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Wang D, Ma X, Hu H, Ren J, Liu J, Zhou H. Functional identification of two HMGB1 paralogues provides insights into autophagic machinery in teleost. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2024; 147:109457. [PMID: 38387685 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2024.109457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
High mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a multifunctional regulator that plays different roles in various physiological and pathological processes including cell development, autophagy, inflammation, tumor metastasis, and cell death based on its cellular localization. Unlike mammalian HMGB1, two HMGB1 paralogues (HMGB1a and HMGB1b) have been found in fathead minnow and other fish species and its function as an inflammatory cytokine has been well investigated. However, the role of fish HMGB1 in autophagy regulation has not been well clarified. In the present study, we generated HMGB1 paralogues single (HMGB1a-/- and HMGB1b-/-) and double knockout (DKO) epithelioma papulosum cyprini (EPC) cells from fathead minnow by CRISPR/Cas9 system, and the knockout efficiency of these genes was verified at both gene and protein levels. In this context, the effects of HMGB1 gene knockout on the protein expression of microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 II (LC3-II), an autophagy marker, were determined, showing that single knockout of two HMGB1 paralogues significantly decreased the expression of LC3-II, and these inhibitory effects were further amplified in HMGB1 DKO cells under both basal and rapamycin treatment conditions, indicating the role of two HMGB1 paralogues in fish autophagy. In agreement with this notion, overexpression of HMGB1a or HMGB1b with Flag-tag markedly upregulated LC3-II protein expression. Interestingly, overexpressing two paralogues distributed in both cytoplasm and nucleus. Finally, the role of HMGB1-mediated autophagy was further explored, finding that HMGB1 could interact with Beclin1, a key initiation factor of autophagy. Taken together, these findings highlighted the role of HMGB1 paralogues as the autophagy regulator and increased our understanding of autophagic machinery in teleost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Wang
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Xiaoyu Ma
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Hengyi Hu
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Jingqi Ren
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Jiaxi Liu
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Hong Zhou
- School of Life Science and Technology, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China.
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2
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Chen R, Han X, Xu H, Xu J, Cao T, Shan Y, He F, Fang W, Li X. N-terminal domain of classical swine fever virus N pro induces proteasomal degradation of specificity protein 1 with reduced HDAC1 expression to evade from innate immune responses. J Virol 2023; 97:e0111523. [PMID: 37796122 PMCID: PMC10617410 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01115-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Of the flaviviruses, only CSFV and bovine viral diarrhea virus express Npro as the non-structural protein which is not essential for viral replication but functions to dampen host innate immunity. We have deciphered a novel mechanism with which CSFV uses to evade the host antiviral immunity by the N-terminal domain of its Npro to facilitate proteasomal degradation of Sp1 with subsequent reduction of HDAC1 and ISG15 expression. This is distinct from earlier findings involving Npro-mediated IRF3 degradation via the C-terminal domain. This study provides insights for further studies on how HDAC1 plays its role in antiviral immunity, and if and how other viral proteins, such as the core protein of CSFV, the nucleocapsid protein of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, or even other coronaviruses, exert antiviral immune responses via the Sp1-HDAC1 axis. Such research may lead to a deeper understanding of viral immune evasion strategies as part of their pathogenetic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Chen
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiao Han
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Hankun Xu
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Jidong Xu
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Tong Cao
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Ying Shan
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fang He
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Weihuan Fang
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaoliang Li
- Zhejiang University Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine & Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
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3
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Chaudhary N, Srivastava S, Gupta S, Menon MB, Patel AK. Dengue virus induced autophagy is mediated by HMGB1 and promotes viral propagation. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 229:624-635. [PMID: 36587643 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Dengue virus (DENV) exploits various cellular pathways including autophagy to assure enhanced virus propagation. The mechanisms of DENV mediated control of autophagy pathway are largely unknown. Our investigations have revealed a novel role for high-mobility group box1 protein (HMGB1) in regulation of cellular autophagy process in DENV-2 infected A549 cell line. While induction of autophagy by rapamycin treatment resulted in enhanced DENV-2 propagation, the blockade of autophagy flux with bafilomycin A1 suppressed viral replication. Furthermore, siRNA-mediated silencing of HMGB1 significantly abrogated dengue induced autophagy, while LPS induced HMGB1 expression counteracted these effects. Interestingly, silencing of HMGB1 showed reduction of BECN1 and stabilization of BCL-2 protein. On the contrary, LPS induction of HMGB1 resulted in enhanced BECN1 and reduction in BCL-2 levels. This study shows that the modulation of autophagy by DENV-2 is HMGB1/BECN1 dependent. In addition, glycyrrhizic acid (GA), a potent HMGB1 inhibitor suppressed autophagy as well as DENV-2 replication. Altogether, our data suggests that HMGB1 induces BECN1 dependent autophagy to promote DENV-2 replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nidhi Chaudhary
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India
| | - Shikha Srivastava
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India
| | - Sunny Gupta
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India
| | - Manoj B Menon
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India.
| | - Ashok Kumar Patel
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Delhi 110016, India.
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4
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Chuang CH, Cheng TL, Chen WC, Huang YJ, Wang HE, Lo YC, Hsieh YC, Lin WW, Hsieh YJ, Ke CC, Huang KC, Lee JC, Huang MY. Micro-PET imaging of hepatitis C virus NS3/4A protease activity using a protease-activatable retention probe. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:896588. [PMID: 36406412 PMCID: PMC9672079 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.896588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis C virus (HCV) NS3/4A protease is an attractive target for direct-acting antiviral agents. Real-time tracking of the NS3/4A protease distribution and activity is useful for clinical diagnosis and disease management. However, no approach has been developed that can systemically detect NS3/4A protease activity or distribution. We designed a protease-activatable retention probe for tracking HCV NS3/4A protease activity via positron emission topography (PET) imaging. A cell-penetrating probe was designed that consisted of a cell-penetrating Tat peptide, HCV NS3/4A protease substrate, and a hydrophilic domain. The probe was labeled by fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) and 124I in the hydrophilic domain to form a TAT-ΔNS3/4A-124I-FITC probe. Upon cleavage at NS3/4A substrate, the non-penetrating hydrophilic domain is released and accumulated in the cytoplasm allowing PET or optical imaging. The TAT-ΔNS3/4A-FITC probe selectively accumulated in NS3/4A-expressing HCC36 (NS3/4A-HCC36) cells/tumors and HCV-infected HCC36 cells. PET imaging showed that the TAT-ΔNS3/4A-124I-FITC probe selectively accumulated in the NS3/4A-HCC36 xenograft tumors and liver-implanted NS3/4A-HCC36 tumors, but not in the control HCC36 tumors. The TAT-ΔNS3/4A-124I-FITC probe can be used to represent NS3/4 protease activity and distribution via a clinical PET imaging system allowing. This strategy may be extended to detect any cellular protease activity for optimization the protease-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Hung Chuang
- Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Biotechnology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Tian-Lu Cheng
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biomedical and Environmental Biology, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chun Chen
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Jung Huang
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- College of Medicine, Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Ell Wang
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yen-Chen Lo
- Department of Biomedical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yuan-Chin Hsieh
- School of Medicine for International Students, I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Wei Lin
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, School of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Ju Hsieh
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Chih Ke
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Medical Imaging and Radiological Sciences, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Kang-Chieh Huang
- Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Jin-Ching Lee
- Department of Marine Biotechnology and Resources, National Sun Yat-sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Biotechnology, College of Life Science, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Yii Huang
- College of Medicine, Graduate Institute of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Department of Radiation Oncology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
- Center for Cancer Research, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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5
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Endothelial Dysfunction, HMGB1, and Dengue: An Enigma to Solve. Viruses 2022; 14:v14081765. [PMID: 36016387 PMCID: PMC9414358 DOI: 10.3390/v14081765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Dengue is a viral infection caused by dengue virus (DENV), which has a significant impact on public health worldwide. Although most infections are asymptomatic, a series of severe clinical manifestations such as hemorrhage and plasma leakage can occur during the severe presentation of the disease. This suggests that the virus or host immune response may affect the protective function of endothelial barriers, ultimately being considered the most relevant event in severe and fatal dengue pathogenesis. The mechanisms that induce these alterations are diverse. It has been suggested that the high mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1) may be involved in endothelial dysfunction. This non-histone nuclear protein has different immunomodulatory activities and belongs to the alarmin group. High concentrations of HMGB1 have been detected in patients with several infectious diseases, including dengue, and it could be considered as a biomarker for the early diagnosis of dengue and a predictor of complications of the disease. This review summarizes the main features of dengue infection and describes the known causes associated with endothelial dysfunction, highlighting the involvement and possible relationship between HMGB1 and DENV.
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6
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Behrouj H, Vakili O, Sadeghdoust A, Aligolighasemabadi N, Khalili P, Zamani M, Mokarram P. Epigenetic regulation of autophagy in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Biochem Biophys Rep 2022; 30:101264. [PMID: 35469237 PMCID: PMC9021360 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2022.101264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has become the most serious global public health issue in the past two years, requiring effective therapeutic strategies. This viral infection is a contagious disease caused by new coronaviruses (nCoVs), also called severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Autophagy, as a highly conserved catabolic recycling process, plays a significant role in the growth and replication of coronaviruses (CoVs). Therefore, there is great interest in understanding the mechanisms that underlie autophagy modulation. The modulation of autophagy is a very complex and multifactorial process, which includes different epigenetic alterations, such as histone modifications and DNA methylation. These mechanisms are also known to be involved in SARS-CoV-2 replication. Thus, molecular understanding of the epigenetic pathways linked with autophagy and COVID-19, could provide novel therapeutic targets for COVID-19 eradication. In this context, the current review highlights the role of epigenetic regulation of autophagy in controlling COVID-19, focusing on the potential therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamid Behrouj
- Behbahan Faculty of Medical Sciences, Behbahan, Iran
| | - Omid Vakili
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Adel Sadeghdoust
- Health Policy Research Center, Institute of Health, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Neda Aligolighasemabadi
- Department of Internal Medicine, School of Medicine, Guilan University of Medical Sciences, Rasht, Iran
| | - Parnian Khalili
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mozhdeh Zamani
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Pooneh Mokarram
- Autophagy Research Center, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Iran
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7
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Hepatitis B virus X protein counteracts high mobility group box 1 protein-mediated epigenetic silencing of covalently closed circular DNA. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010576. [PMID: 35679251 PMCID: PMC9182688 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus (HBV) covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), serving as the viral persistence form and transcription template of HBV infection, hijacks host histone and non-histone proteins to form a minichromosome and utilizes posttranslational modifications (PTMs) "histone code" for its transcriptional regulation. HBV X protein (HBx) is known as a cccDNA transcription activator. In this study we established a dual system of the inducible reporter cell lines modelling infection with wildtype (wt) and HBx-null HBV, both secreting HA-tagged HBeAg as a semi-quantitative marker for cccDNA transcription. The cccDNA-bound histone PTM profiling of wt and HBx-null systems, using chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with quantitative PCR (ChIP-qPCR), confirmed that HBx is essential for maintenance of cccDNA at transcriptionally active state, characterized by active histone PTM markers. Differential proteomics analysis of cccDNA minichromosome established in wt and HBx-null HBV cell lines revealed group-specific hits. One of the hits in HBx-deficient condition was a non-histone host DNA-binding protein high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1). Its elevated association to HBx-null cccDNA was validated by ChIP-qPCR assay in both the HBV stable cell lines and infection systems in vitro. Furthermore, experimental downregulation of HMGB1 in HBx-null HBV inducible and infection models resulted in transcriptional re-activation of the cccDNA minichromosome, accompanied by a switch of the cccDNA-associated histones to euchromatic state with activating histone PTMs landscape and subsequent upregulation of cccDNA transcription. Mechanistically, HBx interacts with HMGB1 and prevents its binding to cccDNA without affecting the steady state level of HMGB1. Taken together, our results suggest that HMGB1 is a novel host restriction factor of HBV cccDNA with epigenetic silencing mechanism, which can be counteracted by viral transcription activator HBx.
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VCP interaction with HMGB1 promotes hepatocellular carcinoma progression by activating the PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway. J Transl Med 2022; 20:212. [PMID: 35562734 PMCID: PMC9102726 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-022-03416-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common pathological type of liver cancer. Valosin-containing protein (VCP) is a member of the AAA-ATPase family associated with multiple molecular functions and involved in tumor metastasis and prognosis. However, the role of VCP in HCC progression is still unclear. METHODS We examined the expression of VCP in HCC using the RNA sequencing and microarray data from public databases and measured it in clinical samples and cell lines by western blot, and immunohistochemistry (IHC). We also evaluated the correlation between VCP and clinical features. The VCP-interacting proteins were identified by co-immunoprecipitation combined with mass spectrometry (CoIP/MS). The underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated using in vitro and in vivo models of HCC. RESULTS We found that VCP expression is significantly increased in tumor tissues and is associated with advanced TNM stages and poorer prognosis in HCC patients. In vitro analyses revealed that VCP overexpression promoted HCC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion via PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway activation. Conversely, VCP knockdown resulted in the reverse phenotypes. In vivo studies indicated that up-regulated VCP expression accelerated tumor growth in a subcutaneous HCC model. The D1 domain of VCP and A box of HMGB1 were identified as the critical regions for their interaction, and D1 area was required for the tumor-promoting effects induced by VCP expression. VCP enhanced the protein stability of HMGB1 by decreasing its degradation via ubiquitin-proteasome process. Inhibition of HMGB1 markedly attenuated VCP-mediated HCC progression and downstream activation of PI3K/AKT/mTOR signals. CONCLUSION Collectively, these findings demonstrate that VCP is a potential prognostic biomarker in HCC and exhibits oncogenic roles via PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway activation. HMGB1 played an essential role in VCP-mediated HCC progression, indicating that VCP and HMGB1 are potential therapeutic targets in human HCC.
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BAP1 forms a trimer with HMGB1 and HDAC1 that modulates gene × environment interaction with asbestos. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2111946118. [PMID: 34815344 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2111946118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Carriers of heterozygous germline BAP1 mutations (BAP1 +/-) are affected by the "BAP1 cancer syndrome." Although they can develop almost any cancer type, they are unusually susceptible to asbestos carcinogenesis and mesothelioma. Here we investigate why among all carcinogens, BAP1 mutations cooperate with asbestos. Asbestos carcinogenesis and mesothelioma have been linked to a chronic inflammatory process promoted by the extracellular release of the high-mobility group box 1 protein (HMGB1). We report that BAP1 +/- cells secrete increased amounts of HMGB1, and that BAP1 +/- carriers have detectable serum levels of acetylated HMGB1 that further increase when they develop mesothelioma. We linked these findings to our discovery that BAP1 forms a trimeric protein complex with HMGB1 and with histone deacetylase 1 (HDAC1) that modulates HMGB1 acetylation and its release. Reduced BAP1 levels caused increased ubiquitylation and degradation of HDAC1, leading to increased acetylation of HMGB1 and its active secretion that in turn promoted mesothelial cell transformation.
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10
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Son J, Kim MJ, Lee JS, Kim JY, Chun E, Lee KY. Hepatitis B virus X Protein Promotes Liver Cancer Progression through Autophagy Induction in Response to TLR4 Stimulation. Immune Netw 2021; 21:e37. [PMID: 34796041 PMCID: PMC8568915 DOI: 10.4110/in.2021.21.e37] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 09/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus X (HBx) protein has been reported as a key protein regulating the pathogenesis of HBV-induced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recent evidence has shown that HBx is implicated in the activation of autophagy in hepatic cells. Nevertheless, the precise molecular and cellular mechanism by which HBx induces autophagy is still controversial. Herein, we investigated the molecular and cellular mechanism by which HBx is involved in the TRAF6-BECN1-Bcl-2 signaling for the regulation of autophagy in response to TLR4 stimulation, therefore influencing the HCC progression. HBx interacts with BECN1 (Beclin 1) and inhibits the association of the BECN1-Bcl-2 complex, which is known to prevent the assembly of the pre-autophagosomal structure. Furthermore, HBx enhances the interaction between VPS34 and TRAF6-BECN1 complex, increases the ubiquitination of BECN1, and subsequently enhances autophagy induction in response to LPS stimulation. To verify the functional role of HBx in liver cancer progression, we utilized different HCC cell lines, HepG2, SK-Hep-1, and SNU-761. HBx-expressing HepG2 cells exhibited enhanced cell migration, invasion, and cell mobility in response to LPS stimulation compared to those of control HepG2 cells. These results were consistently observed in HBx-expressed SK-Hep-1 and HBx-expressed SNU-761 cells. Taken together, our findings suggest that HBx positively regulates the induction of autophagy through the inhibition of the BECN1-Bcl-2 complex and enhancement of the TRAF6-BECN1-VPS34 complex, leading to enhance liver cancer migration and invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juhee Son
- Department of Immunology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Mi-Jeong Kim
- Department of Immunology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Ji Su Lee
- Department of Immunology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | - Ji Young Kim
- Department of Immunology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
| | | | - Ki-Young Lee
- Department of Immunology and Samsung Biomedical Research Institute, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea.,Department of Health Sciences and Technology, Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences & Technology, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University, Seoul, Korea.,Single Cell Network Research Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Suwon, Korea
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11
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Van Damme E, Vanhove J, Severyn B, Verschueren L, Pauwels F. The Hepatitis B Virus Interactome: A Comprehensive Overview. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:724877. [PMID: 34603251 PMCID: PMC8482013 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.724877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the availability of a prophylactic vaccine, chronic hepatitis B (CHB) caused by the hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a major health problem affecting an estimated 292 million people globally. Current therapeutic goals are to achieve functional cure characterized by HBsAg seroclearance and the absence of HBV-DNA after treatment cessation. However, at present, functional cure is thought to be complicated due to the presence of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) and integrated HBV-DNA. Even if the episomal cccDNA is silenced or eliminated, it remains unclear how important the high level of HBsAg that is expressed from integrated HBV DNA is for the pathology. To identify therapies that could bring about high rates of functional cure, in-depth knowledge of the virus' biology is imperative to pinpoint mechanisms for novel therapeutic targets. The viral proteins and the episomal cccDNA are considered integral for the control and maintenance of the HBV life cycle and through direct interaction with the host proteome they help create the most optimal environment for the virus whilst avoiding immune detection. New HBV-host protein interactions are continuously being identified. Unfortunately, a compendium of the most recent information is lacking and an interactome is unavailable. This article provides a comprehensive review of the virus-host relationship from viral entry to release, as well as an interactome of cccDNA, HBc, and HBx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Van Damme
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Jolien Vanhove
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, Beerse, Belgium.,Early Discovery Biology, Charles River Laboratories, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Bryan Severyn
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, Springhouse, PA, United States
| | - Lore Verschueren
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Frederik Pauwels
- Janssen Research & Development, Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies, Beerse, Belgium
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12
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HMGB1 Knockout Decreases Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus Virion Production in iSLK BAC16 Cells by Attenuating Viral Gene Expression. J Virol 2021; 95:e0079921. [PMID: 34105998 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00799-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple host proteins affect the gene expression of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) during latent and lytic replication. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) serves as a highly conserved chromosomal protein inside the cell and a prototypical damage-associated molecular pattern molecule outside the cell. HMGB1 has been shown to play a pathogenic role in viral infectious diseases and to regulate the lytic replication of KSHV. However, its functional effects on the KSHV life cycle in KSHV-infected cells have not been fully elucidated. Here, we explored the role of intracellular and extracellular HMGB1 in KSHV virion production by employing CRISPR/Cas9-mediated HMGB1 knockout in the KSHV-producing iSLK BAC16 cell line. Intracellular HMGB1 formed complexes with various proteins, and the abundance of HMGB1-interacting proteins changed during latent and lytic replication. Moreover, extracellular HMGB1 was found to enhance lytic replication by phosphorylating JNK. Of note, the expression of viral genes was attenuated during lytic replication in HMGB1 knockout iSLK BAC16 cells, with significantly decreased production of infectious virions compared to that of wild-type cells. Collectively, our results demonstrate that HMGB1 is an important cellular cofactor that affects the generation of infectious KSHV progeny during lytic replication. IMPORTANCE The high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein has many intra- and extracellular biological functions with an intricate role in various diseases. In certain viral infections, HMGB1 affects the viral life cycle and pathogenesis. In this study, we explored the effects of HMGB1 knockout on the production of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). HMGB1 knockout decreased virion production in KSHV-producing cells by decreasing the expression of viral genes. The processes by which HMGB1 affects KSHV production may occur inside or outside infected cells. For instance, several cellular and viral proteins interacted with intracellular HMGB1 in a nucleosomal complex, whereas extracellular HMGB1 induced JNK phosphorylation, thereby enhancing lytic replication. Our results suggest that both intracellular and extracellular HMGB1 are necessary for efficient KSHV replication. Thus, HMGB1 may represent an effective therapeutic target for the regulation of KSHV production.
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Pu Z, Zhu Y, Wang X, Zhong Y, Peng F, Zhang Y. Identification of Prognostic Biomarkers and Correlation With Immune Infiltrates in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Based on a Competing Endogenous RNA Network. Front Genet 2021; 12:591623. [PMID: 34093635 PMCID: PMC8173128 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.591623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common malignant tumors worldwide. Recently, competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNA) have revealed a significant role in the progression of HCC. Herein, we aimed to construct a ceRNA network to identify potential biomarkers and illustrate its correlation with immune infiltration in HCC. Methods RNA sequencing data and clinical traits of HCC patients were downloaded from TCGA. The limma R package was used to identify differentially expressed (DE) RNAs. The predicted prognostic model was established using univariate and multivariate Cox regression. A K-M curve, TISIDB and GEPIA website were utilized for survival analysis. Functional annotation was determined using Enrichr and Reactome. Protein-to-protein network analysis was implemented using SRTNG and Cytoscape. Hub gene expression was validated by quantitative polymerase chain reaction, Oncomine and the Hunan Protein Atlas database. Immune infiltration was analyzed by TIMMER, and Drugbank was exploited to identify bioactive compounds. Results The predicted model that was established revealed significant efficacy with 3- and 5-years of the area under ROC at 0.804 and 0.744, respectively. Eleven DEmiRNAs were screened out by a K-M survival analysis. Then, we constructed a ceRNA network, including 56 DElncRNAs, 6 DEmiRNAs, and 28 DEmRNAs. The 28 DEmRNAs were enriched in cancer-related pathways, for example, the TNF signaling pathway. Moreover, six hub genes, CEP55, DEPDC1, KIF23, CLSPN, MYBL2, and RACGAP1, were all overexpressed in HCC tissues and independently correlated with survival rate. Furthermore, expression of hub genes was related to immune cell infiltration in HCC, including B cells, CD8+ T cells, CD4+ T cells, monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. Conclusion The findings from this study demonstrate that CEP55, DEPDC1, KIF23, CLSPN, MYBL2, and RACGAP1 are closely associated with prognosis and immune infiltration, representing potential therapeutic targets or prognostic biomarkers in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhangya Pu
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xiaofang Wang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yun Zhong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Fang Peng
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yiya Zhang
- National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Disorders, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.,Department of Dermatology, Xiangya Hospital, Changsha, China
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Lei Y, Xu X, Liu H, Chen L, Zhou H, Jiang J, Yang Y, Wu B. HBx induces hepatocellular carcinogenesis through ARRB1-mediated autophagy to drive the G 1/S cycle. Autophagy 2021; 17:4423-4441. [PMID: 33866937 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2021.1917948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) is involved in the process of hepatocellular carcinoma via the activation of various oncogenes. Our previous study indicated that ARBB1 (arrestin beta 1) promotes hepatocellular carcinogenesis (HCC). However, the role of ARRB1 in HBx-related HCC remains unclear. Herein, we identified that ARRB1 was upregulated by HBx in vivo and in vitro. Arrb1 deficiency suppressed HBx-induced hepatocellular carcinogenesis in several mouse models. Furthermore, knockdown of ARRB1 blocked HBx-induced macroautophagic/autophagic flux and disrupted the formation of autophagosomes. ARRB1 interacted with HBx, and the autophagic core protein MAP1LC3/LC3, a scaffolding protein, was essential for complete autophagy. Inhibition of autophagy by 3-methyladenine or interference of ATG5 or ATG7 attenuated HBx-induced cell cycle acceleration and the subsequent proliferative response via the induction of G1/S arrest. The absence of autophagy abolished the phosphorylation of CDK2 and the activity of the CDK2-CCNE1 complex. Our results demonstrate that ARRB1 plays a critical role in HBV-related HCC via modulating autophagy and the CDKN1B-CDK2-CCNE1-E2F1 axis and indicate that ARRB1 may be a potential therapeutic target for HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiming Lei
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xuan Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Huiling Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Lingjun Chen
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Haoxiong Zhou
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Jie Jiang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Yidong Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Bin Wu
- Department of Gastroenterology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
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Kouroumalis E, Voumvouraki A, Augoustaki A, Samonakis DN. Autophagy in liver diseases. World J Hepatol 2021; 13:6-65. [PMID: 33584986 PMCID: PMC7856864 DOI: 10.4254/wjh.v13.i1.6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is the liver cell energy recycling system regulating a variety of homeostatic mechanisms. Damaged organelles, lipids and proteins are degraded in the lysosomes and their elements are re-used by the cell. Investigations on autophagy have led to the award of two Nobel Prizes and a health of important reports. In this review we describe the fundamental functions of autophagy in the liver including new data on the regulation of autophagy. Moreover we emphasize the fact that autophagy acts like a two edge sword in many occasions with the most prominent paradigm being its involvement in the initiation and progress of hepatocellular carcinoma. We also focused to the implication of autophagy and its specialized forms of lipophagy and mitophagy in the pathogenesis of various liver diseases. We analyzed autophagy not only in well studied diseases, like alcoholic and nonalcoholic fatty liver and liver fibrosis but also in viral hepatitis, biliary diseases, autoimmune hepatitis and rare diseases including inherited metabolic diseases and also acetaminophene hepatotoxicity. We also stressed the different consequences that activation or impairment of autophagy may have in hepatocytes as opposed to Kupffer cells, sinusoidal endothelial cells or hepatic stellate cells. Finally, we analyzed the limited clinical data compared to the extensive experimental evidence and the possible future therapeutic interventions based on autophagy manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Kouroumalis
- Liver Research Laboratory, University of Crete Medical School, Heraklion 71110, Greece
| | - Argryro Voumvouraki
- 1 Department of Internal Medicine, AHEPA University Hospital, Thessaloniki 54636, Greece
| | - Aikaterini Augoustaki
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece
| | - Dimitrios N Samonakis
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University Hospital of Crete, Heraklion 71110, Greece.
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S6K1 inhibits HBV replication through inhibiting AMPK-ULK1 pathway and disrupting acetylation modification of H3K27. Life Sci 2020; 265:118848. [PMID: 33278383 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.118848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
AIMS To investigated the effect of S6K1 on the replication and transcription of HBV DNA using multiple cell models. MAIN METHODS The pgRNA, total HBV RNA and HBV DNA level were detected by Real-time PCR. The HBcAg expression by Western blot and the activity of four HBV promoters, such as preS1, preS2/S, core, and X promoters by using dual luciferase reporter assay. Moreover, we determined S6K1 interacted with HBcAg in both cytoplasm and nucleus through Immunofluorescence, co-immunoprecipitation (CoIP) and Western blot. KEY FINDINGS S6K1 inhibited HBV DNA replication and cccDNA-dependent transcription in HBV-expressing stable cell lines. The mechanistic study revealed that S6K1 suppressed HBV DNA replication by inhibiting AMPK-ULK1 autophagy pathway, and the nuclear S6K1 suppressed HBV cccDNA-dependent transcription by inhibiting the acetylation modification of H3K27. In addition, HBV capsid protein (HBcAg) suppressed the phosphorylation level of S6K1Thr389 by interacting with S6K1, indicating a viral antagonism of S6K1-mediated antiviral mechanism. SIGNIFICANCE The p70 ribosomal S6 kinase (S6K1) is a serine/threonine protein kinase, and it plays a significant role in different cellular processes. It has been previously reported that S6K1 affects hepatitis B virus (HBV) replication but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In this study, our data suggested that the activation of S6K1 restricts HBV replication through inhibiting AMPK-ULK1 autophagy pathway and H3K27 acetylation. These findings indicated that S6K1 might be a potential therapeutic target for HBV infection.
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Vescovo T, Pagni B, Piacentini M, Fimia GM, Antonioli M. Regulation of Autophagy in Cells Infected With Oncogenic Human Viruses and Its Impact on Cancer Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:47. [PMID: 32181249 PMCID: PMC7059124 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
About 20% of total cancer cases are associated to infections. To date, seven human viruses have been directly linked to cancer development: high-risk human papillomaviruses (hrHPVs), Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), Epstein–Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1). These viruses impact on several molecular mechanisms in the host cells, often resulting in chronic inflammation, uncontrolled proliferation, and cell death inhibition, and mechanisms, which favor viral life cycle but may indirectly promote tumorigenesis. Recently, the ability of oncogenic viruses to alter autophagy, a catabolic process activated during the innate immune response to infections, is emerging as a key event for the onset of human cancers. Here, we summarize the current understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which human oncogenic viruses regulate autophagy and how this negative regulation impacts on cancer development. Finally, we highlight novel autophagy-related candidates for the treatment of virus-related cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziana Vescovo
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" - IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - Benedetta Pagni
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" - IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata," Rome, Italy
| | - Mauro Piacentini
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" - IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Department of Biology, University of Rome "Tor Vergata," Rome, Italy
| | - Gian Maria Fimia
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" - IRCCS, Rome, Italy.,Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Rome "Sapienza," Rome, Italy
| | - Manuela Antonioli
- National Institute for Infectious Diseases "Lazzaro Spallanzani" - IRCCS, Rome, Italy
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18
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Melino G, Cecconi F, Pelicci PG, Mak TW, Bernassola F. Emerging roles of HECT-type E3 ubiquitin ligases in autophagy regulation. Mol Oncol 2019; 13:2033-2048. [PMID: 31441992 PMCID: PMC6763782 DOI: 10.1002/1878-0261.12567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a conserved self-eating process that delivers cytoplasmic material to the lysosome to allow degradation of intracellular components, including soluble, unfolded and aggregated proteins, damaged organelles, and invading microorganisms. Autophagy provides a homeostatic control mechanism and is essential for balancing sources of energy in response to nutrient stress. Autophagic dysfunction or dysregulation has been implicated in several human pathologies, including cancer and neurodegeneration, and its modulation has substantial potential as a therapeutic strategy. Given the relevant clinical and therapeutic implications of autophagy, there is emerging intense interest in the identification of the key factors regulating the components of the autophagic machinery. Various post-translational modifications, including ubiquitylation, have been implicated in autophagy control. The list of the E3 ubiquitin protein ligases involved in the regulation of several steps of the autophagic process is continuously growing. In this review, we will focus on recent advances in the understanding of the role of the homologous to the E6AP carboxyl terminus-type E3 ubiquitin ligases in autophagy control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerry Melino
- Department of Experimental MedicineTORUniversity of Rome “Tor Vergata”Italy
- Medical Research Council, Toxicology UnitUniversity of CambridgeUK
| | - Francesco Cecconi
- Cell Stress and Survival UnitDanish Cancer Society Research CenterCopenhagenDenmark
- Department of BiologyTor Vergata University of RomeItaly
- Department of Pediatric Hematology and OncologyIRCCS Bambino Gesù Children's HospitalRomeItaly
| | - Pier Giuseppe Pelicci
- Department of Experimental OncologyIEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCSMilanItaly
- Department of Oncology and Haemato‐OncologyMilan UniversityItaly
| | - Tak Wah Mak
- The Campbell Family Institute for Breast Cancer ResearchOntario Cancer InstitutePrincess Margaret HospitalTorontoONCanada
| | - Francesca Bernassola
- Department of Experimental MedicineTORUniversity of Rome “Tor Vergata”Italy
- Department of Experimental OncologyIEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCSMilanItaly
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19
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Wei X, Yu H, Zhao P, Xie L, Li L, Zhang J. Serum regucalcin is a useful indicator of liver injury severity in patients with hepatitis B virus-related liver diseases. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 52:e8845. [PMID: 31576907 PMCID: PMC6774222 DOI: 10.1590/1414-431x20198845] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Regucalcin is a soluble protein that is principally expressed in hepatocytes. Studies of regucalcin have mainly been conducted in animals due to a lack of commercially available kits. We aimed to develop an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to quantify serum regucalcin in patients with hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related disease. High-titer monoclonal antibodies and a polyclonal antibody to regucalcin were produced, a double-antibody sandwich ELISA method was established, and serum regucalcin was determined in 47 chronic hepatitis B (CHB) patients, 91 HBV-related acute-on-chronic liver failure (HBV-ACLF) patients, and 33 healthy controls. The ELISA demonstrated an appropriate linear range, and high levels of reproducibility, sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and stability. The median serum regucalcin concentrations in HBV-ACLF and CHB patients were 5.46 and 3.76 ng/mL, respectively (P<0.01), which were much higher than in healthy controls (1.72 ng/mL, both P<0.01). For the differentiation of CHB patients and healthy controls, the area under curve (AUC) was 0.86 with a cut-off of 2.42 ng/mL, 85.7% sensitivity, and 78.8% specificity. In contrast, the AUC of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) was lower (AUC=0.80, P=0.01). To differentiate ACLF from CHB, the AUC was 0.72 with a cut-off of 4.26 ng/mL, 77.0% sensitivity, and 61.2% specificity while the AUC of ALT was 0.41 (P=0.07). Thus, we have developed an ELISA that is suitable for measuring serum regucalcin and have shown that serum regucalcin increased with the severity of liver injury due to HBV-related diseases, such that it appears to be more useful than ALT as a marker of liver injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinhuan Wei
- Department of Hepatitis C and Drug-Induced Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Haibin Yu
- Department of Hepatitis C and Drug-Induced Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Zhao
- Center of Minimally Invasive Interventional Therapy, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Li Xie
- Beijing Institute of Hepatology, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Li Li
- Center for Infectious Diseases, Beijing Youan Hospital, Beijing Key Laboratory for HIV/AIDS Research, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Zhang
- Department of Hepatitis C and Drug-Induced Liver Disease, Beijing Youan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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20
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Interactions between Autophagy and DNA Viruses. Viruses 2019; 11:v11090776. [PMID: 31450758 PMCID: PMC6784137 DOI: 10.3390/v11090776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic biological process in the body. By targeting exogenous microorganisms and aged intracellular proteins and organelles and sending them to the lysosome for phagocytosis and degradation, autophagy contributes to energy recycling. When cells are stimulated by exogenous pathogenic microorganisms such as viruses, activation or inhibition of autophagy is often triggered. As autophagy has antiviral effects, many viruses may escape and resist the process by encoding viral proteins. At the same time, viruses can also use autophagy to enhance their replication or increase the persistence of latent infections. Here, we give a brief overview of autophagy and DNA viruses and comprehensively review the known interactions between human and animal DNA viruses and autophagy and the role and mechanisms of autophagy in viral DNA replication and DNA virus-induced innate and acquired immunity.
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21
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Li Y, Fu Y, Hu X, Sun L, Tang D, Li N, Peng F, Fan XG. The HBx-CTTN interaction promotes cell proliferation and migration of hepatocellular carcinoma via CREB1. Cell Death Dis 2019; 10:405. [PMID: 31138777 PMCID: PMC6538608 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-019-1650-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis B virus-encoded X protein (HBx) acts as a tumor promoter during hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) development, probably by regulating the expression of host proteins through protein–protein interaction. A proteomics approach was used to identify HBx-interacting proteins involved in HBx-induced hepatocarcinogenesis. We validated the proteomics findings by co-immunoprecipitation and confocal microscopy. We performed cell proliferation, migration assays and cell cycle analyses in HCC cells. Finally, we confirmed the clinical significance of our findings in samples from patients. We found that cortactin (CTTN) is a novel HBx-interacting protein, and HBx regulates the expression of CTTN in the HCC cell lines MHCC-LM3 and HepG2. Mechanistically, by upregulating the expression of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB1) and its downstream targets, such as cyclin D1 and MMP-9, the effects of the HBx-CTTN interaction on the enhancement of cellular proliferation and migration were maintained by inhibiting cell cycle arrest. In addition, we demonstrated that the levels of CTTN and CREB1 were closely correlated in clinical samples from HBV-infected patients with HCC. Overall, our data suggests that HBx contributes to cell migration and proliferation of HCC cells by interacting with CTTN and regulating the expression of CTTN and CREB1. Therefore, the HBx/CTTN/CREB1 axis is a potential novel therapeutic target in HCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajun Li
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Yongming Fu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Xingwang Hu
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Lunquan Sun
- Center for Molecular Medicine, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Daolin Tang
- Department of Surgery, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, Texas, USA
| | - Ning Li
- Department of Blood Transfusion, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China
| | - Fang Peng
- NHC Key Laboratory of Cancer Proteomics, XiangYa Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
| | - Xue-Gong Fan
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Hunan Key Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, China.
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22
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Xie L, Huang Y. Antagonism of RIP1 using necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) ameliorated damage and inflammation of HBV X protein (HBx) in human normal hepatocytes. ARTIFICIAL CELLS NANOMEDICINE AND BIOTECHNOLOGY 2019; 47:1194-1199. [PMID: 30963789 DOI: 10.1080/21691401.2019.1575231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linsen Xie
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zhengzhou Central Hospital Affiliated To Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
| | - Yongjie Huang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Zhengzhou Central Hospital Affiliated To Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
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23
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Wang G, Wang W, Wang Y, Huang T, Wang Y. HBx inhibits HMGB1 expression and active oxygen production in LO2 cells through the NF‐κB signaling pathway. Kaohsiung J Med Sci 2019; 35:133-138. [PMID: 30887719 DOI: 10.1002/kjm2.12024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Gao‐Xiong Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary SurgerySecond Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University Quanzhou China
| | - Wei Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary SurgerySecond Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University Quanzhou China
| | - Yan‐Jun Wang
- Department of Hepatobiliary SurgerySecond Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University Quanzhou China
| | - Tian‐Cong Huang
- Department of Hepatobiliary SurgerySecond Affiliated Hospital of Fujian Medical University Quanzhou China
| | - Ying‐Chao Wang
- The United Innovation of Mengchao Hepatobiliary Technology Key Laboratory of Fujian ProvinceMengchao Hepatobiliary Hospital of Fujian Medical University Fuzhou China
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Wang Y, Wang L, Gong Z. Regulation of Acetylation in High Mobility Group Protein B1 Cytosol Translocation. DNA Cell Biol 2019; 38:491-499. [PMID: 30874449 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2018.4592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
High mobility group protein B1 (HMGB1) is a nonhistone that mainly binds to nucleus DNA. As an important late inflammatory transmitter, extracellular HMGB1 is involved in the inflammatory immune response, tumor growth, infiltration, and metastasis. HMGB1 is actively released by activated inflammatory cells or passively released by necrotic cells. Then the released extracellular HMGB1 further induces monocytes/macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells to secrete inflammatory cytokines. Therefore, HMGB1 can not only act as a proinflammatory factor to directly involve in tissue damage, but also acts as an inflammatory medium to aggravate the inflammatory cascade reaction. Studies have shown that the post-translational modification (PTM) participated in the process of HMGB1 cytosol translocation and extracellular release. The acetylation modification is the most common PTM for localization sequence of HMGB1, and the affinity of HMGB1 to DNA depends on the degree of acetylation for HMGB1. The acetylation can weaken the binding of HMGB1 to DNA, which means less HMGB1 cytosol translocation and extracellular release. This article reviews the acetylation regulation mechanisms of cytosol translocation and extracellular release of HMGB1 and provides a therapeutic strategy for controlling HMGB1-induced inflammatory responses in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Wang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Luwen Wang
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Zuojiong Gong
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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Ke PY. Diverse Functions of Autophagy in Liver Physiology and Liver Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E300. [PMID: 30642133 PMCID: PMC6358975 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20020300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2018] [Revised: 01/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic process by which eukaryotic cells eliminate cytosolic materials through vacuole-mediated sequestration and subsequent delivery to lysosomes for degradation, thus maintaining cellular homeostasis and the integrity of organelles. Autophagy has emerged as playing a critical role in the regulation of liver physiology and the balancing of liver metabolism. Conversely, numerous recent studies have indicated that autophagy may disease-dependently participate in the pathogenesis of liver diseases, such as liver hepatitis, steatosis, fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the functions of autophagy in hepatic metabolism and the contribution of autophagy to the pathophysiology of liver-related diseases. Moreover, the impacts of autophagy modulation on the amelioration of the development and progression of liver diseases are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Po-Yuan Ke
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology and Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan.
- Liver Research Center, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan.
- Division of Allergy, Immunology, and Rheumatology, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Taoyuan 33305, Taiwan.
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Xiao Y, Liu G, Gong L. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis on the Association between Polymorphisms in Genes of IL-12 Signaling Pathway and Hepatocellular Carcinoma Risk. J Cancer 2018; 9:3583-3592. [PMID: 30310516 PMCID: PMC6171029 DOI: 10.7150/jca.26419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
We performed an updated meta-analysis and systematic review to explore the associations between polymorphisms in genes of IL-12 signaling pathway and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) risk. Diverse databases were retrieved to identify entire available studies, and odds ratios (ORs) correspondence with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were performed to assess their associations. Finally, 6 polymorphisms in five genes of the IL-12 signaling pathway were extracted from 39 case-control studies, 26 publications. We identified that STAT4-rs7574865 polymorphism was significantly associated with an increased risk of HCC in allelic contrast, dominant, homozygote and recessive models. However, we failed to uncover any significant association between other polymorphisms in genes of IL-12 signaling pathway and HCC risk, including IL18-rs1946518 and -rs187238, IFN-γ-rs2430561, IL12A-rs568408, IL12B-rs3212227 and STAT4-rs7574865. When the subgroup analysis was conducted based on Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium (HWE) status, we identified that IFN-γ-rs2430561 polymorphism was significantly associated with an increased risk of HCC in homozygote and recessive models of these studies whose control groups were conformed to HWE. To sum up, our study suggests that STAT4-rs7574865 is a risk factor for HCC. Further well-designed large sample size studies are warranted to shed new light on these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yao Xiao
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan
| | - Guodong Liu
- Department of Pancreatic Biliary Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan
| | - Liansheng Gong
- Department of Hepatobiliary and Pancreatic Surgery, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan
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The role of HBV-induced autophagy in HBV replication and HBV related-HCC. Life Sci 2018; 205:107-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2018.04.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Revised: 04/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Fu S, Liu H, Chen X, Qiu Y, Ye C, Liu Y, Wu Z, Guo L, Hou Y, Hu CAA. Baicalin Inhibits Haemophilus Parasuis-Induced High-Mobility Group Box 1 Release during Inflammation. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19051307. [PMID: 29702580 PMCID: PMC5983759 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19051307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2018] [Accepted: 04/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Haemophilus parasuis (H. parasuis) can cause Glässer’s disease in pigs. However, the molecular mechanism of the inflammation response induced by H. parasuis remains unclear. The high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) protein is related to the pathogenesis of various infectious pathogens, but little is known about whether H. parasuis can induce the release of HMGB1 in piglet peripheral blood monocytes. Baicalin displays important anti-inflammatory and anti-microbial activities. In the present study, we investigated whether H. parasuis can trigger the secretion of HMGB1 in piglet peripheral blood monocytes and the anti-inflammatory effect of baicalin on the production of HMGB1 in peripheral blood monocytes induced by H. parasuis during the inflammation response. In addition, host cell responses stimulated by H. parasuis were determined with RNA-Seq. The RNA-Seq results showed that H. parasuis infection provokes the expression of cytokines and the activation of numerous pathways. In addition, baicalin significantly reduced the release of HMGB1 in peripheral blood monocytes induced by H. parasuis. Taken together, our study showed that H. parasuis can induce the release of HMGB1 and baicalin can inhibit HMGB1 secretion in an H. parasuis-induced peripheral blood monocytes model, which may provide a new strategy for preventing the inflammatory disorders induced by H. parasuis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shulin Fu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Huashan Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Xiao Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Yinsheng Qiu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Chun Ye
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Yu Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Zhongyuan Wu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Ling Guo
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Yongqing Hou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Animal Nutrition and Feed Safety, Wuhan 430023, China.
| | - Chien-An Andy Hu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed Science, Wuhan Polytechnic University, Wuhan 430023, China.
- Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM 87131, USA.
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Di Fazio P, Matrood S. Targeting autophagy in liver cancer. Transl Gastroenterol Hepatol 2018; 3:39. [PMID: 30148224 PMCID: PMC6088143 DOI: 10.21037/tgh.2018.06.09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 06/27/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Autophagy is a catabolic cellular process conserved in animals. It is characterized by the main role of recycling all the non-functional products of the cells. Once, autophagy players detect non-functioning sub-cellular organelles and proteins, they start the so-called nucleation process. The organelles will be surrounded by a double membrane vesicle mainly constituted by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) membrane and autophagy proteins, e.g., MAP1LC3B, Beclin-1, VPS34, Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase (ULK1) and ubiquitination-related proteins. Then the autophagic membrane will go through an elongation phase involving additional autophagy players. Once the autophagic vesicle is complete, the sub-cellular organelles will be isolated from the rest of the cytosol and driven to the final fusion with lysosomes. Here, the digestion process will end. Alteration and or impairment of autophagy have been shown to be correlated with development of diseases affecting the central nervous system, e.g., Alzheimer and other neurodegenerative diseases. Nonetheless, autophagy defect is responsible for tumorigenesis in blood and solid malignancies, in particular liver cancer. Malignancies of the liver are determined by several genetics and epigenetics mechanisms triggering the up-regulation of survival mechanisms and resistance to cell death. Furthermore, liver cancer could result from pathologic conditions like cirrhosis and fibrosis related to virus infection, aflatoxin, alcohol consumption and high fat diet together with insulin resistance. The role exerted by autophagy in the pathogenesis of the liver and tumor development has been evidenced in recent years. The alteration of autophagy assumes a fundamental role for liver tumorigenesis determining an accumulation of non-functional proteins and organelles that trigger oxidative stress leading to genotoxic stress and gene alterations. Furthermore, the absence of this degradation mechanism could prompt the cells to alter their metabolic status and turn into malignant cells. Interestingly, the heterozygous loss of function of Beclin-1 is able to trigger liver tumorigenesis or even the simple accumulation of proteins caused by the block of the final autolysosome fusion and degradation process is responsible for liver cancer development. This review highlights the importance of targeting the autophagy process in liver cancer in order to restore its function and to promote autophagy-mediated cell demise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pietro Di Fazio
- Department of Visceral Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Philipps University Marburg, Baldingerstrasse, Marburg, Germany
| | - Sami Matrood
- Department of Visceral Thoracic and Vascular Surgery, Philipps University Marburg, Baldingerstrasse, Marburg, Germany
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