of the eye-move group were still higher than that of the routine group (P < 0.001), but there were no differences for MoCA scores and reaction time (both P > 0.05).

Conclusion: The eye movement technique could improve the executive function of patients with stroke. These results have to be confirmed.

This was a prospective, single-blinded, randomized, controlled, single-center clinical trial (ChiCTR2000036393).

Clinical Trial Registration: [www.chictr.org.cn], identifier [ChiCTR2000036393].

Evaluating telehealth delivery of a compensatory memory rehabilitation programme following stroke: A single-case experimental design

Rehabilitation of memory remains an unmet need for many stroke survivors. Telehealth methods may provide a solution, however evidence supporting the efficacy of remotely-delivered therapy is needed. A non-concurrent multiple baseline design was used with randomized onset of intervention across five individuals with chronic stroke-related memory complaints. A six-week compensatory memory skills programme was delivered individually via internet videoconferencing. Target behaviours of frequencies of self-reported lapses of everyday and prospective memory were measured weekly across baseline, intervention, and follow-up phases. A secondary outcome of functional goal attainment was measured once per phase, with participants setting two personal rehabilitation goals. Data were analysed visually and statistically. Improvements in memory functioning were statistically significant on at least one measure of target behaviour for four out of five participants at intervention or follow-up. Visual evidence of level change indicated at least modest improvements for all participants by follow-up. All participants attained at least one functional goal by follow-up. High rates of treatment adherence and participant satisfaction were observed. Technological issues were minimal and did not impact content delivery or engagement. These results provide preliminary support for the efficacy of a telehealth-delivered rehabilitation programme in improving memory function and achieving memory-related goals for stroke survivors.

Therapist competence and clinical outcome in the rehabilitation of memory following traumatic brain injury trial

Objectives: Therapist competencies when delivering an intervention can impact clinical outcomes. However, the relationship between competence and outcome in the context of memory rehabilitation has not previously been investigated. We aimed to evaluate whether therapist competencies in delivering a group-based memory rehabilitation intervention, as part of a randomized-controlled trial, was associated with changes in clinical outcome in the participants with traumatic brain injury.Method: Outcome data on the Everyday Memory Questionnaire (EMQ) and Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS) were obtained for 24 participants of the memory rehabilitation trial. Video recordings of intervention sessions delivered by six therapists were coded using a checklist designed to evaluate therapist competence in group facilitation.Results: Therapists demonstrated consistently high levels of competency in facilitating the memory group. Correlational analyses showed that there was a non-significant weak association between EMQ and therapist competence (r = .28, p = .18), and between GAS and therapist competence for short- and long-term goals (r = -.33, p = .12 and r = -.24, p = .25, respectively).Conclusions: We found no significant association between competence and outcome in this memory rehabilitation trial. This may reflect insufficient variability in therapist competence and/or the nature of the clinical outcome measures used. Further research is needed to understand competence-outcome relationships in cognitive rehabilitation.

The Effect of Non-Invasive Brain Stimulation (NIBS) on Attention and Memory Function in Stroke Rehabilitation Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background: In recent years, the potential of non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) for therapeutic effects on cognitive functions has been explored for populations with stroke. There are various NIBS methods depending on the stimulation site and stimulation parameters. However, there is no systematic NIBS review of post-stroke cognitive impairment with a focus on stimulation sites and stimulation parameters. The purpose of this study is to conduct a systematic review and meta-analysis on effectiveness and safety of NIBS for cognitive impairment after a stroke to obtain new insights. This study was prospectively registered with the PROSPERO database of systematic reviews (CRD42020183298). Methods: All English articles from MEDLINE, Scopus, CINAHL, Embase, PsycINFO, and CENTRAL were searched from inception up to 31 December 2020. Randomized and prospective controlled trials were included for the analysis. Studies with at least five individuals post-stroke, whereby at least five sessions of NIBS were provided and using standardized neuropsychological measurement of cognition, were included. We assessed the methodological quality of selected studies as described in the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scoring system. Results: A total of 10 studies met eligibility criteria. Six studies used repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and four studies used transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS). The pooled sample size was 221 and 196 individuals who received rTMS and tDCS respectively. Eight studies combined general rehabilitation, cognitive training, or additional therapy with NIBS. In rTMS studies, target symptoms included global cognition (n = 4), attention (n = 3), memory (n = 4), working memory (WM) (n = 3), and executive function (n = 2). Five studies selected the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DPLFC) as the stimulation target. One rTMS study selected the right DLPFC as the inhibitory stimulation target. Four of six studies showed significant improvement. In tDCS studies, target symptoms included global cognition (n = 2), attention (n = 4), memory (n = 2) and WM (n = 2). Three studies selected the frontal area as the stimulation target. All studies showed significant improvement. In the meta-analysis, rTMS showed a significant effect on attention, memory, WM and global cognition classified by neuropsychological tests. On the other hand, tDCS had no significant effect. Conclusions: In post-stroke patients with deficits in cognitive function, including attention, memory, and WM, NIBS shows promising positive effects. However, this effect is limited, suggesting that further studies are needed with more precision in stimulation sites and stimulation parameters. Future studies using advanced neurophysiological and neuroimaging tools to allow for a network-based approach to treat cognitive symptoms post-stroke with NIBS are warranted.

Validating 1-Year Reliable Change Methods

OBJECTIVE

reliable change methods can assist in the determination of whether observed changes in performance are meaningful. The current study sought to validate previously published 1-year standardized regression-based (SRB) equations for commonly administered neuropsychological measures that incorporated baseline performances, demographics, and 1-week practice effects.

METHOD

Duff et al.'s SRB prediction equations were applied to an independent sample of 70 community-dwelling older adults with either normal cognition or mild cognitive impairment, assessed at baseline, at 1 week, and at 1 year.

RESULTS

minimal improvements or declines were seen between observed baseline and observed 1-year follow-up scores, or between observed 1-year and predicted 1-year scores, on most measures. Relatedly, a high degree of predictive accuracy was observed between observed 1-year and predicted 1-year scores across cognitive measures in this repeated battery.

CONCLUSIONS

these results, which validate Duff et al.'s SRB equations, will permit clinicians and researchers to have more confidence when predicting cognitive performance on these measures over 1 year.

Real world implementation of a group-based memory rehabilitation program into stroke services: A knowledge translation evaluation

BACKGROUND

Support for memory difficulties remains a significant unmet need for survivors of stroke. Memory skills group training of compensatory strategies can be effective for improving everyday memory function. However, access to these services remains limited.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to evaluate the fidelity, acceptability, and effectiveness of implementing an evidence-based memory group in real-world clinical settings, to establish a potentially scalable implementation model.

METHODS

The program was facilitated at one acute and one community-based rehabilitation health service. Three clinical neuropsychologists received comprehensive training in facilitating the program. Implementation followed the Knowledge to Action framework, and implementation outcome measures included fidelity monitoring of adherence and competence, as well as clinician and participant reports of acceptability. The clinical effectiveness outcome was attainment of memory-specific goals using Goal Attainment Scaling at post-intervention and six-week follow-up.

RESULTS

The training process resulted in full adherence to the program content and demonstration of all essential clinical competencies. The program was acceptable and enjoyable for the clinicians and participants (n= 19, 63% male, 73% ischemic stroke). Participants demonstrated high levels of goal attainment (>80% at follow-up), comparable in magnitude to previous controlled trials.

CONCLUSIONS

The stroke memory skills program has the potential to be implemented successfully in real-world clinical settings using the Knowledge to Action framework, incorporating comprehensive clinician training.

Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage: the Last Decade

Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) affects six to nine people per 100,000 per year, has a 35% mortality, and leaves many with lasting disabilities, often related to cognitive dysfunction. Clinical decision rules and more sensitive computed tomography (CT) have made the diagnosis of SAH easier, but physicians must maintain a high index of suspicion. The management of these patients is based on a limited number of randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Early repair of the ruptured aneurysm by endovascular coiling or neurosurgical clipping is essential, and coiling is superior to clipping in cases amenable to both treatments. Aneurysm repair prevents rebleeding, leaving the most important prognostic factors for outcome early brain injury from the hemorrhage, which is reflected in the neurologic condition of the patient, and delayed cerebral ischemia (DCI). Observational studies suggest outcomes are better when patients are managed in specialized neurologic intensive care units with inter- or multidisciplinary clinical groups. Medical management aims to minimize early brain injury, cerebral edema, hydrocephalus, increased intracranial pressure (ICP), and medical complications. Management then focuses on preventing, detecting, and treating DCI. Nimodipine is the only pharmacologic treatment that is approved for SAH in most countries, as no other intervention has demonstrated efficacy. In fact, much of SAH management is derived from studies in other patient populations. Therefore, further study of complications, including DCI and other medical complications, is needed to optimize outcomes for this fragile patient population.

Competition Enhances the Effectiveness and Motivation of Attention Rehabilitation After Stroke. A Randomized Controlled Trial

Attention deficits are among the most common cognitive impairments observed after experiencing stroke. However, a very limited number of studies have investigated the effectiveness of interventions that specifically focus on the rehabilitation of attention deficits among subjects with impaired attention. Although several interventions have included the use of computerized programs to provide dynamic stimuli, real-time performance feedback, and motivating tasks, existing studies have not exploited the potential benefits of multi-user interactions. Group-based and competitive interventions have been reported to be more enjoyable and motivating, depending on individual traits, and may potentially be more demanding, which may increase their effectiveness. This study investigated the effectiveness and motivating abilities of an intervention specifically designed to address attention deficits. This intervention combined paper-and-pencil tasks and interactive, computerized, multi-touch exercises, which were administered, either non-competitively or competitively, to a group of 43 individuals with chronic stroke. The mediating effects of competitiveness were evaluated for both intervention effectiveness and motivation. Participants were randomly sorted into two groups and underwent 20 one-hour group-based sessions, during which they either worked individually or competed with peers, according to their group allocation. Participants were assessed before and after the intervention, using the Conners' Continuous Performance Test, the d2 Test of Attention, the Color Trail Test, the Digit Span Test, and the Spatial Span Test. The competitiveness and subjective experiences of the participants after the intervention were investigated with the Revised Competitiveness Index and the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory, respectively. The results showed that participants who competed demonstrated significantly greater improvements in all cognitive abilities, except for divided attention, and reported greater enjoyment than their non-competitive peers. Both groups reported comparable levels of perceived competence, pressure, and usefulness. Interestingly, the competitiveness of the participants did not alter either the effectiveness or the subjective experience of the intervention. These findings suggest that competition might enhance the effectiveness and enjoyment of rehabilitation interventions designed to address attention deficits in individuals post-stroke, regardless of their level of competitiveness and without having a negative effect on their perceived pressure and competence.

Degeneration of structural brain networks is associated with cognitive decline after ischaemic stroke

Over one-third of stroke patients has long-term cognitive impairment. The likelihood of cognitive dysfunction is poorly predicted by the location or size of the infarct. The macro-scale damage caused by ischaemic stroke is relatively localized, but the effects of stroke occur across the brain. Structural covariance networks represent voxelwise correlations in cortical morphometry. Atrophy and topographical changes within such distributed brain structural networks may contribute to cognitive decline after ischaemic stroke, but this has not been thoroughly investigated. We examined longitudinal changes in structural covariance networks in stroke patients and their relationship to domain-specific cognitive decline. Seventy-three patients (mean age, 67.41 years; SD = 12.13) were scanned with high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging at sub-acute (3 months) and chronic (1 year) timepoints after ischaemic stroke. Patients underwent a number of neuropsychological tests, assessing five cognitive domains including attention, executive function, language, memory and visuospatial function at each timepoint. Individual-level structural covariance network scores were derived from the sub-acute grey-matter probabilistic maps or changes in grey-matter probability maps from sub-acute to chronic using data-driven partial least squares method seeding at major nodes in six canonical high-order cognitive brain networks (i.e. dorsal attention, executive control, salience, default mode, language-related and memory networks). We then investigated co-varying patterns between structural covariance network scores within canonical distributed brain networks and domain-specific cognitive performance after ischaemic stroke, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, using multivariate behavioural partial least squares correlation approach. We tested our models in an independent validation data set with matched imaging and behavioural testing and using split-half validation. We found that distributed degeneration in higher-order cognitive networks was associated with attention, executive function, language, memory and visuospatial function impairment in sub-acute stroke. From the sub-acute to the chronic timepoint, longitudinal structural co-varying patterns mirrored the baseline structural covariance networks, suggesting synchronized grey-matter volume decline occurred within established networks over time. The greatest changes, in terms of extent of distributed spatial co-varying patterns, were in the default mode and dorsal attention networks, whereas the rest were more focal. Importantly, faster degradation in these major cognitive structural covariance networks was associated with greater decline in attention, memory and language domains frequently impaired after stroke. Our findings suggest that sub-acute ischaemic stroke is associated with widespread degeneration of higher-order structural brain networks and degradation of these structural brain networks may contribute to longitudinal domain-specific cognitive dysfunction.

Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Cognitive Training and Transfer Effects in Stroke Patients

Stroke lesions are frequently followed by cognitive impairments. Cognitive training is a non-pharmacological intervention that can promote neural compensation mechanisms and strategies to remediate cognitive impairments. The aims of this study were: (1) To investigate the cognitive performance, generalization effects, and neural correlates of semantic organization strategy training (SOST) in patients with chronic left frontoparietal stroke and healthy controls (HC); and (2) to compare the behavioral effects and neural correlates of SOST with an active control psychoeducation intervention (PI). In this randomized controlled study, all participants were randomly allocated into two groups, one group received SOST, and the other received PI intervention. Participants underwent two fMRI sessions, one prior and the other, after intervention. In each fMRI session, images were obtained during memory encoding task using a list of semantically related words. We found improved post-intervention memory performance in participants that received SOST (both patients and controls), indicated by number of words recalled, word clustering scores, and performance in a generalization task. The fMRI analysis revealed negative correlation between task performance and regions of the default-mode network. These results suggest that cognitive training using semantic organization strategy can improve episodic memory performance and promote potential functional neuroplasticity in patients with ischemic stroke lesions. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier: NCT03644290.

Can we prevent poststroke cognitive impairment? An umbrella review of risk factors and treatments

OBJECTIVES

Cognitive impairment poststroke is progressive. We aimed to synthesise the existing evidence evaluating risk factors and the effects of treatments to prevent/improve cognitive function in patients who had a stroke with cognitive impairment.

DESIGN

Umbrella review.

DATA SOURCE

Medline, PsycINFO, EMBASE, Cochrane and PROSPERO were searched from inception until 11 June 2019.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

Published systematic review (SR) that incorporated randomised controlled trials to investigate an intervention to improve poststroke cognitive impairment, or SR of longitudinal observational studies that evaluated the risk factors of this condition. No restrictions were applied.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

From each eligible study, details were recorded by one reviewer in a validated form. Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluations criteria were used to assess our certainty level of each outcome, and A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 to assess quality.

RESULTS

Altogether, 3464 abstracts were retrieved, 135 full texts were evaluated and 22 SRs were included in the final analysis. From four SRs of observational studies, we found 19 significant associations with postulated risk factors, and those which we determined to be confident about were: atrial fibrillation (3 SRs, 25 original studies); relative risk 3.01 (1.96-4.61), ORs 2.4 (1.7-3.5) and 2.0 (1.4-2.8), leukoaraiosis, multiple and recurrent strokes, ORs 2.5 (1.9-3.4), 2.5 (1.9-3.1) and 2.3 (1.5-3.5), respectively. From 18 SRs of interventional trials, we found that interventions including physical activity or cognitive rehabilitation were enhancing cognitive function, while the certainty of the other interventions was rated low, due to limited methodological quality.

CONCLUSIONS

This review represents common risk factors related to poststroke cognitive impairment, in particular atrial fibrillation, and points to different interventions that warrant attention in the development of treatment strategies. Physical activity and cognitive rehabilitation interventions showed evidence of enhancing cognitive function; however, we could not recommend a change in practice yet, due to lack of strong evidence.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42018096667.

A group memory rehabilitation programme for people with traumatic brain injuries: the ReMemBrIn RCT

BACKGROUND

People with traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) commonly report memory impairments. These are persistent, debilitating and reduce quality of life, but patients do not routinely receive memory rehabilitation after discharge from hospital.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a group memory rehabilitation programme for people with TBI.

DESIGN

Multicentre, pragmatic, cluster randomised controlled trial. Qualitative and health economic evaluations were also undertaken.

SETTING

Community settings in nine sites in England.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were aged 18-69 years, had undergone a TBI > 3 months prior to recruitment, reported memory problems, were able to travel to a site to attend group sessions, could communicate in English and gave informed consent.

RANDOMISATION AND BLINDING

Clusters of four to six participants were randomised to the memory rehabilitation arm or the usual-care arm on a 1 : 1 ratio. Randomisation was based on a computer-generated pseudo-random code using random permuted blocks of randomly varying size, stratified by study site. Participants and therapists were aware of the treatment allocation whereas outcome assessors were blinded.

INTERVENTIONS

In the memory rehabilitation arm 10 weekly sessions of a manualised memory rehabilitation programme were provided in addition to usual care. Participants were taught restitution strategies to retrain impaired memory functions and compensation strategies to enable them to cope with memory problems. The usual-care arm received usual care only.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Outcomes were assessed at 6 and 12 months after randomisation. Primary outcome: patient-completed Everyday Memory Questionnaire - patient version (EMQ-p) at 6 months' follow-up. Secondary outcomes: Rivermead Behavioural Memory Test - third edition (RBMT-3), General Health Questionnaire 30-item version, European Brain Injury Questionnaire, Everyday Memory Questionnaire - relative version and individual goal attainment. Costs (based on a UK NHS and Personal Social Services perspective) were collected using a service use questionnaire, with the EuroQol-5 Dimensions, five-level version, used to derive quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs). A Markov model was developed to explore cost-effectiveness at 5 and 10 years, with a 3.5% discount applied.

RESULTS

We randomised 328 participants (memory rehabilitation, n = 171; usual care, n = 157), with 129 in the memory rehabilitation arm and 122 in the usual-care arm included in the primary analysis. We found no clinically important difference on the EMQ-p between the two arms at 6 months' follow-up (adjusted difference in mean scores -2.1, 95% confidence interval -6.7 to 2.5; p = 0.37). For secondary outcomes, differences favouring the memory rehabilitation arm were observed at 6 months' follow-up for the RBMT-3 and goal attainment, but remained only for goal attainment at 12 months' follow-up. There were no differences between arms in mood or quality of life. The qualitative results suggested positive experiences of participating in the trial and of attending the groups. Participants reported that memory rehabilitation was not routinely accessible in usual care. The primary health economics outcome at 12 months found memory rehabilitation to be £26.89 cheaper than usual care but less effective, with an incremental QALY loss of 0.007. Differences in costs and effects were not statistically significant and non-parametric bootstrapping demonstrated considerable uncertainty in these findings. No safety concerns were raised and no deaths were reported.

LIMITATIONS

As a pragmatic trial, we had broad inclusion criteria and, therefore, there was considerable heterogeneity within the sample. The study was not powered to perform further subgroup analyses. Participants and therapists could not be blinded to treatment allocation.

CONCLUSIONS

The group memory rehabilitation delivered in this trial is very unlikely to lead to clinical benefits or to be a cost-effective treatment for people with TBI in the community. Future studies should examine the selection of participants who may benefit most from memory rehabilitation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN65792154.

FUNDING

This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 23, No. 16. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

The role of rehabilitation psychology in stroke care described through case examples

BACKGROUND

A stroke event, sometimes referred to as a cerebrovascular accident (CVA), is a sudden and often traumatic life event that results in life-changing consequences with which affected people must cope. There are nearly 800,000 instances of stroke annually in the U.S. (American Heart Association, 2018). Stroke is the leading cause of disability in adults, and more than one-third of people who survive a stroke will have severe disability in the U.S. (Mayo, 2005). Between 35% and 75% of stroke survivors will have significant cognitive impairment (Tatemichi et al., 1994; Nys et al., 2007). An estimated one-third of people suffer depression after stroke (Hackett et al., 2005), about one-fourth experience significant anxiety (Barker-Collo, 2007), and about one-fifth suffer from insomnia (Leppavuoria et al., 2002). These and other stroke-related psychological issues negatively influence rehabilitation and outcomes through a variety of mechanisms. For example, post-stroke depression has been shown to be related to more negative functional consequences (Kneebone et al., 2000; Matsuzaki et al., 2015). Psychological disturbances may affect rehabilitation outcomes through a reduction in adherence to home exercise programs, reduced energy level, increased fatigue, reduced frustration tolerance, and potentially less motivation and hope about the future.

OBJECTIVES

This manuscript aims to identify and describe the role of rehabilitation psychology in treating these common post-stroke complaints and, ultimately, optimizing post-stroke outcomes via two case examples.

METHODOLOGY

This manuscript describes two cases of individuals in post-acute rehabilitation who had psychological issues which were negatively affecting outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Given the abrupt and significant life-changing nature of stroke, it is often necessary to manage a diverse array of psychological issues that often cannot be simply managed via psychotropic medications. Moreover, an understanding of the patients' emotional adjustment and issues can help them maximize their rehabilitation, recovery, and community integration. For the cases discussed, psychology consultations were central in helping optimize their rehabilitation and functional outcomes.

Post-stroke Cognitive Impairment-Impact of Follow-Up Time and Stroke Subtype on Severity and Cognitive Profile: The Nor-COAST Study

Background: Post-stroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) is common, but evidence of cognitive symptom profiles, course over time, and pathogenesis is scarce. We investigated the significance of time and etiologic stroke subtype for the probability of PSCI, severity, and cognitive profile.

Methods: Stroke survivors (n = 617) underwent cognitive assessments of attention, executive function, memory, language, perceptual-motor function, and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) after 3 and/or 18 months. PSCI was classified according to DSM-5 criteria. Stroke severity was assessed with the National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS). Stroke subtype was categorized as intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), large artery disease (LAD), cardioembolic stroke (CE), small vessel disease (SVD), or un-/other determined strokes (UD). Mixed-effects logistic or linear regression was applied with PSCI, MoCA, and z-scores of the cognitive domains as dependent variables. Independent variables were time as well as stroke subtype, time, and interaction between these. The analyses were adjusted for age, education, and sex. The effects of time and stroke subtype were analyzed by likelihood ratio tests (LR).

Results: Mean age was 72 years (SD 12), 42% were females, and mean NIHSS score at admittance was 3.8 (SD 4.8). Probability (95% CI) for PSCI after 3 and 18 months was 0.59 (0.51–0.66) and 0.51 (0.52–0.60), respectively and remained constant over time. Global measures and most cognitive domains were assessed as impaired for the entire stroke population and for most stroke subtypes. Executive function and language improved for the entire stroke population (LR) = 9.05, p = 0.003, and LR = 10.38, p = 0.001, respectively). After dividing the sample according to stroke subtypes, language improved for ICH patients (LR = 18.02, p = 0.003). No significant differences were found in the severity of impairment between stroke subtypes except for attention, which was impaired for LAD and CE in contrast to no impairment for SVD (LR = 56.58, p < 0.001).

Conclusions: In this study including mainly minor strokes, PSCI is common for all subtypes, both early and long-term after stroke, while executive function and language improve over time. The findings might contribute to personalizing follow-up and offer new insights into underlying mechanisms. Further research is needed on underlying mechanisms, PSCI prevention and treatment, and relevance for rehabilitation.

[Cognitive rehabilitation of patients with neurodegenerative diseases]

Neurodegenerative diseases are the most common cause of cognitive disorders in the population, but their diagnosis and treatment face a number of difficulties, both purely clinical and organizational. Moreover, neurodegenerative diseases often serve as a background for the development of acute focal brain damage (for example, stroke), limiting the possibility of rehabilitation after them. In addition, degenerative changes in the brain associated with aging processes and early stages of neurodegenerative diseases make an important contribution to the formation of the «fragility of old age», which is the most important task of elderly medicine. Thus, acute focal lesions of the brain and neurodegenerative diseases require complex rehabilitation treatment aimed not only at motor, but also at cognitive functions. Drugs that mimic molecular signals initiating the processes of spontaneous recovery of neurons, glial cells and their connections in the brain can be used to expand the therapeutic window for rehabilitation. One of these drugs may be Cerebrolysin, which improves the results of restorative treatment of stroke and Alzheimer's disease.

Cognition-Oriented Treatments for Older Adults: a Systematic Overview of Systematic Reviews

Cognition-oriented treatments - commonly categorized as cognitive training, cognitive rehabilitation and cognitive stimulation - are promising approaches for the prevention of cognitive and functional decline in older adults. We conducted a systematic overview of meta-analyses investigating the efficacy of cognition-oriented treatments on cognitive and non-cognitive outcomes in older adults with or without cognitive impairment. Review quality was assessed by A Measurement Tool to Assess Systematic Reviews 2 (AMSTAR). We identified 51 eligible reviews, 46 of which were included in the quantitative synthesis. The confidence ratings were "moderate" for 9 (20%), "low" for 13 (28%) and "critically low" for 24 (52%) of the 46 reviews. While most reviews provided pooled effect estimates for objective cognition, non-cognitive outcomes of potential relevance were more sparsely reported. The mean effect estimate on cognition was small for cognitive training in healthy older adults (mean Hedges' g = 0.32, range 0.13-0.64, 19 reviews), mild cognitive impairment (mean Hedges' g = 0.40, range 0.32-0.60, five reviews), and dementia (mean Hedges' g = 0.38, range 0.09-1.16, seven reviews), and small for cognitive stimulation in dementia (mean Hedges' g = 0.36, range 0.26-0.44, five reviews). Meta-regression revealed that higher AMSTAR score was associated with larger effect estimates for cognitive outcomes. The available evidence supports the efficacy of cognition-oriented treatments improving cognitive performance in older adults. The extent to which such effects are of clinical value remains unclear, due to the scarcity of high-quality evidence and heterogeneity in reported findings. An important avenue for future trials is to include relevant non-cognitive outcomes in a more consistent way and, for meta-analyses in the field, there is a need for better adherence to methodological standards. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42018084490.

Randomized Trial of Combined Aerobic, Resistance, and Cognitive Training to Improve Recovery From Stroke: Feasibility and Safety

Background Physical exercise and cognitive training have been recommended to improve cognitive outcomes poststroke, but a multifaceted strategy including aerobic, resistance, and cognitive training to facilitate poststroke recovery has not been investigated. We aimed to assess the feasibility, adherence, and safety of a combined aerobic, resistance, and cognitive training intervention (CARET+CTI) after stroke. Methods and Results We prospectively randomized patients presenting with recent stroke to a comparison of a supervised 12-week CARET+CTI program and a control group receiving sham CARET+CTI. Participants were scheduled for 3 weekly CARET and CTI sessions. All participants underwent pre- and postintervention assessments of strength, endurance, and cognition. The primary outcomes were feasibility and adherence, defined as the ratio of scheduled and observed visits, and safety. We enrolled 131 participants, of whom 37 withdrew from the study. There were 17 (20%) withdrawals in the CARET+CTI and 20 (44%) in the control group. The observed-over-expected visit ratio was significantly higher in the intervention than in the control group (0.74±0.30 versus 0.54±0.38; P=0.003). A total of 99 adverse events were reported by 59 participants, none of which were serious and related to the intervention. Greater gains in physical, cognitive, and mood outcomes were found in the CARET+CTI group than in the control group, but were not statistically significant after adjustments. Conclusions A CARET+CTI intervention, after stroke, is safe, feasible, and has satisfactory participant adherence over 12 weeks. REGISTRATION URL: https://www.clini​caltr​ials.gov. Unique identifier: NCT02272426.

[Factors affecting the effectiveness of rehabilitation in patients in the acute period of cerebral stroke]

AIM

To study the factors, affecting the effectiveness of acute period rehabilitation in patients after ischemic stroke (IS).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

We examined 72 patients (average age 63.8 ± 1.3 years) in the acute period of IS who were treated in the neurological department for patients with acute cerebrovascular accident of the State Budgetary Institution of Healthcare of the Republic of Bashkortostan «Emergency Hospital» (Ufa). All patients underwent clinical, instrumental and laboratory examination. The following scales were used: NIHSS, Rankin, Barthel, Rivermead, Montreal Cognitive Assessment, Spielberg - Hanin situational and personal anxiety scale, Beck's Depression Inventory, A.M. Vain questionnaire for assessment of the severity of autonomic dysfunction, T. Ehlers test and A.M. Schubert's method of determination of the state of the motivational sphere and risk preparedness. Assessment of the rehabilitation potential was carried out by analyzing the data of the Rehabilitation List. According to the severity of neurological deficit, the patients were divided into 2 groups: 38 (52.7%) patients with mild IS were included in the Group 1 and 34 (47.2%) patients with moderate IS - in Group 2.

RESULTS

By the end of the treatment, significant changes in the number of patients with cognitive and depressive disorders, qualitative changes in the levels of personal and situational anxiety in the direction of their reduction were registered. In the vast majority of patients in both groups at the stages of treatment, one or another degree of autonomic nervous system dysfunction was found. Most patients (82.9%) at the beginning of the treatment had an average and high degree of motivation to achieve success in treatment, along with a low and medium level of risk preparedness, which is characteristic of a person aimed at success. According to the complex of factors, 78% of patients had an average and high level of rehabilitation potential.

CONCLUSION

A comprehensive and individual approach to the correction of pathological disorders in patients in the acute period of IS, taking into account the rehabilitation potential, is the key to the effectiveness of rehabilitation treatment at the stages of rehabilitation.

Adaptive conjunctive cognitive training (ACCT) in virtual reality for chronic stroke patients: a randomized controlled pilot trial

BACKGROUND

Current evidence for the effectiveness of post-stroke cognitive rehabilitation is weak, possibly due to two reasons. First, patients typically express cognitive deficits in several domains. Therapies focusing on specific cognitive deficits might not address their interrelated neurological nature. Second, co-occurring psychological problems are often neglected or not diagnosed, although post-stroke depression is common and related to cognitive deficits. This pilot trial aims to test a rehabilitation program in virtual reality that trains various cognitive domains in conjunction, by adapting to the patient's disability and while investigating the influence of comorbidities.

METHODS

Thirty community-dwelling stroke patients at the chronic stage and suffering from cognitive impairment performed 30 min of daily training for 6 weeks. The experimental group followed, so called, adaptive conjunctive cognitive training (ACCT) using RGS, whereas the control group solved standard cognitive tasks at home for an equivalent amount of time. A comprehensive test battery covering executive function, spatial awareness, attention, and memory as well as independence, depression, and motor impairment was applied at baseline, at 6 weeks and 18-weeks follow-up.

RESULTS

At baseline, 75% of our sample had an impairment in more than one cognitive domain. The experimental group showed improvements in attention ([Formula: see text] (2) = 9.57, p < .01), spatial awareness ([Formula: see text] (2) = 11.23, p < .01) and generalized cognitive functioning ([Formula: see text] (2) = 15.5, p < .001). No significant change was seen in the executive function and memory domain. For the control group, no significant change over time was found. Further, they worsened in their depression level after treatment (T = 45, r = .72, p < .01) but returned to baseline at follow-up. The experimental group displayed a lower level of depression than the control group after treatment (Ws = 81.5, z = - 2.76, r = - .60, p < .01) and (Ws = 92, z = - 2.03, r = - .44, p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

ACCT positively influences attention and spatial awareness, as well as depressive mood in chronic stroke patients.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

The trial was registered prospectively at ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT02816008) on June 21, 2016.

Rehabilitation of cognitive deficits poststroke: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials of non-pharmacological interventions

INTRODUCTION

Stroke is among the leading causes of death and disability worldwide. Poststroke cognitive impairment is a common sequela of stroke. The burden of cognitive impairment poststroke has significant impacts on the individual poststroke, their family and wider society. Despite the prevalence and associated burden of poststroke cognitive impairment, the optimal approach to rehabilitate cognitive deficits poststroke has yet to be established. A range of conservative interventions for cognitive impairment poststroke exist including self-efficacy training, physical activity interventions, neuropsychological interventions, electronic interventions, music therapy and occupational therapies. This systematic review aims to explore the totality of evidence with regard to non-pharmacological rehabilitation interventions wherein the primary or secondary aim is to improve cognitive function in individuals poststroke.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

A systematic review of randomised controlled trials which investigate the effectiveness of interventions wherein the primary or secondary aim is to improve cognitive function in individuals poststroke will be conducted (August 2019). The following electronic databases will be searched: PubMed, Embase, CINAHL, CENTRAL and PsycInfo. Reference lists of all identified studies will be reviewed to identify additional studies for inclusion. Titles and abstracts will be screened independently by two review authors for inclusion and exclusion. Any disagreement regarding inclusion will be resolved by discussion or by referral to a third assessor if necessary. Methodological quality will be assessed using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool for Randomised Controlled Trials. Meta-analyses will be performed if studies are sufficiently homogeneous. The review will be reported in accordance to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

As this systematic review will collect secondary data only, ethical approval is not required. Findings will be disseminated through presentations and peer-reviewed journals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42019125289.