Controlled deposition of highly ordered soluble acene thin films: effect of morphology and crystal orientation on transistor performance

Crystal Engineering Under Residual Solvent Evaporation: A Journey Into Crystallization Chronicles of Soluble Acenes

In the pursuit of achieving high-performance and high-throughput organic transistors, this study highlights two critical aspects: designing new soluble acenes and optimizing their solution processing. A fundamental understanding of the crystallization mechanism inherent to these customized soluble acenes, as they undergo a transformation during the evaporation of residual solvent, is deemed essential. Here, the pathway to crafting ideal solution processing conditions is elucidated, meticulously tailored to the molecular structure of soluble acenes when blended with polymers. Employing a comprehensive array of analytical and computational methodologies, this investigation delves directly into the intricate interplay between processing parameters and crystallization mechanisms, firmly rooted in the domains of thermodynamics and kinetics. Notably, a delicate equilibrium where the optimal weight of residual solvent harmoniously aligns is uncovered with the specific attributes of soluble acene molecules, exerting influence over vertical phase separation with the blended polymer and the crystallization process of soluble acenes at the surface. Consequently, transistors showcasing remarkable field-effect mobility exceeding 8 cm2 V-1 s-1 are successfully developed. These findings provide invaluable guidance for navigating the path toward determining optimal solution processing conditions across a diverse array of soluble acene/polymer blend systems, all achieved through the strategic application of crystal and residual solvent engineering.

Using a Flexible Fountain Pen to Directly Write Organic Semiconductor Patterns with Crystallization Regulated by the Precursor Film

Organic semiconductor (OSC) films fabricated by meniscus-guided coating (MGC) methods are suitable for cost-effective and flexible electronics. However, achieving crystalline thin films by MGC methods is still challenging because the nucleation and crystal growth processes are influenced by the intertwined interactions among solvent evaporation, stochastic nucleation, and the fluid flow instabilities. Herein, a novel flexible fountain pen with active ink supply is designed and used to print OSCs. This direct-write method allows the flexible pen tip to contact the substrate, maintaining a robust meniscus by eliminating the gap found in conventional MGCs. An in situ optical microscopy observation system shows that the precursor film plays a critical role on the crystallization and the formation of coffee rings and dendrites. The computational fluid dynamics simulations demonstrate that the microstructure of the pen promotes extensional flows, facilitating mass transport and crystal alignment. Highly-aligned ribbon-shaped crystals of a small organic molecule (TIPS-pentacene), as well as a semiconducting polymer (N2200) with highly-ordered orientations, have been successfully printed by the flexible fountain pen. Organic field-effect transistors based on the flexible pen printed OSCs exhibit high performances and strong anisotropic mobility. In addition, the flexible fountain pen is expandable for printing multiple lines or large-area films.

Predictive modelling of structure formation in semiconductor films produced by meniscus-guided coating

Meniscus-guided coating methods, such as zone casting, dip coating and solution shearing, are scalable laboratory models for large-area solution coating of functional materials for thin-film electronics. Unfortunately, the general lack of understanding of how the coating parameters affect the dry-film morphology upholds trial-and-error experimentation and delays lab-to-fab translation. We present herein a model that predicts dry-film morphologies produced by meniscus-guided coating of a crystallizing solute. Our model reveals how the interplay between coating velocity and evaporation rate determines the crystalline domain size, shape anisotropy and regularity. If coating is fast, evaporation drives the system quickly past supersaturation, giving isotropic domain structures. If coating is slow, depletion due to crystallization stretches domains in the coating direction. The predicted morphologies have been experimentally confirmed by zone-casting experiments of the organic semiconductor 4-tolyl-bithiophenyl-diketopyrrolopyrrole. Although here we considered a small molecular solute, our model can be applied broadly to polymers and organic-inorganic hybrids such as perovskites.

Scalable Ultrahigh-Speed Fabrication of Uniform Polycrystalline Thin Films for Organic Transistors

The fabrication of organic semiconductor thin films by printing technologies is expected to enable the low-cost production of devices such as flexible display drivers, RF-ID tags, and various chemical/biological sensors. However, large-scale high-speed fabrication of uniform semiconductor thin films with adequate electrical properties for these devices remains a big challenge. Herein, we demonstrate an ultrafast and scalable fabrication of uniform polycrystalline thin films with 100% surface coverage using liquid crystalline semiconductors such as 2-phenyl-7-decyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (Ph-BTBT-10) and 2.7-dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT-C8), at a rate of 3 orders of magnitude higher than before, i.e., 40 mm/s (2.4 m/min) or more by dip-coating in the drainage regime. Organic transistors fabricated with polycrystalline thin films of Ph-BTBT-10 show average mobilities of 4.13 ± 0.75 cm²/(V s) in the bottom-gate-bottom-contact configuration and 10.90 ± 2.40 cm²/(V s) in the bottom-gate-top-contact configuration comparable to those of the devices prepared with single-crystalline thin films. More importantly, these films almost maintain the FET performance when the substrate size is extended up to 4 square inch. The present findings are available for other liquid crystalline semiconductors and bring us one step closer to the realization of printed electronics.

Solution-Processed, Large-Area, Two-Dimensional Crystals of Organic Semiconductors for Field-Effect Transistors and Phototransistors

Organic electronics with π-conjugated organic semiconductors are promising candidates for the next electronics revolution. For the conductive channel, the large-area two-dimensional (2D) crystals of organic semiconductors (2DCOS) serve as useful scaffolds for modern organic electronics, benefiting not only from long-range order and low defect density nature but also from unique charge transport characteristic and photoelectrical properties. Meanwhile, the solution process with advantages of cost-effectiveness and room temperature compatibility is the foundation of high-throughput print electrical devices. Herein, we will give an insightful overview to witness the huge advances in 2DCOS over the past decade. First, the typical influencing factors and state-of-the-art assembly strategies of the solution-process for large-area 2DCOS over sub-millimeter even to wafer size are discussed accompanying rational evaluation. Then, the charge transport characteristics and contact resistance of 2DCOS-based transistors are explored. Following this, beyond single transistors, the p-n junction devices and planar integrated circuits based on 2DCOS are also emphasized. Furthermore, the burgeoning phototransistors (OPTs) based on crystals in the 2D limits are elaborated. Next, we emphasized the unique and enhanced photoelectrical properties based on a hybrid system with other 2D van der Waals solids. Finally, frontier insights and opportunities are proposed, promoting further research in this field.

Impact of Hydrogen Bonds Limited Dipolar Disorder in High-k Polymer Gate Dielectric on Charge Carrier Transport in OFET

The paper contributes to the characterization and understanding the mutual interactions of the polar polymer gate dielectric and organic semiconductor in organic field effect transistors (OFETs). It has been shown on the example of cyanoethylated polyvinylalcohol (CEPVA), the high-k dielectric containing strong polar side groups, that the conditions during dielectric layer solidification can significantly affect the charge transport in the semiconductor layer. In contrast to the previous literature we attributed the reduced mobility to the broader distribution of the semiconductor density of states (DOS) due to a significant dipolar disorder in the dielectric layer. The combination of infrared (IR), solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and broadband dielectric (BDS) spectroscopy confirmed the presence of a rigid hydrogen bonds network in the CEPVA polymer. The formation of such network limits the dipolar disorder in the dielectric layer and leads to a significantly narrowed distribution of the density of states (DOS) and, hence, to the higher charge carrier mobility in the OFET active channel made of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene. The low temperature drying process of CEPVA dielectric results in the decreased energy disorder of transport states in the adjacent semiconductor layer, which is then similar as in OFETs equipped with the much less polar poly(4-vinylphenol) (PVP). Breaking hydrogen bonds at temperatures around 50 °C results in the gradual disintegration of the stabilizing network and deterioration of the charge transport due to a broader distribution of DOS.

Multifunctional molecular charge-transfer thin films

We report the controlled interfacial interaction in crystallized organic charge transfer thin films, consisting of bis(ethylenedithio)tetrathiafulvalene and C60. The induced broad-band absorption from the UV to near-infrared region leads to a wavelength dependent ambipolar (negative/positive) photoresponse, while multi-stimuli responsive behavior is achieved through charge-transfer interactions. In addition, by coupling with the tetrathiafulvalene-(7,7,8,8-tetracyanoquinodimethane) charge transfer complex, a significantly increased conductivity is achieved. The controlled interfacial charge transfer interaction provides an efficient approach to obtain multifunctional molecular crystallized thin films with a superior external stimuli response.

Gas Blow Coating: A Deposition Technique To Control the Crystal Morphology in Thin Films of Organic Semiconductors

Rapid, large-scale, and low-cost coating methods that enable precise control of the crystal growth of organic semiconductors are essential to deliver high-performance devices that are robust and reproducible. In this work, a novel method is presented based on a gas blow coating technique, enabling the deposition of thin films of organic semiconductors, whose morphology can be optimized by adjusting the deposition parameters. We demonstrate the deposition of aligned single crystals of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS-pentacene) and 2,7-dioctyl[1]benzothieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene (C8-BTBT) by gas blow coating and their use as active layers in organic field-effect transistor (OFET) devices. The OFETs of TIPS-pentacene and C8-BTBT have charge mobilities of 0.15 and 1.4 cm² V^-1 s^-1, respectively, with low threshold voltages and on/off ratios exceeding 10⁵. This coating method can also be extended to polymeric semiconductors: films based on poly(3-hexylthiophene) and poly[2,5-(2-octyldodecyl)-3,6-diketopyrrolopyrrole-alt-5,5-(2,5-di(thien-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene)] are realized, establishing gas blow coating as a novel and efficient technique for the deposition of thin films of organic semiconductors.

Thermal-assisted self-assembly: a self-adaptive strategy towards large-area uniaxial organic single-crystalline microribbon arrays

Uniaxial organic single-crystalline microribbon arrays (OSCMAs) are a class of highly desirable materials for a variety of optoelectronic applications due to their favorable molecular orientations along the long axes of the ribbons. Up to now, great endeavors have been made and several solution-processing techniques have been proposed to grow uniaxial OSCMAs. However, the crystal growth parameters are tuned non-synergistically in these techniques, resulting in challenging growth condition control. Herein, we report a self-adaptive thermal-assisted self-assembly (TASA) strategy to realize the synergistic control of key crystal growth parameters for the facile yet controllable production of centimeter-sized uniaxial OSCMAs from the solution. In the TASA strategy, key crystal growth parameters, such as solvent evaporation, nucleation and crystal growth, are controlled synergistically by the temperature gradient. As a result, the TASA strategy is self-adaptive, and it shows a large temperature and concentration tolerance. Organic phototransistors (OPTs) based on the uniaxial OSCMAs produced by the TASA strategy exhibit an unprecedented photosensitivity of 1.36 × 10⁸, a high responsivity of 845 A W^-1 and a high detectivity of 1.98 × 10¹⁵ Jones.

Printed Thin-Film Transistors: Research from China

Thin-film transistors (TFTs) have experienced tremendous development during the past decades and show great promising applications in flat displays, sensors, radio frequency identification tags, logic circuit, and so on. The printed TFTs are the key components for rapid development and commercialization of printed electronics. The researchers in China play important roles to accelerate the development and commercialization of printed TFTs. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the research progress of printed TFTs on rigid and flexible substrates from China. The review will focus on printing techniques of TFTs, printed TFT components including semiconductors, dielectrics and electrodes, as well as fully printed TFTs and printed flexible TFTs. Furthermore, perspectives on the remaining challenges and future developments are proposed.

Inorganic Polymer Micropillar-Based Solution Shearing of Large-Area Organic Semiconductor Thin Films with Pillar-Size-Dependent Crystal Size

It is demonstrated that the crystal size of small-molecule organic semiconductors can be controlled during solution shearing by tuning the shape and dimensions of the micropillars on the blade. Increasing the size and spacing of the rectangular pillars increases the crystal size, resulting in higher thin-film mobility. This phenomenon is attributed as the microstructure changing the degree and density of the meniscus line curvature, thereby controlling the nucleation process. The use of allylhybridpolycarbosilane (AHPCS), an inorganic polymer, is also demonstrated as the microstructured blade for solution shearing, which has high resistance to organic solvents, can easily be microstructured via molding, and is flexible and durable. Finally, it is shown that solution shearing can be performed on a curved surface using a curved blade. These demonstrations bring solution shearing closer to industrial applications and expand its applicability to various printed flexible electronics.

Micro to Nanoscale Engineering of Surface Precipitates Using Reconfigurable Contact Lines

Nanoscale engineering has traditionally adopted the chemical route of synthesis or optochemical techniques such as lithography requiring large process times, expensive equipment, and an inert environment. Directed self-assembly using evaporation of nanocolloidal droplet can be a potential low-cost alternative across various industries ranging from semiconductors to biomedical systems. It is relatively simple to scale and reorient the evaporation-driven internal flow field in an evaporating droplet which can direct dispersed matter into functional agglomerates. The resulting functional precipitates not only exhibit macroscopically discernible changes but also nanoscopic variations in the particulate assembly. Thus, the evaporating droplet forms an autonomous system for nanoscale engineering without the need for external resources. In this article, an indigenous technique of interfacial re-engineering, which is both simple and inexpensive to implement, is developed. Such re-engineering widens the horizon for surface patterning previously limited by the fixed nature of the droplet interface. It involves handprinting hydrophobic lines on a hydrophilic substrate to form a confinement of any selected geometry using a simple document stamp. Droplets cast into such confinements get modulated into a variety of shapes. The droplet shapes control the contact line behavior, evaporation dynamics, and complex internal flow pattern. By exploiting the dynamic interplay among these variables, we could control the deposit's macro- as well as nanoscale assembly not possible with simple circular droplets. We provide a detailed mechanism of the coupling at various length scales enabling a predictive capability in custom engineering, particularly useful in nanoscale applications such as photonic crystals.

Organic semiconductor crystals

A comprehensive overview of organic semiconductor crystals is provided, including the physicochemical features, the control of crystallization and the device physics.

Direct Writing and Aligning of Small-Molecule Organic Semiconductor Crystals via "Dragging Mode" Electrohydrodynamic Jet Printing for Flexible Organic Field-Effect Transistor Arrays

Patterning and aligning of organic small-molecule semiconductor crystals over large areas is an important issue for their commercialization and practical device applications. This Letter reports "dragging mode" electrohydrodynamic jet printing that can simultaneously achieve direct writing and aligning of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl) pentacene (TIPS-PEN) crystals. Dragging mode provides favorable conditions for crystal growth with efficient controls over supply voltages and nozzle-to-substrate distances. Optimal printing speed produces millimeter-long TIPS-PEN crystals with unidirectional alignment along the printing direction. These crystals are highly crystalline with a uniform packing structure that favors lateral charge transport. Organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) based on the optimally printed TIPS-PEN crystals exhibit high field-effect mobilities up to 1.65 cm²/(V·s). We also demonstrate the feasibility of controlling pattern shapes of the crystals as well as the fabrication of printed flexible OFET arrays.

Effect of In Situ Annealing Treatment on the Mobility and Morphology of TIPS-Pentacene-Based Organic Field-Effect Transistors

In this work, organic field-effect transistors (OFETs) with a bottom gate top contact structure were fabricated by using a spray-coating method, and the influence of in situ annealing treatment on the OFET performance was investigated. Compared to the conventional post-annealing method, the field-effect mobility of OFET with 60 °C in situ annealing treatment was enhanced nearly four times from 0.056 to 0.191 cm²/Vs. The surface morphologies and the crystallization of TIPS-pentacene films were characterized by optical microscope, atomic force microscope, and X-ray diffraction. We found that the increased mobility was mainly attributed to the improved crystallization and highly ordered TIPS-pentacene molecules.

Engineering Thin Films of a Tetrabenzoporphyrin toward Efficient Charge-Carrier Transport: Selective Formation of a Brickwork Motif

Tetrabenzoporphyrin (BP) is a p-type organic semiconductor characterized by the large, rigid π-framework, excellent stability, and good photoabsorption capability. These characteristics make BP and its derivatives prominent active-layer components in organic electronic and optoelectronic devices. However, the control of the solid-state arrangement of BP frameworks, especially in solution-processed thin films, has not been intensively explored, and charge-carrier mobilities observed in BP-based materials have stayed relatively low as compared to those in the best organic molecular semiconductors. This work concentrates on engineering the solid-state packing of a BP derivative, 5,15-bis(triisopropylsilyl)ethynyltetrabenzoporphyrin (TIPS-BP), toward achieving efficient charge-carrier transport in its solution-processed thin films. The effort leads to the selective formation of a brickwork packing that has two dimensionally extended π-staking. The maximum field-effect hole mobility in the resulting films reaches 1.1 cm² V^-1 s^-1, which is approximately 14 times higher than the record value for pristine free-base BP (0.070 cm² V^-1 s^-1). This achievement is enabled mainly through the optimization of three factors; namely, deposition process, cast solvent, and self-assembled monolayer that constitutes the dielectric surface. On the other hand, polarized-light microscopy and grazing-incident wide-angle X-ray diffraction analyses show that there remains some room for improvement in the in-plane homogeneity of molecular alignment, suggesting even higher charge-carrier mobilities can be obtained upon further optimization. These results will provide a useful basis for the polymorph engineering and morphology optimization in solution-processed organic molecular semiconductors.

Direct X-ray photoconversion in flexible organic thin film devices operated below 1 V

The application of organic electronic materials for the detection of ionizing radiations is very appealing thanks to their mechanical flexibility, low-cost and simple processing in comparison to their inorganic counterpart. In this work we investigate the direct X-ray photoconversion process in organic thin film photoconductors. The devices are realized by drop casting solution-processed bis-(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS-pentacene) onto flexible plastic substrates patterned with metal electrodes; they exhibit a strong sensitivity to X-rays despite the low X-ray photon absorption typical of low-Z organic materials. We propose a model, based on the accumulation of photogenerated charges and photoconductive gain, able to describe the magnitude as well as the dynamics of the X-ray-induced photocurrent. This finding allows us to fabricate and test a flexible 2 × 2 pixelated X-ray detector operating at 0.2 V, with gain and sensitivity up to 4.7 × 10⁴ and 77,000 nC mGy⁻¹ cm⁻³, respectively.

Organic electronics show advantages in easy processing, mechanical flexibility and low costs compared to their inorganic counterparts, yet there are not many proofs for the sake of X-ray detection. Here, Basiricò et al. build a flexible X-ray detector operated at sub-1 V using pentacene-based thin films.

Dense Assembly of Soluble Acene Crystal Ribbons and Its Application to Organic Transistors

The preparation of uniform large-area highly crystalline organic semiconductor single crystals remains a challenge in the field of organic field-effect transistors (OFETs). Crystal densities in the channel regions of OFETs have not yet reached sufficiently high values to provide efficient charge transport, and improving channel crystal densities remains an important research area. Herein we fabricated densely well-aligned single crystal arrays of the 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS_PEN) semiconductor using a straightforward scooping-up (SU) methodology to quickly produce a large-area self-assembled semiconductor crystal layer. The resulting crystalline TIPS_PEN strip arrays obtained using the SU method revealed a packing density that was 2.76 times the value obtained from the dip-coated channel, and the mean interspatial distance between the crystal strips decreased from 21.5 to 7.8 μm. The higher crystal packing density provided efficient charge transport in the FET devices and directly yielded field-effect mobilities as high as 2.16 cm(2)/(V s). These field-effect mobilities were more than three times the values obtained from the OFETs prepared using dip-coated channels. Furthermore, the contact resistance between the source/drain electrodes and the TIPS_PEN crystals decreased by a factor of 2. These contributions represent a significant step forward in improving semiconductor crystal alignment for the fabrication of large-area high-performance organic electronics.

Growth of Highly Oriented Ultrathin Crystalline Organic Microstripes: Effect of Alkyl Chain Length

The growth of organic semiconductor with controllable morphology is a crucial issue for achieving high-performance devices. Here we present the systematic study of the effect of the alkyl chain attached to the functional entity on controlling the growth of oriented microcrystals by dip-coating. Alkylated DTBDT-based molecules with variable chain lengths from n-butyl to n-dodecyl formed into one-dimensional micro- or nanostripe crystals at different pulling speeds. The alignment and ordering are significantly varied with alkyl chain length, as is the transistor performance. Highly uniform oriented and higher-molecular-order crystalline stripes with improved field-effect mobility can be achieved with an alkyl-chain length of around 6. We attribute this effect to the alkyl-chain-length-dependent packing, solubility, and self-assembly behavior.

Controlled Growth of Ultrathin Film of Organic Semiconductors by Balancing the Competitive Processes in Dip-Coating for Organic Transistors

Ultrathin film with thickness below 15 nm of organic semiconductors provides excellent platform for some fundamental research and practical applications in the field of organic electronics. However, it is quite challenging to develop a general principle for the growth of uniform and continuous ultrathin film over large area. Dip-coating is a useful technique to prepare diverse structures of organic semiconductors, but the assembly of organic semiconductors in dip-coating is quite complicated, and there are no reports about the core rules for the growth of ultrathin film via dip-coating until now. In this work, we develop a general strategy for the growth of ultrathin film of organic semiconductor via dip-coating, which provides a relatively facile model to analyze the growth behavior. The balance between the three direct factors (nucleation rate, assembly rate, and recession rate) is the key to determine the growth of ultrathin film. Under the direction of this rule, ultrathin films of four organic semiconductors are obtained. The field-effect transistors constructed on the ultrathin film show good field-effect property. This work provides a general principle and systematic guideline to prepare ultrathin film of organic semiconductors via dip-coating, which would be highly meaningful for organic electronics as well as for the assembly of other materials via solution processes.

Luminescent films for chemo- and biosensing

Luminescent films have received great interest for chemo-/bio-sensing applications due to their distinct advantages over solution-based probes, such as good stability and portability, tunable shape and size, non-invasion, real-time detection, extensive suitability in gas/vapor sensing, and recycling. On the other hand, they can achieve selective and sensitive detection of chemical/biological species using special luminophores with a recognition moiety or the assembly of common luminophores and functional materials. Nowadays, the extensively used assembly techniques include drop-casting/spin-coating, Langmuir-Blodgett (LB), self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), layer-by-layer (LBL), and electrospinning. Therefore, this review summarizes the recent advances in luminescent films with these assembly techniques and their applications in chemo-/bio-sensing. We mainly focused on the discussion of the relationship between the sensing properties of the films and their architecture. Furthermore, we discussed some critical challenges existing in this field and possible solutions that have been or are being developed to overcome these challenges.

A Lattice-Strained Organic Single-Crystal Nanowire Array Fabricated via Solution-Phase Nanograting-Assisted Pattern Transfer for Use in High-Mobility Organic Field-Effect Transistors

A 50 nm-wide 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl) pentacene nanowire (NW) array is fabricated on a centimeter-sized substrate via a facile nanograting-assisted pattern-transfer method. NW growth under a nanoconfined space adopts a lattice-strained packing motif of the NWs for strong intermolecular electronic coupling, and thus a NW-based organic field-effect transistor shows high field-effect mobility up to 9.71 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) .

Optical second-harmonic generation measurement for probing organic device operation

We give a brief overview of the electric-field induced optical second-harmonic generation (EFISHG) technique that has been used to study the complex behaviors of organic-based devices. By analyzing EFISHG images of organic field-effect transistors, the in-plane two-dimensional distribution of the electric field in the channel can be evaluated. The susceptibility tensor of the organic semiconductor layer and the polarization of the incident light are considered to determine the electric field distribution. EFISHG imaging can effectively evaluate the distribution of the vectorial electric field in organic films by selecting a light polarization. With the time-resolved technique, measurement of the electric field originating from the injected carriers allows direct probing of the carrier motion under device operation, because the transient change of the electric field distribution reflects the carrier motion. Some applications of the EFISHG technique to organic electronic devices are reviewed.

Controlled Directional Crystallization of Oligothiophenes Using Zone Annealing of Preseeded Thin Films

We demonstrate a simple route to directionally grow crystals of oligothiophenes, based on 2,5-bis(3-alkylthiophen-2-yl)thieno[3,2-b]thiophene with degrees of polymerization of 2 (BTTT-2) and 4 (BTTT-4) via zone annealing (ZA) of preseeded films. ZA of spun-cast films of BTTT-2 does not yield highly aligned crystals. However, if the film is oven-annealed briefly prior to ZA, highly aligned crystals that are millimeters in length can be grown, whose length depends on the velocity of the ZA front. The precrystallized region provides existing nuclei that promote crystal growth and limit nucleation of new crystals in the melted region. Aligned crystals of BTTT-2 can be obtained even when the moving velocity for ZA is an order of magnitude greater than the crystal growth rate. The relative nucleation rate to the crystallization rate for BTTT-4 is greater than that for BTTT-2, which decreases the length over which BTTT-4 can be aligned to ∼500 μm for the conditions examined. The temperature gradient and moving velocity of ZA enable control of the length of the aligned crystalline structure at the macroscale.

Quick Fabrication of Large-area Organic Semiconductor Single Crystal Arrays with a Rapid Annealing Self-Solution-Shearing Method

In this paper, we developed a new method to produce large-area single crystal arrays by using the organic semiconductor 9, 10-bis (phenylethynyl) anthracene (BPEA). This method involves an easy operation, is efficient, meets the demands of being low-cost and is independent of the substrate for large-area arrays fabrication. Based on these single crystal arrays, the organic field effect transistors exhibit the superior performance with the average mobility extracting from the saturation region of 0.2 cm² V⁻¹s⁻¹ (the highest 0.47 cm² V⁻¹s⁻¹) and on/off ratio exceeding 10⁵. In addition, our single crystal arrays also show a very high photoswitch performance with an on/off current ratio up to 4.1 × 10⁵, which is one of the highest values reported for organic materials. It is believed that this method provides a new way to fabricate single crystal arrays and has the potential for application to large area organic electronics.

A Facile PDMS-Assisted Crystallization for the Crystal-Engineering of C60 Single-Crystal Organic Field-Effect Transistors

Poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS)-assisted crystallization (PAC) is a facile method to produce oriented C60 crystal arrays. Changing the drying mechanism from evaporation to solvent absorption (by PDMS) widens the solvent selection and facilitates the engineering of both the macroscopic shape and the microscopic lattice structure of the crystal arrays. The method also shows the potential to be applied to other organic semiconductors and large-area production.

All-solution-processed, flexible thin-film transistor based on PANI/PETA as gate/gate insulator

An all-solution processed flexible thin-film transistor based on a PANI/PETA gate/gate insulator exhibited higher mobility than the device with a Si/SiO₂ gate/gate insulator because of large crystalline domains in the transition region.

Spontaneous formation of nanopatterns in velocity-dependent dip-coated organic films: from dragonflies to stripes

We present an experimental study of the micro- and mesoscopic structure of thin films of medium length n-alkane molecules on the native oxide layer of a silicon surface, prepared by dip-coating in a n-C32H66/n-heptane solution. Electron micrographs reveal two distinct adsorption morphologies depending on the substrate withdrawal speed v. For small v, dragonfly-shaped molecular islands are observed. For a large v, stripes parallel to the withdrawal direction are observed. These have lengths of a few hundred micrometers and a few micrometer lateral separation. For a constant v, the stripes' quality and separation increase with the solution concentration. Grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and atomic force microscopy show that both patterns are 4.2 nm thick monolayers of fully extended, surface-normal-aligned alkane molecules. With increasing v, the surface coverage first decreases then increases for v > v(cr) ∼ 0.15 mm/s. The critical v(cr) marks a transition between the evaporation regime, where the solvent's meniscus remains at the bulk's surface, and the entrainment (Landau-Levich-Deryaguin) regime, where the solution is partially dragged by the substrate, covering the withdrawn substrate by a homogeneous film. The dragonflies are single crystals with habits determined by dendritic growth in prominent 2D crystalline directions of randomly seeded nuclei assumed to be quasi-hexagonal. The stripes' strong crystalline texture and the well-defined separation are due to an anisotropic 2D crystallization in narrow liquid fingers, which result from a Marangoni flow driven hydrodynamic instability in the evaporating dip-coated films, akin to the tears of wine phenomenology.

High-mobility, aligned crystalline domains of TIPS-pentacene with metastable polymorphs through lateral confinement of crystal growth

Patterns composed of solvent wetting and dewetting regions promote lateral confinement of solution-sheared and lattice-strained TIPS-pentacene crystals. This lateral confinement causes aligned crystal growth, and the smallest patterns of 0.5 μm wide solvent wetting regions promotes formation of highly strained, aligned, and single-crystalline TIPS-pentacene regions with mobility as high as 2.7 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) .

Controlled growth of large-area high-performance small-molecule organic single-crystalline transistors by slot-die coating using a mixed solvent system

A slot-die coating technique is used for the crystal alignment of triisopropylsilylethynyl (TIPS)-pentacene in solution-processed field-effect transistors (FETs). The film thickness, uniformity, and crystal growth behavior are well controlled by tuning the coating parameters and by using a mixed solvent system (toluene/anisole). An average saturation regime FET mobility of 1.8 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) is achieved under ambient conditions.

Controlling microstructure of pentacene derivatives by solution processing: impact of structural anisotropy on optoelectronic properties

The consideration of anisotropic structural properties and their impact on optoelectronic properties in small-molecule thin films is vital to understand the performance of devices incorporating crystalline organic semiconductors. Here we report on the important relationship between structural and optoelectronic anisotropy in aligned, functionalized-pentacene thin films fabricated using the solution-based zone-casting technique. The microstructure of thin films composed of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS-pentacene) and 6,13-bis(triethylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TES-pentacene) is systematically controlled by varying the casting speed. By controlling the structural alignment, we were able to experimentally decouple, for the first time in these films, an intramolecular absorption transition dipole (at ∼440 nm) oriented close to the pentacene short axis and an intermolecular absorption transition dipole (at ∼695 nm) oriented predominantly along the conjugated pentacene-pentacene core stacking axis (crystallographic a-axis) in both films. Using the intermolecular absorption as a signature for intermolecular delocalization, much higher optical dichroism was obtained in TES-pentacene (16 ± 6) than TIPS-pentacene (3.2 ± 0.1), which was attributed to the 1D packing structure of TES-pentacene compared to the 2D packing structure of TIPS-pentacene. This result was also supported by field-effect mobility anisotropy measurements of the films, with TES-pentacene exhibiting a higher anisotropy (∼21-47, depending on the casting speed) than TIPS-pentacene (∼3-10).

Solution coating of large-area organic semiconductor thin films with aligned single-crystalline domains

Solution coating of organic semiconductors offers great potential for achieving low-cost manufacturing of large-area and flexible electronics. However, the rapid coating speed needed for industrial-scale production poses challenges to the control of thin-film morphology. Here, we report an approach--termed fluid-enhanced crystal engineering (FLUENCE)--that allows for a high degree of morphological control of solution-printed thin films. We designed a micropillar-patterned printing blade to induce recirculation in the ink for enhancing crystal growth, and engineered the curvature of the ink meniscus to control crystal nucleation. Using FLUENCE, we demonstrate the fast coating and patterning of millimetre-wide, centimetre-long, highly aligned single-crystalline organic semiconductor thin films. In particular, we fabricated thin films of 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl) pentacene having non-equilibrium single-crystalline domains and an unprecedented average and maximum mobilities of 8.1±1.2 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) and 11 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1). FLUENCE of organic semiconductors with non-equilibrium single-crystalline domains may find use in the fabrication of high-performance, large-area printed electronics.

High-performance triethylsilylethynyl anthradithiophene transistors prepared without solvent vapor annealing: the effects of self-assembly during dip-coating

Solution-processable small-molecule organic semiconductors have recently attracted significant attention for use as the active channel layers in organic field-effect transistors due to their good intrinsic charge carrier mobility and easy processability. Dip-coating is a good method for optimizing the film morphology and molecular ordering of the small-molecular semiconductors because the drying speed can be quantitatively controlled at the air-solution-substrate contact line. Here, we report the preparation of highly crystalline triethylsilylethynyl-anthradithiophene (TES-ADT) crystal arrays that exhibit an excellent field-effect mobility (up to 1.8 cm(2)/(V s)) via an optimized one-step dip-coating process. High-quality TES-ADT crystals were grown without solvent vapor annealing postprocessing steps, which were previously thought to be essential for improving the morphology, crystallinity, and electrical characteristics of TES-ADT thin films. An interesting correlation between the optimal pull-out rate and the self-assembly tendencies of some soluble acene semiconductors was observed, and the origin of the correlation was investigated. Our work demonstrates an alternative simple approach to achieving highly crystalline TES-ADT thin films, and further proposes a prospective method for optimizing the formation of thin films via the molecular self-assembly of soluble acenes.

Thin-film morphology of inkjet-printed single-droplet organic transistors using polarized Raman spectroscopy: effect of blending TIPS-pentacene with insulating polymer

We report thin-film morphology studies of inkjet-printed single-droplet organic thin-film transistors (OTFTs) using angle-dependent polarized Raman spectroscopy. We show this to be an effective technique to determine the degree of molecular order as well as to spatially resolve the orientation of the conjugated backbones of the 6,13-bis(triisopropylsilylethynyl)pentacene (TIPS-Pentacene) molecules. The addition of an insulating polymer, polystyrene (PS), does not disrupt the π-π stacking of the TIPS-Pentacene molecules. Blending in fact improves the uniformity of the molecular morphology and the active layer coverage within the device and reduces the variation in molecular orientation between polycrystalline domains. For OTFT performance, blending enhances the saturation mobility from 0.22 ± 0.05 cm(2)/(V·s) (TIPS-Pentacene) to 0.72 ± 0.17 cm(2)/(V·s) (TIPS-Pentacene:PS) in addition to improving the quality of the interface between TIPS-Pentacene and the gate dielectric in the channel, resulting in threshold voltages of ∼0 V and steep subthreshold slopes.