DNA-Nanostructure-Gold-Nanorod Hybrids for Enhanced In Vivo Optoacoustic Imaging and Photothermal Therapy

Nano revolution of DNA nanostructures redefining cancer therapeutics-A comprehensive review

DNA nanostructures are a promising tool in cancer treatment, offering an innovative way to improve the effectiveness of therapies. These nanostructures can be made solely from DNA or combined with other materials to overcome the limitations of traditional single-drug treatments. There is growing interest in developing nanosystems capable of delivering multiple drugs simultaneously, addressing challenges such as drug resistance. Engineered DNA nanostructures are designed to precisely deliver different drugs to specific locations, enhancing therapeutic effects. By attaching targeting molecules, these nanostructures can recognize and bind to cancer cells, increasing treatment precision. This approach offers tailored solutions for targeted drug delivery, enabling the delivery of multiple drugs in a coordinated manner. This review explores the advancements and applications of DNA nanostructures in cancer treatment, with a focus on targeted drug delivery and multi-drug therapy. It discusses the benefits and current limitations of nanoscale formulations in cancer therapy, categorizing DNA nanostructures into pure forms and hybrid versions optimized for drug delivery. Furthermore, the review examines ongoing research efforts and translational possibilities, along with challenges in clinical integration. By highlighting the advancements in DNA nanostructures, this review aims to underscore their potential in improving cancer treatment outcomes.

Voltage-controlled nonlinear optical properties in gold nanofilms via electrothermal effect

Dynamic control of the optical properties of gold nanostructures is crucial for advancing photonics technologies spanning optical signal processing, on-chip light sources and optical computing. Despite recent advances in tunable plasmons in gold nanostructures, most studies are limited to the linear or static regime, leaving the dynamic manipulation of nonlinear optical properties unexplored. This study demonstrates the voltage-controlled Kerr nonlinear optical response of gold nanofilms via the electrothermal effect. By applying relatively low voltages (~10 V), the nonlinear absorption coefficient and refractive index are reduced by 40.4% and 33.1%, respectively, due to the increased damping coefficient of gold nanofilm. Furthermore, a voltage-controlled all-fiber gold nanofilm saturable absorber is fabricated and used in mode-locked fiber lasers, enabling reversible wavelength-tuning and operation regimes switching (e.g., mode-locking-Q-switched mode-locking). These findings advance the understanding of electrically controlled nonlinear optical responses in gold nanofilms and offer a flexible approach for controlling fiber laser operations.

Liver-specific delivery of spherical DNA frameworks for alleviation of hepatic ischemic reperfusion injury

DNA nanostructures have long been developed for biomedical purposes, but their controlled delivery in vivo proposes a major challenge for disease theranostics. We previously reported that DNA nanostructures on the scales of tens and hundreds nanometers showed preferential renal excretion or kidney retention, allowing for sensitive evaluation and effective protection of kidney function, in response to events such as unilateral ureter obstruction or acute kidney injury. Encouraged by the positive results, we redirected our focus to the liver, specifically targeting organs noticeably lacking DNA materials, to explore the interaction between DNA nanostructures and the liver. Through PET imaging, we identified SDF and M13 as DNA nanostructures exhibiting significant accumulation in the liver among numerous candidates. Initially, we investigated and assessed their biodistribution, toxicity, and immunogenicity in healthy mice, establishing the structure-function relationship of DNA nanostructures in the normal murine. Subsequently, we employed a mouse model of liver ischemia-reperfusion injury (IRI) to validate the nano-bio interactions of SDF and M13 under more challenging pathological conditions. M13 not only exacerbated hepatic oxidative injury but also elevated local apoptosis levels. In contrast, SDF demonstrated remarkable ability to scavenge oxidative responses in the liver, thereby mitigating hepatocyte injury. These compelling results underscore the potential of SDF as a promising therapeutic agent for liver-related conditions. This aimed to elucidate their roles and mechanisms in liver injury, providing a new perspective for the biomedical applications of DNA nanostructures.

Multiple Natural Polymers in Drug and Gene Delivery Systems

Natural polymers are organic compounds produced by living organisms. In nature, they exist in three main forms, including proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids. In recent years, with the continuous research on drug and gene delivery systems, scholars have found that natural polymers have promising applications in drug and gene delivery systems due to their excellent properties such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, low immunogenicity, and easy modification. However, since the structure, physicochemical properties, pharmacological properties and biological characteristics of biopolymer molecules have not yet been entirely understood, further studies are required before large-scale clinical application. This review focuses on recent advances in the representative natural polymers such as proteins (albumin, collagen, elastin), polysaccharides (chitosan, alginate, cellulose) and nucleic acids. We introduce the characteristics of various types of natural polymers, and further outline the characterization methods and delivery forms of these natural polymers. Finally, we discuss possible challenges for natural polymers in subsequent experimental studies and clinical applications. It provides an important strategy for the clinical application of natural polymers in drug and gene delivery systems.

Engineered nanodrug targeting oxidative stress for treatment of acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinical syndrome characterized by a rapid decline in renal function, and is associated with a high risk of death. Many pathological changes happen in the process of AKI, including crucial alterations to oxidative stress levels. Numerous efforts have thus been made to develop effective medicines to scavenge excess reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, researchers have encountered several significant challenges, including unspecific biodistribution, high biotoxicity, and in vivo instability. To address these problems, engineered nanoparticles have been developed to target oxidative stress and treat AKI. This review thoroughly discusses the methods that empower nanodrugs to specifically target the glomerular filtration barrier and presents the latest achievements in engineering novel ROS-scavenging nanodrugs in clustered sections. The analysis of each study's breakthroughs and imperfections visualizes the progress made in developing effective nanodrugs with specific biodistribution and oxidative stress-targeting capabilities. This review fills the blank of a comprehensive outline over current progress in applying nanotechnology to treat AKI, providing potential insights for further research.

Manganese Dioxide/Gold-based Active Tumor Targeting Nanoprobes for Enhancing Photodynamic and Low-Temperature-Photothermal Combination Therapy in Lung Cancer

Tumor drug resistance caused by the tumor microenvironment is an extremely difficult problem for researchers to solve. Nanoplatforms that integrate diagnosis and treatment have great advantages in tumor treatment, but the design and synthesis of simple and efficient nanoplatforms still face tremendous challenges. In this study, a novel Mn/Au@ir820/GA-CD133 nanoprobe was developed. The manganese dioxide/gold particles were prepared by coprecipitation/assembly, chemically coupled with CD133 antibody, and finally loaded with the photosensitive drug IR820 and the heat shock protein inhibitor Ganetespib. The nanoprobe demonstrated good tumor-targeting ability, increased the level of singlet oxygen produced from laser irradiation by effectively alleviating tumor hypoxia, and decreased the threshold of heat tolerance by downregulating the expression of HSP90 in tumor tissues. This nanoprobe successfully inhibited the growth and progression of tumor tissues in a tumor-bearing mouse model by improving the effectiveness of photodynamic and low-temperature photothermal combination therapy.

Acoustic platforms meet MXenes - a new paradigm shift in the palette of biomedical applications

The wide applicability of acoustics in the life of mankind spread over health, energy, environment, and others. These acoustic technologies rely on the properties of the materials with which they are made of. However, traditional devices have failed to develop into low-cost, portable devices and need to overcome issues like sensitivity, tunability, and applicability in biological in vivo studies. Nanomaterials, especially 2D materials, have already been proven to produce high optical contrast in photoacoustic applications. One such wonder kid in the materials family is MXenes, which are transition metal carbides, that are nowadays flourishing in the materials world. Recently, it has been demonstrated that MXene nanosheets and quantum dots can be synthesized by acoustic excitations. In addition, MXene can be used as a mechanical sensing material for building piezoresistive sensors to realize sound detection as it produces a sensitive response to pressure and vibration. It has also been demonstrated that MXene nanosheets show high photothermal conversion capability, which can be utilized in cancer treatment and photoacoustic imaging (PAI). In this review, we have rendered the role of acoustics in the palette of MXene, including acoustic synthetic strategies of MXenes, applications such as acoustic sensors, PAI, thermoacoustic devices, sonodynamic therapy, artificial ear drum, and others. The review also discusses the challenges and future prospects of using MXene in acoustic platforms in detail. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first review combining acoustic science in MXene research.

An Activated Structure Transformable Ratiometric Photoacoustic Nanoprobe for Real-Time Dynamic Monitoring of H2S In Vivo

H2S has emerged as a promising biomarker for many diseases such as colon cancer and metformin-induced hepatotoxicity. Real-time monitoring of H2S levels in vivo is significant for early accurate diagnosis of these diseases. Herein, a new accurate and reliable nanoprobe (Au NRs@Ag) was designed for real-time dynamic ratiometric photoacoustic (PA) imaging of H2S in vivo based on the endogenous H2S-triggered local surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) red-shift. The Au NRs@Ag nanoprobe can be readily converted into Au NRs@Ag2S via the endogenous H2S-activated in situ sulfurative reaction, subsequently leading to a significant red-shift of the LSPR wavelength from 808 to 980 nm and enabling accurate ratiometric PA (PA980/PA808) imaging of H2S. Moreover, dynamic ratiometric PA imaging of metformin-induced hepatotoxicity was also successfully achieved by the designed PA imaging strategy. These findings provide the possibility of designing a new ratiometric PA imaging strategy for dynamic in situ monitoring of H2S-related diseases.

The Creation of DNA Origami-Based Supramolecular Nanostructures for Cancer Therapy

DNA origami technology, a unique type of DNA nanotechnology, has attracted much attention from researchers and is applied in various fields. Through exquisite design and precise self-assembly of four kinds of deoxyribonucleotides, DNA origami nanostructures are endowed with excellent programmability and addressability and show outstanding biocompatibility in bio-related applications, especially in cancer treatment. In this review, nanomaterials based on DNA origami for cancer therapy are concluded, whereby chemotherapy and photo-assisted therapy are the main focus. Furthermore, the working mechanisms of the functional materials attached to the rigid DNA structures to enable targeted delivery and circumvent drug resistance are also discussed. DNA origami nanostructures are valuable carriers for delivering multifunctional therapeutic agents and demonstrate great potential in cancer treatment both in vitro and in vivo. It is undoubted that DNA origami technology is a promising strategy for constructing versatile nanodevices in biological fields and will excel in human healthcare.

Recent Advances in DNA Nanomaterials

Applications of DNA-containing nanomaterials (DNA-NMs) in science and technology are currently attracting increasing attention in the fields of medicine, environment, engineering, etc. Such objects have become important for various branches of science and industries due to their outstanding characteristics such as small size, high controllability, clustering actions, and strong permeability. For these reasons, DNA-NMs deserve a review with respect to their recent advancements. On the other hand, precise cluster control, targeted drug distribution in vivo, and cellular micro-nano operation remain as problems. This review summarizes the recent progress in DNA-NMs and their crossover and integration into multiple disciplines (including in vivo/in vitro, microcircles excisions, and plasmid oligomers). We hope that this review will motivate relevant practitioners to generate new research perspectives and boost the advancement of nanomanipulation.

Application and prospects of nucleic acid nanomaterials in tumor therapy

Cancer poses a great threat to human life, and current cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery, have significant side effects and limitations that hinder their application. Nucleic acid nanomaterials have specific spatial configurations and can be used as nanocarriers to deliver different therapeutic drugs, thereby enabling various biomedical applications, such as biosensors and cancer therapy. In recent decades, a variety of DNA nanostructures have been synthesized, and they have demonstrated remarkable potential in cancer therapy related applications, such as DNA origami structures, tetrahedral framework nucleic acids, and dynamic DNA nanostructures. Importantly, more attention is also being paid to RNA nanostructures, which play an important role in gene therapy. Therefore, this review introduces the developmental history of nucleic acid nanotechnology, summarizes the applications of DNA and RNA nanostructures for tumor treatment, and discusses the development opportunities for nucleic acid nanomaterials in the future.

Addressing the in vivo delivery of nucleic-acid nanostructure therapeutics

DNA and RNA nanostructures are being investigated as therapeutics, vaccines, and drug delivery systems. These nanostructures can be functionalized with guests ranging from small molecules to proteins with precise spatial and stoichiometric control. This has enabled new strategies to manipulate drug activity and to engineer devices with novel therapeutic functionalities. Although existing studies have offered encouraging in vitro or pre-clinical proof-of-concepts, establishing mechanisms of in vivo delivery is the new frontier for nucleic-acid nanotechnologies. In this review, we first provide a summary of existing literature on the in vivo uses of DNA and RNA nanostructures. Based on their application areas, we discuss current models of nanoparticle delivery, and thereby highlight knowledge gaps on the in vivo interactions of nucleic-acid nanostructures. Finally, we describe techniques and strategies for investigating and engineering these interactions. Together, we propose a framework to establish in vivo design principles and advance the in vivo translation of nucleic-acid nanotechnologies.

Physicochemical Properties and Route of Systemic Delivery Control the In Vivo Dynamics and Breakdown of Radiolabeled Gold Nanostars

The in vivo dynamics of nanoparticles requires a mechanistic understanding of multiple factors. Here, for the first time, the surprising breakdown of functionalized gold nanostars (F-AuNSs) conjugated with antibodies and 64 Cu radiolabels in vivo and in artificial lysosomal fluid ex vivo, is shown. The short-term biodistribution of F-AuNSs is driven by the route of systemic delivery (intravenous vs intraperitoneal) and long-term fate is controlled by the tissue type in vivo. In vitro studies including endocytosis pathways, intracellular trafficking, and opsonization, are combined with in vivo studies integrating a milieu of spectroscopy and microcopy techniques that show F-AuNSs dynamics is driven by their physicochemical properties and route of delivery. F-AuNSs break down into sub-20 nm broken nanoparticles as early as 7 days postinjection. Martini coarse-grained simulations are performed to support the in vivo findings. Simulations suggest that shape, size, and charge of the broken nanoparticles, and composition of the lipid membrane depicting various tissues govern the interaction of the nanoparticles with the membrane, and the rate of translocation across the membrane to ultimately enable tissue clearance. The fundamental study addresses critical gaps in the knowledge regarding the fate of nanoparticles in vivo that remain a bottleneck in their clinical translation.

DNA Nanomaterials-Based Platforms for Cancer Immunotherapy

The past few decades have witnessed the evolving paradigm for cancer therapy from nonspecific cytotoxic agents to selective, mechanism-based therapeutics, especially immunotherapy. In particular, the integration of nanomaterials with immunotherapy is proven to improve the therapeutic outcome and minimize off-target toxicity in the treatment. As a novel nanomaterial, DNA-based self-assemblies featuring uniform geometries, feasible modifications, programmability, surface addressability, versatility, and intrinsic biocompatibility, are extensively exploited for innovative and effective cancer immunotherapy. In this review, the successful employment of DNA nanoplatforms for cancer immunotherapy, including the delivery of immunogenic cell death inducers, adjuvants and vaccines, immune checkpoint blockers as well as the application in immune cell engineering and adoptive cell therapy is summarized. The remaining challenges and future perspectives regarding the pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics, in vivo fate and immunogenicity of DNA materials, and the design of intelligent DNA nanomedicine for individualized cancer immunotherapy are also discussed.

Unravelling the Drug Encapsulation Ability of Functional DNA Origami Nanostructures: Current Understanding and Future Prospects on Targeted Drug Delivery

Rapid breakthroughs in nucleic acid nanotechnology have always driven the creation of nano-assemblies with programmable design, potent functionality, good biocompatibility, and remarkable biosafety during the last few decades. Researchers are constantly looking for more powerful techniques that provide enhanced accuracy with greater resolution. The self-assembly of rationally designed nanostructures is now possible because of bottom-up structural nucleic acid (DNA and RNA) nanotechnology, notably DNA origami. Because DNA origami nanostructures can be organized precisely with nanoscale accuracy, they serve as a solid foundation for the exact arrangement of other functional materials for use in a number of applications in structural biology, biophysics, renewable energy, photonics, electronics, medicine, etc. DNA origami facilitates the creation of next-generation drug vectors to help in the solving of the rising demand on disease detection and therapy, as well as other biomedicine-related strategies in the real world. These DNA nanostructures, generated using Watson-Crick base pairing, exhibit a wide variety of properties, including great adaptability, precise programmability, and exceptionally low cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. This paper summarizes the synthesis of DNA origami and the drug encapsulation ability of functionalized DNA origami nanostructures. Finally, the remaining obstacles and prospects for DNA origami nanostructures in biomedical sciences are also highlighted.

NIR-II Light-Activated Gold Nanorods for Synergistic Thermodynamic and Photothermal Therapy of Tumor

There are tricky challenges in tumor therapy due to the hypoxic tumor microenvironment, inevitably inhibiting the treatment efficacy of the traditional photodynamic therapy (PDT), radiation therapy (RT), and sonodynamic therapy (SDT). Herein, to overcome tumor hypoxia limitation, we constructed a near-infrared II (NIR-II) light-triggered thermodynamic therapy (TDT) nanoplatform of Au@mSiO₂-AIPH@PCM/PEG (ASAPP) by integrating the Au nanorods (Au NRs) and thermally activated alkyl free radical-releasing molecules (AIPH). Au NRs@mSiO₂ was used as a photothermally responsive material and AIPH carrier, and the hot-melt phase-change material (PCM) was used as a capping agent to prevent leakage of AIPH during blood circulation. Upon NIR-II light irradiation, heat-triggered free radical release from AIPH was successfully achieved for killing cancer cells in vitro and in vivo without oxygen dependence, leading to synergistically enhanced antitumor therapy.

Nucleic acid nanostructures for in vivo applications: The influence of morphology on biological fate

The development of programmable biomaterials for use in nanofabrication represents a major advance for the future of biomedicine and diagnostics. Recent advances in structural nanotechnology using nucleic acids have resulted in dramatic progress in our understanding of nucleic acid-based nanostructures (NANs) for use in biological applications. As the NANs become more architecturally and functionally diverse to accommodate introduction into living systems, there is a need to understand how critical design features can be controlled to impart desired performance in vivo. In this review, we survey the range of nucleic acid materials utilized as structural building blocks (DNA, RNA, and xenonucleic acids), the diversity of geometries for nanofabrication, and the strategies to functionalize these complexes. We include an assessment of the available and emerging characterization tools used to evaluate the physical, mechanical, physiochemical, and biological properties of NANs in vitro. Finally, the current understanding of the obstacles encountered along the in vivo journey is contextualized to demonstrate how morphological features of NANs influence their biological fates. We envision that this summary will aid researchers in the designing novel NAN morphologies, guide characterization efforts, and design of experiments and spark interdisciplinary collaborations to fuel advancements in programmable platforms for biological applications.

Functionalizing DNA origami to investigate and interact with biological systems

DNA origami has emerged as a powerful method to generate DNA nanostructures with dynamic properties and nanoscale control. These nanostructures enable complex biophysical studies and the fabrication of next-generation therapeutic devices. For these applications, DNA origami typically needs to be functionalized with bioactive ligands and biomacromolecular cargos. Here, we review methods developed to functionalize, purify, and characterize DNA origami nanostructures. We identify remaining challenges, such as limitations in functionalization efficiency and characterization. We then discuss where researchers can contribute to further advance the fabrication of functionalized DNA origami.

Advances in Single-component inorganic nanostructures for photoacoustic imaging guided photothermal therapy

Phototheranostic based on photothermal therapy (PTT) and photoacoustic imaging (PAI), as one of avant-garde medical techniques, have sparked growing attention because it allows noninvasive, deeply penetrative, and highly selective and effective therapy. Among a variety of phototheranostic nanoagents, single-component inorganic nanostructures are found to be novel and attractive PAI and PTT combined nanotheranostic agents and received tremendous attention, which not only exhibit structural controllability, high tunability in physiochemical properties, size-dependent optical properties, high reproducibility, simple composition, easy functionalization, and simple synthesis process, but also can be endowed with multiple therapeutic and imaging functions, realizing the superior therapy result along with bringing less foreign materials into body, reducing systemic side effects and improving the bioavailability. In this review, according to their synthetic components, conventional single-component inorganic nanostructures are divided into metallic nanostructures, metal dichalcogenides, metal oxides, carbon based nanostructures, upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs), metal organic frameworks (MOFs), MXenes, graphdiyne and other nanostructures. On the basis of this category, their detailed applications in PAI guide PTT of tumor treatment are systematically reviewed, including synthesis strategies, corresponding performances, and cancer diagnosis and therapeutic efficacy. Before these, the factors to influence on photothermal effect and the principle of in vivo PAI are briefly presented. Finally, we also comprehensively and thoroughly discussed the limitation, potential barriers, future perspectives for research and clinical translation of this single-component inorganic nanoagent in biomedical therapeutics.

Nanoparticles derived from naturally occurring metal chelators for theranostic applications

Metals are indispensable for the activities of all living things, from single-celled organisms to higher organisms, including humans. Beyond their intrinsic quality as metal ions, metals help creatures to maintain requisite biological processes by forming coordination complexes with endogenous ligands that are broadly distributed in nature. These types of naturally occurring chelating reactions are found through the kingdoms of life, including bacteria, plants and animals. Mimicking these naturally occurring coordination complexes with intrinsic biocompatibility may offer an opportunity to develop nanomedicine toward clinical applications. Herein, we introduce representative examples of naturally occurring coordination complexes in a selection of model organisms and highlight such bio-inspired metal-chelating nanomaterials for theranostic applications.

Biomolecule-Based Optical Metamaterials: Design and Applications

Metamaterials are broadly defined as artificial, electromagnetically homogeneous structures that exhibit unusual physical properties that are not present in nature. They possess extraordinary capabilities to bend electromagnetic waves. Their size, shape and composition can be engineered to modify their characteristics, such as iridescence, color shift, absorbance at different wavelengths, etc., and harness them as biosensors. Metamaterial construction from biological sources such as carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids represents a low-cost alternative, rendering high quantities and yields. In addition, the malleability of these biomaterials makes it possible to fabricate an endless number of structured materials such as composited nanoparticles, biofilms, nanofibers, quantum dots, and many others, with very specific, invaluable and tremendously useful optical characteristics. The intrinsic characteristics observed in biomaterials make them suitable for biomedical applications. This review addresses the optical characteristics of metamaterials obtained from the major macromolecules found in nature: carbohydrates, proteins and DNA, highlighting their biosensor field use, and pointing out their physical properties and production paths.

Smart DNA nanogel coated polydopamine nanoparticle with high drug loading for chemo-photothermal therapy of cancer

A smart deoxyribose nucleic acid nanogel coated polydopamine nanosphere hybrid was designed for chemo-photothermal therapy of cancer. The nanohybrid showed good colloid stability, narrow size distribution, high drug loading, good biocompatibility, and high photothermal conversion efficiency, and could release the drug on desired tumor sites.

The sound of drug delivery: Optoacoustic imaging in pharmacology

Optoacoustic (photoacoustic) imaging offers unique opportunities for visualizing biological function in vivo by achieving high-resolution images of optical contrast much deeper than any other optical technique. The method detects ultrasound waves that are generated inside tissue by thermo-elastic expansion, i.e., the conversion of light absorption by tissue structures to ultrasound when the tissue is illuminated by the light of varying intensity. Listening instead of looking to light offers the major advantage of image formation with a resolution that obeys ultrasonic diffraction and not photon diffusion laws. While the technique has been widely used to explore contrast from endogenous photo-absorbing molecules, such as hemoglobin or melanin, the use of exogenous agents can extend applications to a larger range of biological and possible clinical applications, such as image-guided surgery, disease monitoring, and the evaluation of drug delivery, biodistribution, and kinetics. This review summarizes recent developments in optoacoustic agents, and highlights new functions visualized and potent pharmacology applications enabled with the use of external contrast agents.

Recent advances of the core-shell MOFs in tumour therapy

Coordination chemistry has always been vital to explore the material prominence of metal-organic systems. The metal-organic chemistry plays a fundamental role in decisive structural features, which are accountable for tuning the properties of materials. Tumour therapy has become an important research field of medical treatment in the world. Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have attracted extensive interest in medical science research due to their large effective surface area, clear pore network, and critical catalytic performance. Compared with traditional MOF materials, MOF materials with core-shell structures have a higher loading rate and better stability, which can overcome a single function. They have been successfully used in tumour medical research and have excellent prospects for diagnosing and treating various tumours. The current review article thoroughly describes the various synthetic approaches for engineering core-shell MOF materials, the structural types, and the potential functional applications. We also discussed core-shell MOF materials for the various treatment of tumours, such as tumour chemotherapy, tumour phototherapy and tumour microenvironment anti-hypoxia therapy. In this paper, the synthesized procedures of core-shell MOFs and their applications for tumour treatment have been discussed, and their future research has prospected. The current improved strategies, challenges, and prospects are also presented because of the metal-organic chemistry governing the structural modification of core-shell MOFs for tumour therapy applications. Therefore, the present review article opens a new door for medicinal chemists to tune the structural features of the core-shell MOF materials to modulate tumour therapy with simple, low-cost materials for better human lives.

Direct visualization of the drug loading of single DNA origami nanostructures by AFM-IR nanospectroscopy

The efficient loading of DNA nanostructures with intercalating or groove-binding drugs is an important prerequisite for various applications in drug delivery. However, unambiguous verification and quantification of successful drug loading is often rather challenging. In this work, AFM-IR nanospectroscopy is thus employed to directly visualize the loading of DNA origami nanostructures with the photosensitizer methylene blue (MB). Single MB-loaded DNA origami nanostructures can be clearly resolved in high-resolution infrared (IR) maps and the occurrence of MB-specific IR absorption correlates well with the topographic signals of the DNA origami nanostructures. The intensity of the recorded MB absorption bands furthermore scales with the MB concentration used for MB loading. By comparing single- and multilayer DNA origami nanostructures, it is also shown that the IR signal intensity of the loaded MB increases with the thickness of the DNA origami nanostructures. This indicates that also DNA double helices located in the core of bulky 3D DNA origami nanostructures are accessible for MB loading. AFM-IR nanospectroscopy thus has the potential to become an invaluable tool for quantifying drug loading of DNA origami nanostructures and optimizing drug loading protocols.

Gold Nanorods-Based Photothermal Therapy: Interactions Between Biostructure, Nanomaterial, and Near-Infrared Irradiation

Gold nanorods (AuNRs) are ideal inorganic nanophotothermal agents with unique characteristics, including local surface plasmon resonance effects, easy scale preparation and functional modification, and good biocompatibility. This review summarizes several recent advances in AuNRs-based photothermal therapy (PTT) research. Functionalized AuNRs photothermal agents have optimized biocompatibility and targeting properties. The multifunctional AuNRs nanoplatform composite structure meets the requirements for synergistic effects of PTT, photoacoustic imaging, and other therapeutic methods. Photothermal therapy with AuNRs (AuNRs-PTT) is widely used to treat tumors and inflammatory diseases; its tumor-targeting, tumor metastasis inhibition, and photothermal tumor ablation abilities have remarkable curative effects. An in-depth study of AuNRs in living systems and the interactions between biological structure, nanomaterial, and near-infrared irradiation could lay the foundation for further clinical research and the broad application of AuNRs in PTT.

A multimodal nanoparticles‐based theranostic method and system

We propose a nanoparticles‐based system for the early detection of tumors, treatment under real‐time feedback, and monitoring. The building blocks of the system comprise a few modalities that are integrated into one powerful system which can operate at the patient's bedside in an outpatient clinic setting. The method relies on the unique characteristics of superparamagnetic nanoparticles. It takes advantage of their ability to produce acoustical signals under alternating magnetic fields (AMFs) and to produce heat under these same AMFs with different parameters. It utilizes the nanoparticles' coating for specific binding. The manuscript describes the various parts of this method for localization, source separation, confined heat elevation, triggering of cell death, and monitoring the response to treatment through fluorescence signaling. The entire system continues to evolve into a minimally invasive trans‐endoscopic set‐up.

This article is categorized under:

Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging

Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease

Interfacing DNA nanotechnology and biomimetic photonic complexes: advances and prospects in energy and biomedicine

Self-assembled photonic systems with well-organized spatial arrangement and engineered optical properties can be used as efficient energy materials and as effective biomedical agents. The lessons learned from natural light-harvesting antennas have inspired the design and synthesis of a series of biomimetic photonic complexes, including those containing strongly coupled dye aggregates with dense molecular packing and unique spectroscopic features. These photoactive components provide excellent features that could be coupled to multiple applications including light-harvesting, energy transfer, biosensing, bioimaging, and cancer therapy. Meanwhile, nanoscale DNA assemblies have been employed as programmable and addressable templates to guide the formation of DNA-directed multi-pigment complexes, which can be used to enhance the complexity and precision of artificial photonic systems and show the potential for energy and biomedical applications. This review focuses on the interface of DNA nanotechnology and biomimetic photonic systems. We summarized the recent progress in the design, synthesis, and applications of bioinspired photonic systems, highlighted the advantages of the utilization of DNA nanostructures, and discussed the challenges and opportunities they provide.

Design and application of DNA nanostructures for organelle-targeted delivery of anticancer drugs

INTRODUCTION

DNA nanostructures targeting organelles are of great significance for the early diagnosis and precise therapy of human cancers. This review is expected to promote the development of DNA nanostructure-based cancer treatment with organelle-level precision in the future.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we introduce the different principles for targeting organelles, summarize the progresses in the development of organelle-targeting DNA nanostructures, highlight their advantages and applications in disease treatment, and discuss current challenges and future prospects.

EXPERT OPINION

Accurate targeting is a basic problem for effective cancer treatment. However, current DNA nanostructures cannot meet the actual needs. Targeting specific organelles is expected to further improve the therapeutic effect and overcome tumor cell resistance, thereby holding great practical significance for tumor treatment in the clinic. With the deepening of the research on the molecular mechanism of disease development, especially on tumorigenesis and tumor progression, and increasing understanding of the behavior of biological materials in living cells, more versatile DNA nanostructures will be constructed to target subcellular organelles for drug delivery, essentially promoting the early diagnosis of cancers, classification, precise therapy and the estimation of prognosis in the future.

NIR-II-Responsive CeO2-x@HA Nanotheranostics for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Sonodynamic-Enhanced Synergistic Phototherapy

The therapeutic effect of photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is severely limited because of the shallow tissue penetration depth of the first near-infrared (NIR-I) light. Multifunctional nanotheranostics irradiated by the second near-infrared (NIR-II) light have received wide interest with respect to deeper tissue penetration, and sonodynamic therapy (SDT) synergistic phototherapy can achieve the complete elimination of tumors. Herein, we successfully constructed a single NIR-II light-induced nanotheranostic using cerium oxide (CeO_2-x) with abundant oxygen vacancies for photoacoustic imaging-guided SDT-enhanced phototherapy for the first time. CeO_2-x with surface crystalline disorder showed extensive NIR-II region absorption and an outstanding photothermal conversion ability. In addition, the CeO_2-x layer with numerous oxygen defects can promote the separation of holes and electrons by ultrasound irradiation, which can remarkably enhance the efficacy of phototherapy to achieve high-efficiency tumor ablation. CeO_2-x was surface modified with hyaluronic acid (HA) to prepare CeO_2-x@HA to allow active tumor targeting efficiency. Both cell and animal experiments confirmed that all-in-one CeO_2-x@HA exhibited a high therapeutic efficacy of SDT-enhanced PDT/PTT under 1064 nm laser irradiation, which achieved complete tumor eradication without systemic toxicity. This study significantly broadened the application of NIR-II-responsive CeO_2-x for photoacoustic imaging-mediated SDT-enhanced phototherapy to the highly efficient and precise elimination of tumors.

Gold Nanorods for Drug and Gene Delivery: An Overview of Recent Advancements

Over the past few decades, gold nanomaterials have shown great promise in the field of nanotechnology, especially in medical and biological applications. They have become the most used nanomaterials in those fields due to their several advantageous. However, rod-shaped gold nanoparticles, or gold nanorods (GNRs), have some more unique physical, optical, and chemical properties, making them proper candidates for biomedical applications including drug/gene delivery, photothermal/photodynamic therapy, and theranostics. Most of their therapeutic applications are based on their ability for tunable heat generation upon exposure to near-infrared (NIR) radiation, which is helpful in both NIR-responsive cargo delivery and photothermal/photodynamic therapies. In this review, a comprehensive insight into the properties, synthesis methods and toxicity of gold nanorods are overviewed first. For the main body of the review, the therapeutic applications of GNRs are provided in four main sections: (i) drug delivery, (ii) gene delivery, (iii) photothermal/photodynamic therapy, and (iv) theranostics applications. Finally, the challenges and future perspectives of their therapeutic application are discussed.

Advances in pharmacotherapy for acute kidney injury

INTRODUCTION

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is a clinically critical disease exhibiting an acute decline in renal function. The lack of an effective prevention and treatment method equates to a high morbidity and mortality rate. Consequently, over the past few decades, many therapeutic drugs with different mechanisms of action have been proposed and gradually applied to the clinic. The involved drug mechanisms evaluated have included hemodynamic modulation, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, repair agents, metabolic derangement and mitochondrial function.

AREAS COVERED

The authors of this review provide the reader with a reference point for the latest advances in pharmacotherapy in acute kidney injury. This is achieved by the evaluation of the latest data collected on potential therapeutic drugs with different mechanisms of action, as well as their preclinical and clinical impact on AKI.

EXPERT OPINION

Presently, the vast majority of drugs are still in clinical development, which is a huge challenge. Nevertheless, in addition to current chemical drugs and gene therapy strategies, the advent of mesenchymal stem cell treatments and other emerging pharmaceutical strategies could enable clinicians to better treat AKI. Due to the nonselective distribution and low bioavailability of some of the latest pharmaceutical strategies, there is hope that these treatment options may provide more efficacious avenues.

Smart Drug Delivery Systems Based on DNA Nanotechnology

The development of DNA nanotechnology has attracted tremendous attention in biotechnological and biomedical fields involving biosensing, bioimaging and disease therapy. In particular, precise control over size and shape, easy modification, excellent programmability and inherent homology make the sophisticated DNA nanostructures vital for constructing intelligent drug carriers. Recent advances in the design of multifunctional DNA-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) have demonstrated the effectiveness and advantages of DNA nanostructures, showing the unique benefits and great potential in enhancing the delivery of pharmaceutical compounds and reducing systemic toxicity. This Review aims to overview the latest researches on DNA nanotechnology-enabled nanomedicine and give a perspective on their future opportunities.

DNA Origami-Anthraquinone Hybrid Nanostructures for In Vivo Quantitative Monitoring of the Progression of Tumor Hypoxia Affected by Chemotherapy

Hypoxia is a well-known feature of malignant solid tumors. To explain the misinterpretation of tumor hypoxia variation during chemotherapy, we developed a DNA origami-based theranostic nanoplatform with an intercalated anticancer anthraquinone as both the chemotherapeutic drug and the photoacoustic contrast agent. The size distribution of the DNA origami nanostructure is 44.5 ± 2.3 nm, whereas the encapsulation efficiency of the drug is 90.7 ± 1.0%, and the drug loading content is 92.2 ± 0.1%. The controlled cumulative release rates were measured in vitro, showing an acidic environment induced rapid drug release. The values of free energy of binding between the drugs and the DNA double helix were calculated through molecular simulations. The cell viability assay was used to characterize cytotoxicity, and fluorescence confocal cell imaging illustrates the biodistribution of the probe in vitro. Photoacoustic and fluorescence imaging were used to indicate drug delivery, release, and biodistribution to predict the drug's chemotherapeutic effect in vivo, whereas the photoacoustic signals were compared with those of deoxygenated/oxygenated hemoglobin to represent the tissue hypoxia/normoxia maps during the chemotherapeutic process and indicate alleviated tumor hypoxia. Staining of tissue sections taken from organs and tumors was used to verify the results of photoacoustic imaging. Our results suggest that photoacoustic imaging can visualize this DNA origami-based theranostic nanoplatform and reveal the mechanisms of chemotherapy on tumor hypoxia.

Nucleic Acids and Their Analogues for Biomedical Applications

Nucleic acids are emerging as powerful and functional biomaterials due to their molecular recognition ability, programmability, and ease of synthesis and chemical modification. Various types of nucleic acids have been used as gene regulation tools or therapeutic agents for the treatment of human diseases with genetic disorders. Nucleic acids can also be used to develop sensing platforms for detecting ions, small molecules, proteins, and cells. Their performance can be improved through integration with other organic or inorganic nanomaterials. To further enhance their biological properties, various chemically modified nucleic acid analogues can be generated by modifying their phosphodiester backbone, sugar moiety, nucleobase, or combined sites. Alternatively, using nucleic acids as building blocks for self-assembly of highly ordered nanostructures would enhance their biological stability and cellular uptake efficiency. In this review, we will focus on the development and biomedical applications of structural and functional natural nucleic acids, as well as the chemically modified nucleic acid analogues over the past ten years. The recent progress in the development of functional nanomaterials based on self-assembled DNA-based platforms for gene regulation, biosensing, drug delivery, and therapy will also be presented. We will then summarize with a discussion on the advanced development of nucleic acid research, highlight some of the challenges faced and propose suggestions for further improvement.

Pharmaceutical applications of framework nucleic acids

DNA is a biological polymer that encodes and stores genetic information in all living organism. Particularly, the precise nucleobase pairing inside DNA is exploited for the self-assembling of nanostructures with defined size, shape and functionality. These DNA nanostructures are known as framework nucleic acids (FNAs) for their skeleton-like features. Recently, FNAs have been explored in various fields ranging from physics, chemistry to biology. In this review, we mainly focus on the recent progress of FNAs in a pharmaceutical perspective. We summarize the advantages and applications of FNAs for drug discovery, drug delivery and drug analysis. We further discuss the drawbacks of FNAs and provide an outlook on the pharmaceutical research direction of FNAs in the future.

Delineating the Role of Tailored Gold Nanostructures at the Biointerface

Gold (Au) has emerged as a superior element, because of its widespread applications in electronic and medical fields. The desirable physical, chemical, optical, and inherent enzyme-like properties of Au are efficiently exploited for detection, diagnostic, and therapeutic purposes. Au offers a unique advantage of fabricating gold nanostructures (GNS) having exact physical, chemical, optical, and enzyme-like properties required for the specific biomedical application. In this Review, the emerging trend of GNS for various biomedical applications is highlighted. Some notable structural and chemical modifications achieved for the detection of biomolecules, pathogens, diagnosis of diseases, and therapeutic applications are discussed in brief. The limitations of GNS during biomedical usage are highlighted and the way forward to overcome these limitations are discussed.

Hierarchical Assembly of Super-DNA Origami Based on a Flexible and Covalent-Bound Branched DNA Structure

DNA origami technique provides a programmable way to construct nanostructures with arbitrary shapes. The dimension of assembled DNA origami, however, is usually limited by the length of the scaffold strand. Herein, we report a general strategy to efficiently organize multiple DNA origami tiles to form super-DNA origami using a flexible and covalent-bound branched DNA structure. In our design, the branched DNA structures (B_n: with a certain number of 2-6 branches) are synthesized by a copper-free click reaction. Equilateral triangular DNA origamis with different numbers of capture strands (T_n: T₁, T₂, and T₃) are constructed as the coassembly tiles. After hybridization with the branched DNA structures, the super-DNA origami (up to 13 tiles) can be efficiently ordered in the predesigned patterns. Compared with traditional DNA junctions (J_n: J₂-J₆, as control groups) assembled by base pairing between several DNA strands, a higher yield and more compact structures are obtained using our strategy. The highly ordered and discrete DNA origamis can further precisely organize gold nanoparticles into different patterns. This rationally developed DNA origami ordering strategy based on the flexible and covalent-bound branched DNA structure presents a new avenue for the construction of sophisticated DNA architectures with larger molecular weights.

Aptamer-engineered gold nanorod driven an absorbance enhanced strategy for sensitive biomacromolecule profiling

Gold nanorods (AuNRs)-based plasmonic biosensor offers new opportunity for quantification of biomacromolecules due to their high designability and low technical demands. However, existing methods for the optical detection of biomacromolecule require the targets to induce the aggregation or etching of AuNRs. This limits the range of targets that can be detected, because molecules at extremely low concentration are difficult to arouse aggregation or etching of AuNRs. Thus, it is still challenge to design a scheme for the biomacromolecules at extremely low concentration which can't arouse aggregation or etching of AuNRs based on their plasmonic property. This study proposes a universal absorbance enhanced strategy for biomacromolecule detection with aptamers engineered AuNRs. The biosensor assay (Apts/AuNRs) is designed through assembly of two aptamers on AuNRs to specified recognize the target biomacromolecules, forming closed-loop conformation based on the proximity-dependent ligation, producing absorbance enhancement in the plasmonic peak of AuNRs. It is interesting that the absorbance enhancement increases gradually with increasing protein concentration within a certain range, whereas no aggregation or etching of AuNRs was observed compared with the typical AuNRs based LSPR sensor. Taking advantage of the excellent near infrared light absorption of AuNRs, Apts/AuNRs could be utilized to detect red protein such as cytochrome C, which exhibited better performance than AuNPs based plasmonic sensor. On this basis, the selectivity detection of cytochrome C with the detection of limit down to picomole level was demonstrated. By changing the type of aptamers on AuNRs, the sensitive and credible method was also utilized for the analysis of telomerase activity in nerve cell lysate. Telomerase activity in 4 × 10⁴ neuroblastoma cell was determined to be about 3.575 U/L, which was close to the result of ELISA kit. Good recovery was achieved using standard samples recovery. This study broadens the scope of AuNRs based plasmonic ‬‬‬‬‬‬property ‬‬‬‬and offer a simple, sensitive and selective strategy for biomacromolecules detection in complexed biofluid.

Gold Nanorods: The Most Versatile Plasmonic Nanoparticles

Gold nanorods (NRs), pseudo-one-dimensional rod-shaped nanoparticles (NPs), have become one of the burgeoning materials in the recent years due to their anisotropic shape and adjustable plasmonic properties. With the continuous improvement in synthetic methods, a variety of materials have been attached around Au NRs to achieve unexpected or improved plasmonic properties and explore state-of-the-art technologies. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the latest progress on Au NRs, the most versatile anisotropic plasmonic NPs. We present a representative overview of the advances in the synthetic strategies and outline an extensive catalogue of Au-NR-based heterostructures with tailored architectures and special functionalities. The bottom-up assembly of Au NRs into preprogrammed metastructures is then discussed, as well as the design principles. We also provide a systematic elucidation of the different plasmonic properties associated with the Au-NR-based structures, followed by a discussion of the promising applications of Au NRs in various fields. We finally discuss the future research directions and challenges of Au NRs.

Se-modified gold nanorods for enhancing the efficiency of photothermal therapy: avoiding the off-target problem induced by biothiols

Tumor-targeting gold nanorods (AuNRs) assembled through Au-S bonds have been widely used for photothermal therapy (PTT) via intravenous injection. However, with extended in vivo circulation times, biothiols can replace some S-modified targeting ligands on the surface of the AuNRs, which lowers their targeting efficacy towards cancer cells, resulting in a non-ideal PTT effect. To address this problem, herein, we utilized Se-modified AuNRs to establish a dual functional nanoprobe (Casp-RGD-Se-AuNRs) for improving the therapeutic effect and real-time monitoring of Caspase-9 levels to indicate the degree of cell apoptosis. The experiments demonstrated that the Casp-RGD-Se-AuNRs are better at avoiding interference from biothiols than the S-modified nanoprobe (Casp-RGD-S-AuNRs) for extended blood-circulation times after intravenous injection, significantly improving the PTT efficacy via more effectively targeting cancer cells. Simultaneously, the change of Caspase-9 levels visually shows the degree of apoptosis. Moreover, an in vivo study showed that, compared with the S-modified nanoprobe, the Se-modified nanoprobe exhibits a higher delivery efficiency to the tumor region after intravenous injection (accumulation in the tumor increased by 87%) and a better anticancer efficacy under NIR light irradiation (the tumor inhibition rate increased 6-fold). This work provides a valuable strategy to overcome the off-target problem, and new ideas for avoiding interference by biomolecules during blood circulation.

DNA Origami Frameworks Enabled Self-Protective siRNA Delivery for Dual Enhancement of Chemo-Photothermal Combination Therapy

Although chemotherapy and photothermal therapy are widely used to combat cancer, their efficacy is often limited by multidrug resistance. Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) have ability to suppress the expression of target genes, which has been extensively employed for combating the multidrug resistance to chemodrugs and hyperthermia in cancer therapy. However, efficient delivery of siRNAs along with chemo-photothermal agents in vivo is still an enormous challenge. Herein, octahedral DNA origami frameworks (OctDOFs) are constructed as a nanovehicle for precise organization and orchestrated delivery of siRNAs, chemodrugs (doxorubicin, Dox), and photothermal agents (gold nanorods, AuNRs) in combinatorial treatment of cancer. The inner cavity of the rigid OctDOFs structure is able to shield the encapsulated siRNAs during transportation by sterically hindering RNase degradation and protein binding, thus achieving effective downregulation of connective tissue growth factor (CTGF) and heat shock protein 72 (HSP72) for dual sensitization of cancer cells to chemodrugs and hyperthermia. By amplifying chemo-photothermal therapeutic potency with siRNAs, the proposed OctDOFs exhibited superior cytotoxicity and tumor inhibition efficacy in vitro and in vivo. This nanovehicle creates a promising siRNA delivery platform for precise medication and combination therapy.

Framework Nucleic Acids in Nuclear Medicine Imaging: shedding light on nano-bio interactions

Framework nucleic acids (FNAs) represent nanoscale oligonucleotide assemblies with unique physical, chemical, and biological properties different from their building blocks. Following simple Watson-Crick base-pairing rules, arbitrary DNA frameworks with diverse shapes, sizes, and dimensions can be prepared with high reproducibility and stability. The programmable assembly of nucleic acids into FNAs presents a highly controllable model for nano-bio interaction studies and allows for scrutiny of "nanostructure-activity relationships." Herein, we present an overview of the recent progress of FNAs in the hope of deepening our understanding of nano-bio interfacing. By investigating various FNAs, we summarize their biological profiles and immune responses as functions of their shape, sizes, and surface charges. We then highlight recent efforts of applying FNAs for biomedical applications and discuss the challenges of FNAs for potential clinical translation. We believe that this mini-review can bring up-to-date information on FNA and shed light on how their design may be harnessed for selective biomedical applications.

Prospective Cancer Therapies Using Stimuli-Responsive DNA Nanostructures

Nanostructures based on DNA self-assembly present an innovative way to address the increasing need for target-specific delivery of therapeutic molecules. Currently, most of the chemotherapeutics being used in clinical practice have undesired and exceedingly high off-target toxicity. This is a challenge in particular for small molecules, and hence, developing robust and effective methods to lower these side effects and enhance the antitumor activity is of paramount importance. Prospectively, these issues could be tackled with the help of DNA nanotechnology, which provides a route for the fabrication of custom, biocompatible, and multimodal structures, which can, to some extent, resist nuclease degradation and survive in the cellular environment. Similar to widely employed liposomal products, the DNA nanostructures (DNs) are loaded with selected drugs, and then by employing a specific stimulus, the payload can be released at its target region. This review explores several strategies and triggers to achieve targeted delivery of DNs. Notably, different modalities are explained through which DNs can interact with their respective targets as well as how structural changes triggered by external stimuli can be used to achieve the display or release of the cargo. Furthermore, the prospects and challenges of this technology are highlighted.

Supramolecular peptide nano-assemblies for cancer diagnosis and therapy: from molecular design to material synthesis and function-specific applications

Peptide molecule has high bioactivity, good biocompatibility, and excellent biodegradability. In addition, it has adjustable amino acid structure and sequence, which can be flexible designed and tailored to form supramolecular nano-assemblies with specific biomimicking, recognition, and targeting properties via molecular self-assembly. These unique properties of peptide nano-assemblies made it possible for utilizing them for biomedical and tissue engineering applications. In this review, we summarize recent progress on the motif design, self-assembly synthesis, and functional tailoring of peptide nano-assemblies for both cancer diagnosis and therapy. For this aim, firstly we demonstrate the methodologies on the synthesis of various functional pure and hybrid peptide nano-assemblies, by which the structural and functional tailoring of peptide nano-assemblies are introduced and discussed in detail. Secondly, we present the applications of peptide nano-assemblies for cancer diagnosis applications, including optical and magnetic imaging as well as biosensing of cancer cells. Thirdly, the design of peptide nano-assemblies for enzyme-mediated killing, chemo-therapy, photothermal therapy, and multi-therapy of cancer cells are introduced. Finally, the challenges and perspectives in this promising topic are discussed. This work will be useful for readers to understand the methodologies on peptide design and functional tailoring for highly effective, specific, and targeted diagnosis and therapy of cancers, and at the same time it will promote the development of cancer diagnosis and therapy by linking those knowledges in biological science, nanotechnology, biomedicine, tissue engineering, and analytical science.