Decompressive craniectomy for the treatment of high intracranial pressure in closed traumatic brain injury

Advancements in neuroregenerative and neuroprotective therapies for traumatic spinal cord injury

Traumatic spinal cord injuries (SCIs) continue to be a major healthcare concern, with a rising prevalence worldwide. In response to this growing medical challenge, considerable scientific attention has been devoted to developing neuroprotective and neuroregenerative strategies aimed at improving the prognosis and quality of life for individuals with SCIs. This comprehensive review aims to provide an up-to-date and thorough overview of the latest neuroregenerative and neuroprotective therapies currently under investigation. These strategies encompass a multifaceted approach that include neuropharmacological interventions, cell-based therapies, and other promising strategies such as biomaterial scaffolds and neuro-modulation therapies. In addition, the review discusses the importance of acute clinical management, including the role of hemodynamic management as well as timing and technical aspects of surgery as key factors mitigating the secondary injury following SCI. In conclusion, this review underscores the ongoing scientific efforts to enhance patient outcomes and quality of life, focusing on upcoming strategies for the management of traumatic SCI. Each section provides a working knowledge of the fundamental preclinical and patient trials relevant to clinicians while underscoring the pathophysiologic rationale for the therapies.

Decompressive craniectomy incisions: all roads lead to bone

INTRODUCTION

Decompressive craniectomy and craniotomy are among the most common procedures in Neurosurgery. In recent years, increased attention has focused on the relationships between incision type, extent of decompression, vascular supply to the scalp, cosmetic outcomes, and complications. Here, we review the current literature on scalp incisions for large unilateral front-temporo-parietal craniotomies and craniectomies.

METHODS

Publications in the past 50 years on scalp incisions used for front-temporo-parietal craniectomies/craniotomies were reviewed. Only full texts were considered in the final analysis. A total of 27 studies that met the criteria were considered for the final manuscript. PRISMA guidelines were adopted for this study.

RESULTS

Five main incision types have been described. In addition to the question mark incision, other common incisions include the T-Kempe, developed to obtain wide access to the skull, the retroauricular incision, designed to spare the occipital branch, as well as the N-shaped and cloverleaf incisions which integrate with pterional approaches. Advantages and drawbacks, integration with existing incisions, relationships with the main arteries, cosmetic outcomes, and risks of wound complications including dehiscence, necrosis, and infection were assessed.

DISCUSSION

The reverse-question mark incision, despite being a mainstay of trauma neurosurgery, can place the vascular supply to the scalp at risk and favor wound dehiscence and infection. Several incisions, such as the T-Kempe, retroauricular, N-shaped, and cloverleaf approaches have been developed to preserve the main vessels supplying the scalp. Incision choice needs to be carefully weighted based on the patient's anatomy, position and size of main vessels, risk of wound dehiscence, and desired volume of decompression.

Risk assessment and pathogen profile of surgical site infections in traumatic brain injury patients undergoing emergency craniotomy: A retrospective study

Emergency craniotomy in patients with traumatic brain injury poses a significant risk for surgical site infections (SSIs). Understanding the risk factors and pathogenic characteristics of SSIs in this context is crucial for improving outcomes. This comprehensive retrospective analysis spanned from February 2020 to February 2023 at our institution. We included 25 patients with SSIs post-emergency craniotomy and a control group of 50 patients without SSIs. Data on various potential risk factors were collected, including demographic information, preoperative conditions, and intraoperative details. The BACT/ALERT3D Automated Bacterial Culture and Detection System was utilized for rapid bacterial pathogen identification. Statistical analyses included univariate and multivariate logistic regression to identify significant risk factors for SSIs. The study identified Klebsiella pneumoniae, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus as the most prevalent pathogens in SSIs. Significant risk factors for SSIs included the lack of preoperative antibiotic use, postoperative drainage tube placement, diabetes mellitus, and the incorporation of invasive procedures, all of which showed a significant association with SSIs in the univariate analysis. The multivariate analysis further highlighted the protective effect of preoperative antibiotics and the increased risks associated with anaemia, diabetes mellitus, postoperative drainage tube placement, and the incorporation of invasive procedures. Our research underscores the critical role of factors like insufficient preoperative antibiotics, postoperative drainage, invasive techniques, anaemia, and diabetes mellitus in elevating the risk of surgical site infections in traumatic brain injury patients undergoing emergency craniotomy. Enhanced focus on these areas is essential for improving surgical outcomes.

Personalized 3D-printed cranial implants for complex cranioplasty using open-source software

Background

Cranioplasty is a routine neurosurgery treatment used to correct cranial vault abnormalities. Utilization of 3D printing technology in the field of cranioplasty involving the reconstruction of cranial defects emerged as an advanced possibility of anatomical reshaping. The transformative impact of patient-specific 3D printed implants, focuses on their remarkable accuracy, customization capabilities, and enhanced biocompatibility.

Methods

The precise adaptation of implants to patient-specific anatomies, even in complex cases we presented, result in improved aesthetic outcomes and reduced surgical complications. The ability to create highly customized implants addresses the functional aspects of cranial defects and considers the psychological impact on patients.

Results

By combining technological innovation with personalized patient care, 3D printed cranioplasty emerges as a transformative avenue in cranial reconstruction, ultimately redefining the standards of success in neurosurgery.

Conclusion

3D printing allows an excellent cranioplasty cosmesis achieved at a reasonable price without sacrificing patient outcomes. Wider implementation of this strategy can lead to significant healthcare cost savings.

Critical ICP thresholds in relation to outcome: Is 22 mmHg really the answer?

PURPOSE

Intensive care for patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI) aims, among other tasks, at avoiding high intracranial pressure (ICP), which is perceived to worsen motor and cognitive deficits and increase mortality. International recommendations for threshold values for ICP were increased from 20 to 22 mmHg in 2016 following the findings in a study by Sorrentino et al., which were based on an observational study of patients with TBI of averaged ICP values. We aimed to reproduce their approach and validate the findings in a separate cohort.

METHODS

Three hundred thirty-one patients with TBI were included and categorised according to survival/death and favourable/unfavourable outcome at 6 months (based on Glasgow Outcome Score-Extended of 6-8 and 1-5, respectively). Repeated chi-square tests of survival and death (or favourable and unfavourable outcome) vs. high and low ICP were conducted with discrimination between high and low ICP sets at increasing values (integers) between 10 and 35 mmHg, using the average ICP for the entire monitoring period. The ICP limit returning the highest chi-square score was assumed to be the threshold with best discriminative ability. This approach was repeated after stratification by sex, age, and initial Glasgow Coma Score (GCS).

RESULTS

An ICP limit of 18 mmHg was found for both mortality and unfavourable outcome for the entire cohort. The female and the low GCS subgroups both had threshold values of 18 mmHg; for all other subgroups, the threshold varied between 16 and 30 mmHg. According to a multiple logistic regression analysis, age, initial GCS, and average ICP are independently associated with mortality and outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Using identical methods and closely comparable cohorts, the critical thresholds for ICP found in the study by Sorrentino et al. could not be reproduced.

Role of decompressive craniectomy in the management of acute ischemic stroke (Review)

The application of decompressive craniectomy (DC) is thoroughly documented in the management of brain edema, particularly following traumatic brain injury. However, an increasing amount of concern is developing among the universal medical community as regards the application of DC in the treatment of other causes of brain edema, such as subarachnoid hemorrhage, cerebral hemorrhage, sinus thrombosis and encephalitis. Managing stroke continues to remain challenging, and demands the aggressive and intensive consulting of a number of medical specialties. Middle cerebral artery (MCA) infarcts, which consist of 1-10% of all supratentorial infarcts, are often associated with mass effects, and high mortality and morbidity rates. Over the past three decades, a number of neurosurgical medical centers have reported their experience with the application of DC in the treatment of malignant MCA infarction with varying results. In addition, over the past decade, major efforts have been dedicated to multicenter randomized clinical trials. The present study reviews the pertinent literature to outline the use of DC in the management of malignant MCA infarction. The PubMed database was systematically searched for the following terms: 'Malignant cerebral infarction', 'surgery for stroke', 'DC for cerebral infarction', and all their combinations. Case reports were excluded from the review. The articles were categorized into a number of groups; the majority of these were human clinical studies, with a few animal experimental clinical studies. The surgical technique involved was DC, or hemicraniectomy. Other aspects that were included in the selection of articles were methodological characteristics and the number of patients. The multicenter randomized trials were promising. The mortality rate has unanimously decreased. As for the functional outcome, different scales were employed; the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended was not sufficient; the Modified Rankin Scale and Bathel index, as well as other scales, were applied. Other aspects considered were demographics, statistics and the very interesting radiological ones. There is no doubt that DC decreases mortality rates, as shown in all clinical trials. Functional outcome appears to be the goal standard in modern-era neurosurgery, and quality of life should be further discussed among the medical community and with patient consent.

Long-term survival after primary decompressive craniectomy for severe traumatic brain injury: an observational study from 1 to 17 years

Primary decompressive craniectomy (DC) is carried out to prevent intracranial hypertension after removal of mass lesions resulting from traumatic brain injury (TBI). While primary DC can be a life-saving intervention, significant mortality risks persist during the follow-up period. This study was undertaken to investigate the long-term survival rate and ascertain the risk factors of mortality in TBI patients who underwent primary DC. We enrolled 162 head-injured patients undergoing primary DC in this retrospective study. The primary focus was on long-term mortality, which was monitored over a range of 12 to 209 months post-TBI. We compared the clinical parameters of survivors and non-survivors, and used a multivariate logistic regression model to adjust for independent risk factors of long-term mortality. For the TBI patients who survived the initial hospitalization period following surgery, the average duration of follow-up was 106.58 ± 65.45 months. The recorded long-term survival rate of all patients was 56.2% (91/162). Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed that age (odds ratio, 95% confidence interval = 1.12, 1.07-1.18; p < 0.01) and the status of basal cisterns (absent versus normal; odds ratio, 95% confidence interval = 9.32, 2.05-42.40; p < 0.01) were the two independent risk factors linked to long-term mortality. In conclusion, this study indicated a survival rate of 56.2% for patients subjected to primary DC for TBI, with at least a one-year follow-up. Key risk factors associated with long-term mortality were advanced age and absent basal cisterns, critical considerations for developing effective TBI management strategies.

Increased Intracranial Pressure in Pediatric Myelin Oligodendrocyte Glycoprotein Antibody-Associated Disease

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) in myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) antibody-associated disease (MOGAD) has been largely unexplored. The objectives of this study were to determine the frequency of increased ICP in MOGAD and its association with disease course and outcomes and to highlight cases requiring medical and/or surgical management of increased ICP.

METHODS

In this retrospective, single-center cohort study, we examined the clinical and paraclinical data from the initial presentation and follow-up data of children diagnosed with MOGAD. In those with opening pressure (OP) measurements, univariate analyses were used to evaluate factors associated with increased ICP, which was defined as OP > 28 cm H2O. We also present a case series of patients with or without OP measurement who required medical and/or surgical management of increased ICP.

RESULTS

Of 86 children with MOGAD, 43 (50.0%) had an OP recorded and 7 (8.1%) required ICP management. In those with OP recorded, the median (interquartile range) OP for the different MOGAD phenotypes were: 30.0 (22.8-41.6) (acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, ADEM), 20.5 (16.1-23.6) (optic neuritis), 17.0 (17.0-22.5) (myelitis), and 19.5 (16.5-29.3) (other) cm H20. Overall, 20.9% had increased ICP based on an OP > 28 cm H2O, of whom 77.8% presented with ADEM. In a subgroup analysis of those presenting with ADEM, those with an elevated ICP had longer hospital stay (p = 0.007) and neurologic disability (defined as modified Rankin Scale >1) (p = 0.049). In those with or without OP recorded, 7 (6 with ADEM, one with cerebral cortical encephalitis) required ICP-directed therapies. Findings on brain MRI in these 7 children revealed extensive disease burden with bilateral cerebral involvement and evidence of restricted diffusion. While neuropsychological data in this small subset revealed significant variability, all sustained identifiable deficits after discharge, including attention-deficit hyperactivity disorders and language and learning disorders.

DISCUSSION

In pediatric MOGAD, increased OP and ADEM at initial presentation were associated with longer hospital stays and greater long-term morbidity. Although invasive ICP monitoring has not been specifically advocated in the management of MOGAD, it is important to recognize signs and symptoms of increased ICP in these patients and consider ICP monitoring and management strategies based on clinical and radiologic findings, especially in those presenting with ADEM and with OP > 28 cm H2O.

Evidence-based management of adult traumatic brain injury with raised intracranial pressure in intensive critical care unit at resource-limited settings: a literature review

Background

In underdeveloped countries, there is a greater incidence of mortality and morbidity arising from trauma, with traumatic brain injury (TBI) accounting for 50% of all trauma-related deaths. The occurrence of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP), which is a common pathophysiological phenomenon in cases of TBI, acts as a contributing factor to unfavorable outcomes. The aim of this systematic review is to analyze the existing literature regarding the management of adult TBI with raised ICP in an intensive critical care unit, despite limited resources.

Methods

This systematic review was performed in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis protocol. Search engines such as PubMed, the Cochrane database, and Google Scholar were utilized to locate high-level evidence that would facilitate the formation of sound conclusions.

Result

A total of 11 715 articles were identified and individually assessed to determine their eligibility for inclusion or exclusion based on predetermined criteria and outcome variables. The methodological quality of each study was evaluated using recommended criteria. Ultimately, the review consisted of 51 articles.

Conclusion

Physical examination results and noninvasive assessments of the optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) via sonography are positively associated with elevated ICP, and are employed as diagnostic and monitoring tools for elevated ICP in resource-limited settings. Management of elevated ICP necessitates an algorithmic approach that utilizes prophylactic measures and acute intervention treatments to mitigate the risk of secondary brain injury.

Post-traumatic decompressive craniectomy: Prognostic factors and long-term follow-up

Background

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is still controversial in neurosurgery. According to the most recent trials, DC seems to increase survival in case of refractory intracranial pressure. On the other hand, the risk of postsurgical poor outcomes remain high. The present study aimed to evaluate a series of preoperative factors potentially impacting on long-term follow-up of traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients treated with DC.

Methods

We analyzed the first follow-up year of a series of 75 TBI patients treated with DC at our department in five years (2015-2019). Demographic, clinical, and radiological parameters were retrospectively collected from clinical records. Blood examinations were analyzed to calculate the preoperative neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR). Disability rating scale (DRS) was used to classify patients' outcomes (good outcome [G.O.] if DRS ≤11 and poor outcome [P.O.] if DRS ≥12) at 6 and 12 months.

Results

At six months follow-up, 25 out of 75 patients had DRS ≤11, while at 12 months, 30 out of 75 patients were included in the G.O. group . Admission Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) >8 was significantly associated with six months G.O. Increased NLR values and the interval between DC and cranioplasty >3 months were significantly correlated to a P.O. at 6- and 12-month follow-up.

Conclusion

Since DC still represents a controversial therapeutic strategy, selecting parameters to help stratify TBI patients' potential outcomes is paramount. GCS at admission, the interval between DC and cranioplasty, and preoperative NLR values seem to correlate with the long-term outcome.

Diagnosis and management of elevated intracranial pressure in the emergency department

BACKGROUND

Elevated intracranial pressure is a devastating complication of catastrophic brain injury. Intracranial hypertension is commonly seen in neurologic injury secondary to traumatic brain injuries. Uncontrolled pressures can lead to permanent neurologic damage, but acute medical management is often overlooked when pursuing surgical management options that may not always be indicated.

DISCUSSION

Traumatic brain injury is the leading cause of death in patients with severe neurologic injury. Diagnosing elevated intracranial pressures is imperative in initiating prompt treatment to reduce secondary central nervous system injury, morbidity, and mortality. Although the initial injury to the brain is typically irreversible, intracranial pressure control can assist in salvaging the remaining brain tissue from additional damage. We will discuss the initial medical and surgical management of traumatic brain injury to prevent further neurologic deterioration and reduce mortality.

CONCLUSION

Recent literature has reported several methods to detect elevated intracranial pressure easily and studies describing multiple treatment modalities. These investigations suggest that early detection and timely treatment of intracranial hypertension are beneficial in reducing mortality.

Controlled Decompression Alleviates Motor Dysfunction by Regulating Microglial Polarization via the HIF-1α Signaling Pathway in Intracranial Hypertension

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is a major form of surgery that is used to reduce intracranial hypertension (IH), the most frequent cause of death and disability following severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) and stroke. Our previous research showed that controlled decompression (CDC) was more effective than rapid decompression (RDC) with regard to reducing the incidence of complications and improving outcomes after sTBI; however, the specific mechanisms involved have yet to be elucidated. In the present study, we investigated the effects of CDC in regulating inflammation after IH and attempted to identify the mechanisms involved. Analysis showed that CDC was more effective than RDC in alleviating motor dysfunction and neuronal death in a rat model of traumatic intracranial hypertension (TIH) created by epidural balloon pressurization. Moreover, RDC induced M1 microglia polarization and the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. However, CDC treatment resulted in microglia primarily polarizing into the M2 phenotype and induced the significant release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Mechanistically, the establishment of the TIH model led to the increased expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α); CDC ameliorated cerebral hypoxia and reduced the expression of HIF-1α. In addition, 2-methoxyestradiol (2-ME2), a specific inhibitor of HIF-1α, significantly attenuated RDC-induced inflammation and improved motor function by promoting M1 to M2 phenotype transformation in microglial and enhancing the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. However, dimethyloxaloylglycine (DMOG), an agonist of HIF-1α, abrogated the protective effects of CDC treatment by suppressing M2 microglia polarization and the release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Collectively, our results indicated that CDC effectively alleviated IH-induced inflammation, neuronal death, and motor dysfunction by regulating HIF-1α-mediated microglial phenotype polarization. Our findings provide a better understanding of the mechanisms that underlie the protective effects of CDC and promote clinical translational research for HIF-1α in IH.

Severe Pediatric Open Skull Fracture With Exposed Brain Matter: A Case Report

Head trauma in the pediatric population carries a high rate of morbidity and mortality. The major causes of head trauma are related to falls, recreational activities, motor vehicle accidents, and gunshot wounds. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) can occur after severe head trauma and is defined as an alteration in brain function, or other evidence of brain pathology, caused by an external force. Intracranial edema and herniation are common consequences of a TBI in pediatric patients and are commonly relieved via decompressive craniectomy.  This case study describes a 13-year-old male presenting to the trauma center after an unhelmeted all-terrain vehicle (ATV) accident with a positive head strike and loss of consciousness. The evaluation revealed extensive skull fractures extending from the frontal to the occipital lobe with brain exposure. Computed tomography (CT) scan of the head demonstrated extensive, open skull fractures with significant displacement of the exposed brain, extensive bilateral parietal and frontal bone fractures, and bilateral temporal bone displaced fractures more extensive on the left. A bilateral hemicraniectomy was performed due to diffuse cerebral edema and a left frontal ventriculostomy was placed to monitor and manage intracranial pressure (ICP). It is believed that the unique presentation of an open skull fracture with an exposed brain acted as a decompressive method allowing for extreme lifesaving measures to be performed to save the patient. Further exploration is needed to truly understand the effects of the unique injury presentation and the role of an open fracture in the delay of increased ICP.

Hinge craniotomy versus standard decompressive hemicraniectomy: an experimental preclinical comparative study

INTRODUCTION

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is the most common surgical procedure to manage increased intracranial pressure (ICP). Hinge craniotomy (HC), which consists of fixing the bone operculum with a pivot, is an alternative method conceived to avoid some DC-related complications; nonetheless, it is debated whether it can provide enough volume expansion. In this study, we aimed to analyze the volume and ICP obtained with HC using an experimental cadaver-based preclinical model and compare the results to baseline and DC.

METHODS

Baseline conditions, HC, and DC were compared on both sides of five anatomical specimens. Volume and ICP values were measured with a custom-made system. Local polynomial regression was used to investigate volume differences.

RESULTS

The area of the bone opercula resulting from measurements was 115.55 cm2; the mean supratentorial volume was 955 mL. HC led to intermediate results compared to baseline and DC. At an ICP of 50 mmHg, HC offers 130 mL extra space but 172 mL less than a DC. Based on local polynomial regression, the mean volume difference between HC and the standard craniotomy was 10%; 14% between DC and HC; both are higher than the volume of brain herniation reported in the literature in the clinical setting. The volume leading to an ICP of 50 mmHg at baseline was less than the volume needed to reach an ICP of 20 mmHg after HC (10.05% and 14.95% from baseline, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

These data confirm the efficacy of HC in providing sufficient volume expansion. HC is a valid intermediate alternative in case of potentially evolutionary lesions and non-massive edema, especially in developing countries.

Craniectomy size and decompression of the temporal base using the altered posterior question-mark incision for decompressive hemicraniectomy

The altered posterior question-mark incision for decompressive hemicraniectomy (DHC) was proposed to reduce the risk of intraoperative injury of the superficial temporal artery (STA) and demonstrated a reduced rate of wound-healing disorders after cranioplasty. However, decompression size during DHC is essential and it remains unclear if the new incision type allows for an equally effective decompression. Therefore, this study evaluated the efficacy of the altered posterior question-mark incision for craniectomy size and decompression of the temporal base and assessed intraoperative complications compared to a modified standard reversed question-mark incision. The authors retrospectively identified 69 patients who underwent DHC from 2019 to 2022. Decompression and preservation of the STA was assessed on postoperative CT scans and CT or MR angiography. Forty-two patients underwent DHC with the standard reversed and 27 patients with the altered posterior question-mark incision. The distance of the margin of the craniectomy to the temporal base was 6.9 mm in the modified standard reversed and 7.2 mm in the altered posterior question-mark group (p = 0.77). There was no difference between the craniectomy sizes of 158.8 mm and 158.2 mm, respectively (p = 0.45), and there was no difference in the rate of accidental opening of the mastoid air cells. In both groups, no transverse/sigmoid sinus was injured. Twenty-four out of 42 patients in the modified standard and 22/27 patients in the altered posterior question-mark group had a postoperative angiography, and the STA was preserved in all cases in both groups. Twelve (29%) and 5 (19%) patients underwent revision due to wound-healing disorders after DHC, respectively (p = 0.34). There was no difference in duration of surgery. Thus, the altered posterior question-mark incision demonstrated technically equivalent and allows for an equally effective craniectomy size and decompression of the temporal base without increasing risks of intraoperative complications. Previously described reduction in wound-healing complications and cranioplasty failures needs to be confirmed in prospective studies to demonstrate the superiority of the altered posterior question-mark incision.

Recent Updates on Controversies in Decompressive Craniectomy and Cranioplasty: Physiological Effect, Indication, Complication, and Management

Decompressive craniectomy (DCE) and cranioplasty (CP) are surgical procedures used to manage elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) in various clinical scenarios, including ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, and traumatic brain injury. The physiological changes following DCE, such as cerebral blood flow, perfusion, brain tissue oxygenation, and autoregulation, are essential for understanding the benefits and limitations of these procedures. A comprehensive literature search was conducted to systematically review the recent updates in DCE and CP, focusing on the fundamentals of DCE for ICP reduction, indications for DCE, optimal sizes and timing for DCE and CP, the syndrome of trephined, and the debate on suboccipital CP. The review highlights the need for further research on hemodynamic and metabolic indicators following DCE, particularly in relation to the pressure reactivity index. It provides recommendations for early CP within three months of controlling increased ICP to facilitate neurological recovery. Additionally, the review emphasizes the importance of considering suboccipital CP in patients with persistent headaches, cerebrospinal fluid leakage, or cerebellar sag after suboccipital craniectomy. A better understanding of the physiological effects, indications, complications, and management strategies for DCE and CP to control elevated ICP will help optimize patient outcomes and improve the overall effectiveness of these procedures.

Incidence and predictors of mortality among traumatic brain injury patients admitted to Amhara region Comprehensive Specialized Hospitals, northwest Ethiopia, 2022

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injury is a substantial cause of mortality and morbidity with a higher burden in low and middle-income countries due to healthcare systems that are unable to deliver effectively the acute and long-term care the patients require. Besides its burden, there is little information on traumatic brain injury-related mortality in Ethiopia, especially in the region. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the incidence and predictors of mortality among traumatic brain injury patients admitted to comprehensive specialized hospitals in the Amhara region, northwest Ethiopia, 2022.

METHODS

An institution-based retrospective follow-up study was conducted among 544 traumatic brain injury patients admitted from January 1, 2021, to December 31, 2021. A simple random sampling method was used. Data were extracted using a pre-tested and structured data abstraction sheet. Data were entered, coded, and cleaned into EPi-info version 7.2.0.1 software and exported to STATA version 14.1 for analysis. The Weibull regression model was fitted to determine the association between time to death and covariates. Variables with a P-value < 0.05 were declared statistically significant.

RESULTS

The overall incidence of mortality among traumatic brain injury patients was 1.23 per 100 person-day observation [95% (CI: 1.0, 1.5)] with a median survival time of 106 (95% CI: 60, 121) days. Age [AHR: 1.08 (95% CI; 1.06, 1.1)], severe traumatic brain injury [AHR: 10 (95% CI; 3.55, 28.2)], moderate traumatic brain injury [AHR: 9.2 (95% CI 2.97, 29)], hypotension [AHR: 6.9 (95% CI; 2.8, 17.1)], coagulopathy [AHR: 2.55 (95% CI: 1.27, 5.1)], hyperthermia [AHR: 2.79 (95% CI; 1.4, 5.5)], and hyperglycemia [AHR: 2.28 (95% CI; 1.13, 4.6)] were positively associated with mortality while undergoing neurosurgery were negatively associated with mortality [AHR: 0.47 (95% CI; 0.27-0 0.82)].

CONCLUSION

The overall incidence of mortality was found to be high. Age, severe and moderate traumatic brain injury, hypotension at admission, coagulopathy, presence of associated aspiration pneumonia, undergoing a neurosurgical procedure, episode of hyperthermia, and hyperglycemia during hospitalization were the independent predictors of time to death. Therefore, interventions to reduce mortality should focus on the prevention of primary injury and secondary brain injury.

Acute subdural haematoma exacerbates cerebral blood flow disorder and promotes the development of intraoperative brain bulge in patients with severe traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND

Decompressive craniectomy (DC) is a routine procedure used for the treatment of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) with concomitant acute subdural haematoma (SDH). However, certain patients are prone to developing malignant brain bulge during DC, which prolongs the operative time and worsens patient outcomes. Previous studies have shown that malignant intraoperative brain bulge (IOBB) may be associated with excessive arterial hyperaemia caused by cerebrovascular system disorders. Through a clinical retrospective analysis and prospective observations, we found that the cerebral blood flow of patients who possessed risk factors manifested high resistance and low flow velocity, which severely affected brain tissue perfusion and resulted in the occurrence of malignant IOBB. In the current literature, rat models of severe brain injury-associated brain bulge have rarely been reported.

METHODS

To gain an in-depth understanding of cerebrovascular changes and the cascade of responses related to brain bulge, we introduced acute SDH into the Marmarou model for the preparation of a rat model of high intracranial pressure (ICP) to simulate the pathological conditions experienced by patients with severe brain injury.

RESULTS

With the introduction of a 400-µL haematoma, significant dynamic changes occurred in ICP, mean arterial pressure, and relative blood perfusion rate of the cerebral cortical vessels. ICP increased to 56.9 ± 2.3 mmHg, mean arterial pressure showed reactive decrease, and the blood flow of cerebral cortical arteries and veins on the non-SDH-affected side decreased to < 10%. These changes could not fully recover even after DC. This resulted in generalised damage to the neurovascular unit and a lag effect to the venous blood reflux, which triggered malignant IOBB formation during DC.

CONCLUSION

An excessive increase in ICP causes cerebrovascular dysfunction and brings about a cascade of damage to brain tissue, which forms the basis for the development of diffuse brain swelling. The subsequent heterogeneous responses of the cerebral arteries and veins during craniotomy may be the main cause of primary IOBB. Clinicians should pay particular attention to the redistribution of CBF to various vessels when performing DC in patients with severe TBI.

3D bioprinted autologous bone particle scaffolds for cranioplasty promote bone regeneration with both implanted and native BMSCs

Although autologous bone (AB) grafting is considered to be the gold standard for cranioplasty, unresolved problems remain, such as surgical-site infections and bone flap absorption. In this study, an AB scaffold was constructed via three-dimensional (3D) bedside-bioprinting technology and used for cranioplasty. To simulate the skull structure, a polycaprolactone shell was designed as an external lamina, and 3D-printed AB and a bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cell (BMSC) hydrogel was used to mimic cancellous bone for bone regeneration. Ourin vitroresults showed that the scaffold exhibited excellent cellular affinity and promoted osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs in both two-dimensional and 3D culture systems. The scaffold was implanted in beagle dog cranial defects for up to 9 months, and the scaffold promoted new bone and osteoid formation. Furtherin vivostudies indicated that transplanted BMSCs differentiated into vascular endothelium, cartilage, and bone tissues, whereas native BMSCs were recruited into the defect. The results of this study provide a method for bedside bioprinting of a cranioplasty scaffold for bone regeneration, which opens up another window for clinical applications of 3D printing in the future.

The compensatory mechanism and clinical significance of hydrocephalus after cranioplasty

Objective

Cranioplasty (CP) and ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VPS) are procedures required after decompression of the flap (DC) to protect the cranial frame and prevent hydrocephalus. This study evaluated the safety and efficacy of different surgical sequences of CP and VPS after DC and identified risk factors for necessary permanent VPS.

Methods

From January 2017 to December 2021, valid follow-up data were collected in 192 cases. The observation group preferred CP, and then evaluated whether to receive VPS according to the progress of hydrocephalus. the control group was prioritized for VPS and continued with CP after 1 week. The improvement of hydrocephalus symptoms, follow-up outcomes, and post-operative complications before and after surgery were compared between the two groups, and univariate analysis was used to determine the risk factors for necessary permanent risk factors for VPS.

Results

There were 86 cases (44.8%) in the observation group, who received CP first, while 106 cases (55.2%) in the control group received VPS and CP, respectively. There was no significant difference between the two groups according to Barthel index, FMAS, Mrs, GCS, and Evans index, and there was no statistical difference in complications between the two groups. However, in the observation group, hydrocephalus disappeared after CP operation in 29 cases (33.7%), and finally avoided VPS. Univariate analysis showed that the main etiology was related to the size of the skull defect, the distance of the talus margin relative to the flap to the midline, and lumbar puncture pressure was a predictor of the need for permanent VPS.

Conclusion

This study provides detailed information on the efficacy and complications of different sequences of preferential CP or VPS after DC surgery. We found that priority CP reduced the incidence of VPS surgery without affecting surgical outcomes and complications.

Hypertonic saline for traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) causes mortality and long-term disability among young adults and imposes a notable cost on the healthcare system. In addition to the first physical hit, secondary injury, which is associated with increased intracranial pressure (ICP), is defined as biochemical, cellular, and physiological changes after the physical injury. Mannitol and Hypertonic saline (HTS) are the treatment bases for elevated ICP in TBI. This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluates the effectiveness of HTS in the management of patients with TBI.

METHODS

This study was conducted following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methods and PRISMA statement. A systematic search was performed through six databases in February 2022, to find studies that evaluated the effects of HTS, on increased ICP. Meta-analysis was performed using comprehensive meta-analysis (CMA).

RESULTS

Out of 1321 results, 8 studies were included in the systematic review, and 3 of them were included in the quantitative synthesis. The results of the meta-analysis reached a 35.9% (95% CI 15.0-56.9) reduction in ICP in TBI patients receiving HTS, with no significant risk of publication bias (t-value = 0.38, df = 2, p-value = 0.73). The most common source of bias in our included studies was the transparency of blinding methods for both patients and outcome assessors.

CONCLUSION

HTS can significantly reduce the ICP, which may prevent secondary injury. Also, based on the available evidence, HTS has relatively similar efficacy to Mannitol, which is considered the gold standard therapy for TBI, in boosting patients' neurological condition and reducing mortality rates.

Understanding Acquired Brain Injury: A Review

Any type of brain injury that transpires post-birth is referred to as Acquired Brain Injury (ABI). In general, ABI does not result from congenital disorders, degenerative diseases, or by brain trauma at birth. Although the human brain is protected from the external world by layers of tissues and bone, floating in nutrient-rich cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); it remains susceptible to harm and impairment. Brain damage resulting from ABI leads to changes in the normal neuronal tissue activity and/or structure in one or multiple areas of the brain, which can often affect normal brain functions. Impairment sustained from an ABI can last anywhere from days to a lifetime depending on the severity of the injury; however, many patients face trouble integrating themselves back into the community due to possible psychological and physiological outcomes. In this review, we discuss ABI pathologies, their types, and cellular mechanisms and summarize the therapeutic approaches for a better understanding of the subject and to create awareness among the public.

Predictive role of shock index in the early formation of cerebral infarction in patients with TBI and cerebral herniation

Background and purpose

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) with brain herniation predisposes to posttraumatic cerebral infarction (PTCI), which in turn seriously affects the prognosis of patients. At present, there is a lack of effective indicators that can accurately predict the occurrence of PTCI. We aimed to find possible risk factors for the development of PTCI by comparing the preoperative and postoperative clinical data of TBI patients with brain herniation.

Methods

The clinical data of 120 patients with craniocerebral trauma and brain herniation were retrospectively analyzed. Among them, 54 patients had cerebral infarction within 3–7 days after injury. The two groups of patients were compared through univariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis, and a classification tree model and a nomogram model were constructed. Finally, receiver operating characteristic curve analysis and decision curve analysis were conducted to analyze the clinical utility of the prediction model.

Results

Logistic regression analysis showed that factors like the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score (P = 0.002), subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) (P = 0.005), aspiration pneumonia (P &lt; 0.001), decompressive craniectomy (P &lt; 0.05), intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring (P = 0.006), the shock index (SI) (P &lt; 0.001), the mean arterial pressure (MAP) (P = 0.005), and blood glucose (GLU) (P &lt; 0.011) appeared to show a significant statistical correlation with the occurrence of infarction (P &lt; 0.05), while age, sex, body temperature (T), D-dimer levels, and coagulation tests were not significantly correlated with PTCI after cerebral herniation. Combined with the above factors, Classification and Regression Tree was established, and the recognition accuracy rate reached 76.67%.

Conclusions

GCS score at admission, no decompressive craniectomy, no ICP monitoring, combined SAH, combined aspiration pneumonia, SI, MAP, and high GLU were risk factors for infarction, of which SI was the primary predictor of PTCI in TBI with an area under the curve of 0.775 (95% CI = 0.689–0.861). Further large-scale studies are needed to confirm these results.

Low-Cost Cranioplasty—A Systematic Review of 3D Printing in Medicine

The high cost of biofabricated titanium mesh plates can make them out of reach for hospitals in low-income countries. To increase the availability of cranioplasty, the authors of this work investigated the production of polymer-based endoprostheses. Recently, cheap, popular desktop 3D printers have generated sufficient opportunities to provide patients with on-demand and on-site help. This study also examines the technologies of 3D printing, including SLM, SLS, FFF, DLP, and SLA. The authors focused their interest on the materials in fabrication, which include PLA, ABS, PET-G, PEEK, and PMMA. Three-dimensional printed prostheses are modeled using widely available CAD software with the help of patient-specific DICOM files. Even though the topic is insufficiently researched, it can be perceived as a relatively safe procedure with a minimal complication rate. There have also been some initial studies on the costs and legal regulations. Early case studies provide information on dozens of patients living with self-made prostheses and who are experiencing significant improvements in their quality of life. Budget 3D-printed endoprostheses are reliable and are reported to be significantly cheaper than the popular counterparts manufactured from polypropylene polyester.

Effects of therapeutic hypothermia on the safety of children with severe traumatic brain injury: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Therapeutic hypothermia (TH) is effective to treat adult traumatic brain injury (TBI), but there is still controversy about its safety to treat the children with severe TBI.

METHODS

Clinical studies on TH in children with severe TBI from January 2000 to September 2020 were screened in PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, Cochrane Library, Nature, NCKI, and Wanfang online databases. Data were meta-analyzed by Rev Man 5.3. Differences in mortality, adverse outcomes, duration of Pediatric Intensive Care Unit (PICU), incidence of infection, and incidence of arrhythmia were compared between experimental group and control group. The heterogeneity of the results was evaluated by chi-square test and I² test in Rev Man 5.3, and publication bias was evaluated by funnel plot.

RESULTS

Five articles were included, including 421 children. Cochrane evaluation was B grade or above, and Jadad scale score was over three points. The overall mortality between two groups showed great difference [odds ratio (OR) =1.72, 95% CI: 0.98-3.02, Z=1.87, P=0.04]. The incidence of adverse outcomes (OR =1.39, 95% CI: 0.86-2.25, Z=1.34, P=0.18), the duration of PICU [mean difference (MD) =0.51, 95% CI: -0.33 to 1.35, Z=1.19, P=0.24], the incidence of infection (OR =0.79, 95% CI: 0.51-1.23, Z=1.03, P=0.30), and the incidence of arrhythmia (OR =3.10, 95% CI: 0.77-12.50, Z=1.59, P=0.11) were not considerably different.

DISCUSSION

TH significantly reduced overall mortality in children with severe TBI, but did not significantly improve the incidence of adverse outcomes, PICU duration, infection rate, or arrhythmia. These results provided a reference for selecting proper clinical treatment methods for children with severe TBI.

Severe Traumatic Brain Injury in children-paradigm of decompressive craniectomy compared to a historic cohort

PURPOSE

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the leading causes of death and disability in children. Medical therapy remains limited, and decompressive craniectomy (DC) is an established rescue therapy in case of elevated intracranial pressure (ICP). Much discussion deals with clinical outcome after severe TBI treated with DC, while data on the pediatric population is rare. We report our experience of treating severe TBI in two different treatment setups at the same academic institution.

METHODS

Forty-eight patients (≤ 16 years) were hospitalized with severe TBI (GCS ≤ 8 points) between 2008 and 2018 in a pediatric intensive care unit (ICU) at a specialized tertiary pediatric care center. Data on treatment, clinical status, and outcome was retrospectively analyzed. Outcome data included Glasgow Outcome Scale (GOS) at 3-, 12-, and 36-month follow-up. Data was compared to a historic cohort with 53 pediatric severe TBI patients treated at the same institution in a neurointensive care unit between 1996 and 2007. Ethical approval was granted (EA2/076/21).

RESULTS

Between 2008 and 2018, 11 patients were treated with DC. Compared to the historic cohort, patients were younger and GCS was worse, while in-hospital mortality and clinical outcome remained similar. A trend towards more aggressive EVD placement and the internal paradigm change for treatment in a specialized pediatric ICU was observed.

CONCLUSIONS

In children with severe TBI treated over two decades, clinical outcome was comparable and mostly favorable in two different treatment setups. Consequent therapy is warranted to maintain the positive potential for favorable outcome in children with severe TBI.

Incidence of emergency neurosurgical TBI procedures: a population-based study

BACKGROUND

The rates of emergency neurosurgery in traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients vary between populations and trauma centers. In planning acute TBI treatment, knowledge about rates and incidence of emergency neurosurgery at the population level is of importance for organization and planning of specialized health care services. This study aimed to present incidence rates and patient characteristics for the most common TBI-related emergency neurosurgical procedures.

METHODS

Oslo University Hospital is the only trauma center with neurosurgical services in Southeast Norway, which has a population of 3 million. We extracted prospectively collected registry data from the Oslo TBI Registry - Neurosurgery over a five-year period (2015-2019). Incidence was calculated in person-pears (crude) and age-adjusted for standard population. We conducted multivariate multivariable logistic regression models to assess variables associated with emergency neurosurgical procedures.

RESULTS

A total of 2151 patients with pathological head CT scans were included. One or more emergency neurosurgical procedure was performed in 27% of patients. The crude incidence was 3.9/100,000 person-years. The age-adjusted incidences in the standard population for Europe and the world were 4.0/100,000 and 3.3/100,000, respectively. The most frequent emergency neurosurgical procedure was the insertion of an intracranial pressure monitor, followed by evacuation of the mass lesion. Male sex, road traffic accidents, severe injury (low Glasgow coma score) and CT characteristics such as midline shift and compressed/absent basal cisterns were significantly associated with an increased probability of emergency neurosurgery, while older age was associated with a decreased probability.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of emergency neurosurgery in the general population is low and reflects neurosurgery procedures performed in patients with severe injuries. Hence, emergency neurosurgery for TBIs should be centralized to major trauma centers.

Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: The intensivist's point of view

OBJETIVE

To perform a score with early clinical and radiological findings after a TBI that identifies the patients who in their subsequent evolution are going to undergo DC.

METHOD

Observational study of a retrospective cohort of patients who, after a TBI, enter the Neurocritical Section of the Intensive Care Unit of our hospital for a period of 5 years (2014-2018). Detection of clinical and radiological criteria and generation of all possible models with significant, clinically relevant and easy to detect early variables. Selection of the one with the lowest Bayesian Information Criterion and Akaike Information Criterion values for the creation of the score. Calibration and internal validation of the score using the Hosmer-Lemeshow and a bootstrapping analysis with 1000 re-samples respectively.

RESULTS

37 DC were performed in 153 patients who were admitted after a TBI. The resulting final model included Cerebral Midline Deviation, GCS and Ventricular Collapse with an Area under ROC Curve: 0.84 (95% IC 0.78-0.91) and Hosmer-Lemeshow p=0.71. The developed score detected well those patients who were going to need an early DC (first 24h) after a TBI (2.5±0.5) but not those who would need it in a later stage of their disease (1.7±0.8). However, it seems to advice us about the patients who, although not requiring an early DC are likely to need it later in their evolution (DC after 24h vs. do not require DC, 1.7±0.8 vs. 1±0.7; p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

We have developed a prognostic score using early clinical-radiological criteria that, in our environment, detects with good sensitivity and specificity those patients who, after a TBI, will require a DC.

Decompressive craniectomy can improve the recovery of neurological function, daily living ability and life quality of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage after surgery

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effect of decompressive craniectomy (DC) on the recovery of neurological function, daily living ability and life quality of patients with intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) after surgery.

METHODS

Totally 290 patients with ICH admitted to our hospital from January 2018 to June 2020 were retrospectively enrolled and assigned to two groups according to different surgical methods. Among them, 138 patients who received craniotomy evacuation of hematoma (CEH) only were assigned to a control group (Con group), while the other 152 who received CEH combined with DC to a research group (Res group). The two groups were compared in the total effective rate, hematoma clearance rate, and complication rate. Additionally, the ICP and MMP-9 levels after surgery, National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS), activities of daily living (ADL), Fugl-Meyer Assessment of motor function (FMA), Glasgow outcome scale (GOS), Glasgow coma scale (GCS), and MOS 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36) scores before and after surgery were also compared between the two groups.

RESULTS

After treatment, the Res group showed a notably higher total effective rate, hematoma clearance rate, and a notably lower complication rate than the Con group. On postoperative day 3 and 7, the Res group showed notably lower ICP than the Con group, and on postoperative day 7, the Res group showed a notably lower MMP-9 level as compared with the Con group. Additionally, 6 months after the surgery, the Res group got notably lower NIHSS scores and higher ADL, GOS, and SF-36 scores as compared with the Con group, and at 1 month after surgery, the Res group got notably higher FMA scores as compared to the Con group. Moreover, on postoperative day 7, the Res group got notably higher GCS scores than the Con group.

CONCLUSION

DC can improve the recovery of neurological function, daily living ability and life quality of patients with ICH after surgery.

Mild Traumatic Brain Injury in Older Adults: Are Routine Second cCT Scans Necessary?

Fall-related hospitalizations among older adults have been increasing in recent decades. One of the most common reasons for this is minimal or mild traumatic brain injury (mTBI) in older individuals taking anticoagulant medication. In this study, we analyzed all inpatient stays from January 2017 to December 2019 of patients aged > 75 years with a mTBI on anticoagulant therapy who received at least two cranial computer tomography (cCT) scans. Of 1477 inpatient stays, 39 had primary cranial bleeding, and in 1438 the results of initial scans were negative for cranial bleeding. Of these 1438 cases, 6 suffered secondary bleeding from the control cCT scan. There was no significance for bleeding related to the type of anticoagulation. We conclude that geriatric patients under anticoagulant medication don’t need a second cCT scan if the primary cCT was negative for intracranial bleeding and the patient shows no clinical signs of bleeding. These patients can be dismissed but require an evaluation for need of home care or protective measures to prevent recurrent falls. The type of anticoagulant medication does not affect the risk of bleeding.

Intracranial Compliance Assessed by Intracranial Pressure Pulse Waveform

BACKGROUND

Morphological alterations in intracranial pressure (ICP) pulse waveform (ICPW) secondary to intracranial hypertension (ICP >20 mmHg) and a reduction in intracranial compliance (ICC) are well known indicators of neurological severity. The exclusive exploration of modifications in ICPW after either the loss of skull integrity or surgical procedures for intracranial hypertension resolution is not a common approach studied. The present study aimed to assess the morphological alterations in ICPW among neurocritical care patients with skull defects and decompressive craniectomy (DC) by comparing the variations in ICPW features according to elevations in mean ICP values.

METHODS

Patients requiring ICP monitoring because of acute brain injury were included. A continuous record of 10 min-length for the beat-by-beat analysis of ICPW was performed, with ICP elevation produced by means of ultrasound-guided manual internal jugular vein compression at the end of the record. ICPW features (peak amplitude ratio (P2/P1), time interval to pulse peak (TTP) and pulse amplitude) were counterweighed between baseline and compression periods. Results were distributed for three groups: intact skull (exclusive burr hole for ICP monitoring), craniotomy/large fractures (group 2) or DC (group 3).

RESULTS

57 patients were analyzed. A total of 21 (36%) presented no skull defects, 21 (36%) belonged to group 2, whereas 15 (26%) had DC. ICP was not significantly different between groups: ±15.11 for intact, 15.33 for group 2 and ±20.81 mmHg for group 3, with ICP-induced elevation also similar between groups (p = 0.56). Significant elevation was observed for the P2/P1 ratio for groups 1 and 2, whereas a reduction was observed in group 3 (elevation of ±0.09 for groups 1 and 2, but a reduction of 0.03 for group 3, p = 0.01), and no significant results were obtained for TTP and pulse amplitudes.

CONCLUSION

In the present study, intracranial pressure pulse waveform analysis indicated that intracranial compliance was significantly more impaired among decompressive craniectomy patients, although ICPW indicated DC to be protective for further influences of ICP elevations over the brain. The analysis of ICPW seems to be an alternative to real-time ICC assessment.

Civilian gunshot wounds to the head: a case report, clinical management, and literature review

BACKGROUND

Civilian gunshot wounds to the head refer to brain injury caused by projectiles such as gun projectiles and various fragments generated by explosives in a power launch or explosion. Gunshot wounds to the head are the deadliest of all gun injuries. According to literature statistics, the survival rate of patients with gunshot wounds to the head is only 9%. Due to the strict management of various types of firearms, they rarely occur, so the injury mechanism, injury and trauma analysis, clinical management, and surgical standards are almost entirely based on military experience, and there are few related reports, especially of the head, in which an individual suffered a fatal blow more than once in a short time. We report a case with a return to almost complete recovery despite the patient suffering two gunshot injuries to the head in a short period of time.

CASE PRESENTATIONS

We present a case of a 53-year-old man who suffered two gunshot injuries to the head under unknown circumstances. On initial presentation, the patient had a Glasgow Coma Scale score of 6, was unable to communicate, and had loss of consciousness. The first bullet penetrated the right frontal area and finally reached the right occipital lobe. When the patient reflexively shielded his head with his hand, the second bullet passed through the patient's right palm bone, entered the right frontotemporal area, and came to rest deep in the lateral sulcus. The patient had a cerebral hernia when he was admitted to the hospital and immediately entered the operating room for rescue after a computed tomography scan. After two foreign body removals and skull repair, the patient recovered completely.

CONCLUSIONS

Gunshot wounds to the head have a high mortality rate and usually require aggressive management. Evaluation of most gunshot injuries requires extremely fast imaging examination upon arrival at the hospital, followed by proactive treatment against infection, seizure, and increased intracranial pressure. Surgical intervention is usually necessary, and its key points include the timing, method, and scope of the operation.

Downregulation of microRNA-9-5p promotes synaptic remodeling in the chronic phase after traumatic brain injury

The level of microRNA-9-5p (miRNA-9-5p) in brain tissues is significantly changed in the chronic phase after traumatic brain injury (TBI). However, the effect of miRNA-9-5p on brain function after TBI has not been elucidated. In this study, we used a controlled cortical impact (CCI) model to induce TBI in Sprague-Dawley rats. Brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), astrocytes, and neurons were extracted from immature Sprague-Dawley rats and cocultured to reconstruct the neurovascular unit (NVU) in vitro. The results showed that downregulation of miRNA-9-5p in the chronic phase contributed to neurological function recovery by promoting astrocyte proliferation and increasing the release of astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factors around injured brain tissues after TBI. A dual-luciferase reporter assay validated that miRNA-9-5p was a post-transcriptional modulator of thrombospondin 2 (Thbs-2), and downregulation of miRNA-9-5p promoted Thbs-2 expression in astrocytes. Furthermore, we verified that Thbs-2 can promote Notch pathway activation by directly binding to Jagged and Notch. Through in vitro experiments, we found that the expression of synaptic proteins and the number of synaptic bodies were increased in neurons in the NVU, which was constructed using astrocytes pretreated with miRNA-9-5p inhibitor. Moreover, we also found that downregulation of miRNA-9-5p promoted Thbs-2 expression in astrocytes, which activated the Notch/cylindromatosis/transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 pathway in neurons and promoted the expression of synaptic proteins, including post-synaptic density protein 95 and synaptotagmin. Based on these results, miRNA-9-5p may be a new promising prognostic marker and treatment target for TBI.

Effectiveness and Safety of Pressure Dressings on Reducing Subdural Effusion After Decompressive Craniectomy

OBJECTIVE

Decompressive craniectomy as a treatment is often used in the rescue treatment of critically ill patients in neurosurgery; however, there are many complications after this operation. Subdural effusion is a common complication after decompressive craniectomy. Once it occurs, it can cause further problems for the patient. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore the safety and effectiveness of pressure dressings for subdural effusion after decompressive craniectomy.

METHODS

Patients who underwent decompressive craniectomy in our hospital from January 2016 to January 2021 were included in this study, and all patients were followed up for 6 months or more. After the operation, the patients were divided into two groups according to whether they received a pressure dressing or a traditional dressing. Subdural effusion, cerebrospinal fluid leakage, hydrocephalus and other complications were compared between the two groups, and the differences in hospital duration, cost and prognosis between the two groups were analyzed.

RESULTS

A total of 123 patients were included in this study. Among them, 62 patients chose pressure dressings, and 61 patients chose traditional dressings. The incidence of subdural effusion in the pressure dressing group was significantly lower than that in the traditional dressing group (P<0.05). There was no difference between the two groups in cerebrospinal fluid leakage and hydrocephalus (P > 0.05). In addition, the length of hospital stay and the total cost in the pressure dressing group were significantly lower (P<0.05).

CONCLUSION

Pressure dressing can effectively reduce the occurrence of subdural effusion after decompressive craniectomy, and it does not increase the occurrence of other cerebrospinal fluid-related complications.

Decompressive craniectomy in traumatic brain injury: the intensivist's point of view

OBJETIVE

To perform a score with early clinical and radiological findings after a TBI that identifies the patients who in their subsequent evolution are going to undergo DC.

METHOD

Observational study of a retrospective cohort of patients who, after a TBI, enter the Neurocritical Section of the Intensive Care Unit of our hospital for a period of 5 years (2014-2018). Detection of clinical and radiological criteria and generation of all possible models with significant, clinically relevant and easy to detect early variables. Selection of the one with the lowest Bayesian Information Criterion and Akaike Information Criterion values for the creation of the score. Calibration and internal validation of the score using the Hosmer-Lemeshow and a bootstrapping analysis with 1,000 re-samples respectively.

RESULTS

37 DC were performed in 153 patients who were admitted after a TBI. The resulting final model included Cerebral Midline Deviation, GCS and Ventricular Collapse with an Area under ROC Curve: 0.84 (95% IC 0.78-0.91) and Hosmer-Lemeshow p=0.71. The developed score detected well those patients who were going to need an early DC (first 24hours) after a TBI (2.5±0.5) but not those who would need it in a later stage of their disease (1.7±0.8). However, it seems to advice us about the patients who, although not requiring an early DC are likely to need it later in their evolution (DC after 24hours vs do not require DC, 1.7±0.8 vs 1±0.7; p=0.002).

CONCLUSION

We have developed a prognostic score using early clinical-radiological criteria that, in our environment, detects with good sensitivity and specificity those patients who, after a TBI, will require a DC.

Escalate and De-Escalate Therapies for Intracranial Pressure Control in Traumatic Brain Injury

Severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) is frequently associated with an elevation of intracranial pressure (ICP), followed by cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) reduction. Invasive monitoring of ICP is recommended to guide a step-by-step “staircase approach” which aims to normalize ICP values and reduce the risks of secondary damage. However, if such monitoring is not available clinical examination and radiological criteria should be used. A major concern is how to taper the therapies employed for ICP control. The aim of this manuscript is to review the criteria for escalating and withdrawing therapies in TBI patients. Each step of the staircase approach carries a risk of adverse effects related to the duration of treatment. Tapering of barbiturates should start once ICP control has been achieved for at least 24 h, although a period of 2–12 days is often required. Administration of hyperosmolar fluids should be avoided if ICP is normal. Sedation should be reduced after at least 24 h of controlled ICP to allow neurological examination. Removal of invasive ICP monitoring is suggested after 72 h of normal ICP. For patients who have undergone surgical decompression, cranioplasty represents the final step, and an earlier cranioplasty (15–90 days after decompression) seems to reduce the rate of infection, seizures, and hydrocephalus.

Escalation therapy in severe traumatic brain injury: how long is intracranial pressure monitoring necessary?

Traumatic brain injury frequently causes an elevation of intracranial pressure (ICP) that could lead to reduction of cerebral perfusion pressure and cause brain ischemia. Invasive ICP monitoring is recommended by international guidelines, in order to reduce the incidence of secondary brain injury; although rare, the complications related to ICP probes could be dependent on the duration of monitoring. The aim of this manuscript is to clarify the appropriate timing for removal and management of invasive ICP monitoring, in order to reduce the risk of related complications and guarantee adequate cerebral autoregulatory control. There is no universal consensus concerning the duration of invasive ICP monitoring and its related complications, although the pertinent literature seems to show that the longer is the monitoring maintenance, the higher is the risk of technical issues. Besides, upon 72 h of normal ICP values or less than 72 h if the first computed tomography scan is normal (none or minimal signs of injury) and the neurological exam is available (allowing to observe variations and possible occurrence of new-onset pathological response), the removal of invasive ICP monitoring can be justified. The availability of non-invasive monitoring systems should be considered to follow up patients' clinical course after invasive ICP probe removal or for substituting the invasive monitoring in case of contraindication to its placement. Recently, optic nerve sheath diameter and straight sinus systolic flow velocity evaluation through ultrasound methods showed a good correlation with ICP values, demonstrating their potential role in place of invasive monitoring or in the early weaning phase from the invasive ICP monitoring.

Decompressive Craniectomy for Traumatic Brain Injury: In-hospital Mortality-Associated Factors

Objective  Determine predictors of in-hospital mortality in patients with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) who underwent decompressive craniectomy. Materials and Methods  This retrospective study reviewed consecutive patients who underwent a decompressive craniectomy between March 2017 and March 2020 at our institution, and analyzed clinical characteristics, brain tomographic images, surgical details and morbimortality associated with this procedure. Results  Thirty-three (30 unilateral and 3 bifrontal) decompressive craniectomies were performed, of which 27 patients were male (81.8%). The mean age was 52.18 years, the mean Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score at admission was 9, and 24 patients had anisocoria (72.7%). Falls were the principal cause of the trauma (51.5%), the mean anterior-posterior diameter (APD) of the bone flap in unilateral cases was 106.81 mm (standard deviation [SD] 20.42) and 16 patients (53.3%) underwent a right-sided hemicraniectomy. The temporal bone enlargement was done in 20 cases (66.7%), the mean time of surgery was 2 hours and 27 minutes, the skull flap was preserved in the subcutaneous layer in 29 cases (87.8%), the mean of blood loss was 636.36 mL,and in-hospital mortality was 12%. Univariate analysis found differences between the APD diameter (120.3 mm vs. 85.3 mm; p = 0.003) and the presence of midline shift > 5 mm ( p = 0.033). Conclusion  The size of the skull flap and the presence of midline shift > 5 mm were predictors of mortality. In the absence of intercranial pressure (ICP) monitoring, clinical and radiological criteria are mandatory to perform a decompressive craniectomy.

Timing of surgical intervention for compartment syndrome in different body region: systematic review of the literature

Compartment syndrome can occur in many body regions and may range from homeostasis asymptomatic alterations to severe, life-threatening conditions. Surgical intervention to decompress affected organs or area of the body is often the only effective treatment, although evidences to assess the best timing of intervention are lacking. Present paper systematically reviewed the literature stratifying timings according to the compartmental syndromes which may beneficiate from immediate, early, delayed, or prophylactic surgical decompression. Timing of decompression have been stratified into four categories: (1) immediate decompression for those compartmental syndromes whose missed therapy would rapidly lead to patient death or extreme disability, (2) early decompression with the time burden of 3-12 h and in any case before clinical signs of irreversible deterioration, (3) delayed decompression identified with decompression performed after 12 h or after signs of clinical deterioration has occurred, and (4) prophylactic decompression in those situations where high incidence of compartment syndrome is expected after a specific causative event.

Intracranial Pressure Monitoring Signals After Traumatic Brain Injury: A Narrative Overview and Conceptual Data Science Framework

Continuous intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring is a cornerstone of neurocritical care after severe brain injuries such as traumatic brain injury and acts as a biomarker of secondary brain injury. With the rapid development of artificial intelligent (AI) approaches to data analysis, the acquisition, storage, real-time analysis, and interpretation of physiological signal data can bring insights to the field of neurocritical care bioinformatics. We review the existing literature on the quantification and analysis of the ICP waveform and present an integrated framework to incorporate signal processing tools, advanced statistical methods, and machine learning techniques in order to comprehensively understand the ICP signal and its clinical importance. Our goals were to identify the strengths and pitfalls of existing methods for data cleaning, information extraction, and application. In particular, we describe the use of ICP signal analytics to detect intracranial hypertension and to predict both short-term intracranial hypertension and long-term clinical outcome. We provide a well-organized roadmap for future researchers based on existing literature and a computational approach to clinically-relevant biomedical signal data.