Rational Design of Functional Peptide-Gold Hybrid Nanomaterials for Molecular Interactions

Biomedical applications of peptide-gold nanoarchitectonics

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have become a focus of interest in biomedicine due to their unique properties. By attaching peptides to these nanoparticles (NPs), they can be utilized for a wide range of applications. Peptides, which are short chains of amino acids, can be customized for specific molecular interactions, making them ideal for delivering AuNPs to particular cells or tissues. One of the peptide-AuNP-based bio-nano technological approaches involves targeted drug delivery. Including peptides as targeting agents, these NPs can be designed to bind to specific cell receptors or biomarkers. This allows for the direct delivery of therapeutic agents to diseased cells while minimizing unwanted side effects, improving the effectiveness of treatments. Additionally, peptide-functionalized AuNPs (PAuNPs) are crucial for imaging and diagnostics. By functionalizing the NPs with peptides that bind to specific molecular targets, such as cancer biomarkers, these NPs can be used to visualize diseased tissues. This enables the early detection of diseases and helps in determining the severity of conditions for better diagnosis and treatment outcomes. Moreover, PAuNPs have displayed promising potential in photothermal therapy. Once PAuNPs uptake and penetrate target cancer cells effectively, these NPs generate heat when exposed to specific wavelengths of light, efficiently eliminating tumors while preserving healthy surrounding tissues. Therefore, in this paper, we systematically review the potential of PAuNPs in various biomedical applications, including therapy and diagnosis, providing a future perspective.

Binding mechanism of oligopeptides on solid surface: assessing the significance of single-molecule approach

This paper addresses the complementarity and potential disparities between single-molecule and ensemble-average approaches to probe the binding mechanism of oligopeptides on inorganic solids. Specifically, we explore the peptide/gold interface owing to its significance in various topics and its suitability to perform experiments both in model and real conditions. Experimental results show that the studied peptide adopts a lying configuration upon adsorption on the gold surface and interacts through its peptidic links and deprotonated thiolate extremities, in agreement with theoretical predictions. Single-molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) measurements revealed the existence of a wide panel of adhesion forces, resulting from the interaction between individual peptide moieties and the abundant surface sites. We therefore propose methodological developments for sorting the events of interest to understand the peptide adsorption mechanism. Thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the peptide adsorption are probed using both static and dynamic force spectroscopy measurements. Specifically, we show the possibility of providing a reasonable estimate of the peptide free energy of adsorption ΔadsG° by exploring the fluctuations of the adhesion work, based on the Jarzynski equality, and by using a parametric Gamma estimator. The proposed approach offers a relevant method for studying the different factors influencing the peptide adsorption and evaluating their impact on ΔadsG° as an alternative to exploring adhesion forces that may lead to misinterpretations. This is illustrated by the comparison of the adsorption of two peptides with specific amino acids substitution. Our method provides insights into the overall mechanism by which peptides interact with the surface and allows an integration of the single-molecule versus ensemble-average points of view.

Gold Nanoparticles Decorated with HPLC6-Derived Peptides as a Platform for Ice Recrystallization Inhibition

In nature, organisms living in extreme environmental conditions produce antifreeze proteins (AFPs) that prevent the growth of ice crystals and depress the freezing point of body fluids. In this study, three different peptides derived from the N-terminal sequence of the helical type I AFP HPLC6, along with a stapled derivative produced via on-resin microwave-assisted copper(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition, were conjugated to gold nanoparticles. The aim of decorating the surface of the nanoparticles with multiple copies of the peptides was to combine the ice-binding capability of the peptides with the size of a nanoparticle, thus, mimicking the protein bulkiness to enhance the peptide antifreeze activity. Ice recrystallization inhibition experiments on the functionalized gold nanoparticles showed a decrease in the ice crystal growth rates with the stapled conjugate being the most active. Conformational studies indicated a major helical content in the constrained peptide, highlighting the importance of a stable conformation for antifreeze activity. Finally, cytotoxicity tests showed that both the peptides and the nanoparticle constructs were nontoxic. The proposed approach could thus represent the starting point for developing effective strategies for cryopreservation.

AuCePt porous hollow cascade nanozymes targeted delivery of disulfiram for alleviating hepatic insulin resistance

As the pathophysiological basis of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), insulin resistance (IR) is closely related to oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation, while nanozymes have a good therapeutic effect on inflammation and OS by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS). Hence, AuCePt porous hollow cascade nanozymes (AuCePt PHNs) are designed by integrating the dominant enzymatic activities of three metallic materials, which exhibit superior superoxide dismutase/catalase-like activities, and high drug loading capacity. In vitro experiments proved that AuCePt PHNs can ultra-efficiently scavenge endogenous and exogenous ROS. Moreover, AuCePt PHNs modified with lactobionic acid (LA) and loaded with disulfiram (DSF), named as AuCePt PHNs-LA@DSF, can significantly improve glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis in IR hepatocytes by regulating the insulin signaling pathways (IRS-1/AKT) and gluconeogenesis signaling pathways (FOXO-1/PEPCK). Intravenous administration of AuCePt PHNs-LA@DSF not only showed high liver targeting efficiency, but also reduced body weight and blood glucose and improved IR and lipid accumulation in high-fat diet-induced obese mice and diabetic ob/ob mice. This research elucidates the intrinsic activity of AuCePt PHNs for cascade scavenging of ROS, and reveals the potential effect of AuCePt PHNs-LA@DSF in T2DM treatment.

Fouling-Free electrochemical strategy based on vertically-aligned peptide layer for cardiac troponin I sensitive detection in human serum

BACKGROUND

Cardiac troponin I (CTnI) is demonstrated as one of the most promising disease biomarkers for early diagnosing acute myocardial infarction (AMI). To date, electrochemical immunosensors have been extensively studied in the field of cTnI determination. But highly accurate and sensitive cTnI detection by this method is still a challenge due to non-specific adsorption on electrode interfaces in complex human serum. As a result, it is necessary to develop an antifouling electrochemical immunosensor with high sensitivity for the detection of cTnI.

RESULTS

In this work, an antifouling electrochemical immunosensor was constructed based on vertically-aligned peptide layer consisting of Au nanoparticles (AuNPs) and amphiphilic CEAK16 peptide (CEAK16@AuNPs) for sensitive and accurate detection of cTnI in human serum. The vertically-aligned CEAK16@AuNPs interface provided a stable hydration layer originated from attraction of water molecules by amino acids on the hydrophilic side of the CEAK16, which effectively reduced non-specific adsorption and enhanced electron transfer rate. The cTnI immunosensor possessed great analytical performance with a wide range from 1 fg mL-1 to 1 μg mL-1 and a low detection limit of 0.28 fg mL-1 (S/N = 3). Additionally, the proposed CEAK16@AuNPs sensing interface showed excellent long-term antifouling performance and electrochemical activity that preserved 80 % of the initial signal after 20-days exposure in human serum samples. Consequently, the cTnI immunosensor displayed excellent detection accuracy compared to clinical methods and owned good selectivity, stability and reproducibility.

SIGNIFICANCE

The development of this strategy provides a versatile tool for accurate quantitative cTnI analysis in real human serum, thus helping to achieve early AMI diagnosis effectively and holding the promising potentials for other immunosensor in disease diagnosis.

A sandwich FRET biosensor for lysozyme detection based on peptide-functionalized gold nanoparticles and FAM-labeled aptamer

Lysozyme (LYZ) plays a crucial role in the body's immune defense system. Monitoring LYZ levels can provide valuable insights into the diagnosis and severity assessment of various diseases. Traditionally, antibody-based sandwich assays are employed for LYZ detection, but they are often time-consuming and operationally complicated. In this research, a novel sandwich FRET biosensor was developed, which enables rapid detection of LYZ based on peptide-functionalized gold nanoparticles (pAuNPs) and FAM-labeled aptamer (Apt-FAM). Initially, a mixture of Apt-FAM and pAuNPs resulted in partial quenching of the Apt-FAM fluorescence emission through an inner filter effect (IFE), with negligible energy transfer because of the electrostatic repulsion between the negatively charged pAuNPs and Apt-FAM. The introduction of LYZ into the mixture drove the specific binding of Apt-FAM and pAuNPs to LYZ, facilitating the formation of a pAuNPs-LYZ-aptamer sandwich structure. The formation of this complex drew the pAuNPs and Apt-FAM into close enough proximity to enable FRET to occur, which in turn effectively quenched the fluorescence emission of FAM. The decrease in FAM fluorescence intensity was correlated with the increasing concentration of LYZ. Thus, a sandwich FRET biosensor was successfully developed for LYZ detection with a linear detection range of 0-1.75 μM and a detection limit of 85 nM. Additionally, the biosensor allowed visual detection of LYZ in a 96-well microplate, with a rapid response time of just 15 s. This study introduces a innovative sandwich FRET biosensor that combines aptamer and peptide recognition elements, offering a fast and antibody-free method for protein detection.

Gold nanomaterials: important vectors in biosensing of breast cancer biomarkers

Breast cancer (BC) is one of the most common malignant tumors in women worldwide, and its incidence is increasing every year. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical to improve the curability and prognosis of patients. However, existing detection methods often suffer from insufficient sensitivity and specificity, which limits their clinical application. Fortunately, the rapid development of nanotechnology offers new possibilities for diagnosing BC. For example, the unique physicochemical properties of gold nanomaterials (Au NMs), such as fascinating optical properties and quantum size effect, along with excellent biocompatibility and modifiability, enable them to manifest great potential in the field of biosensing, especially in the detection of BC biomarkers. Through fine surface modification and functionalization, Au NMs can accurately bind to specific antibodies, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules, thus achieving sensitive and precise detection of specific biomarkers. Here, we focus on the research progress of Au NMs as a key biosensing vector in BC biomarker detection. From four major perspectives of early diagnosis, prognostic evaluation, risk prediction, and bioimaging applications, we have thoroughly analyzed the broad application of Au NMs in BC biomarker detection and prospectively addressed its possible future trends. We hope this review will provide more comprehensive ideas for future researchers and promote the further development of this field.

Nano-Micron Combined Hydrogel Microspheres: Novel Answer for Minimal Invasive Biomedical Applications

Hydrogels, key in biomedical research for their hydrophilicity and versatility, have evolved with hydrogel microspheres (HMs) of micron-scale dimensions, enhancing their role in minimally invasive therapeutic delivery, tissue repair, and regeneration. The recent emergence of nanomaterials has ushered in a revolutionary transformation in the biomedical field, which demonstrates tremendous potential in targeted therapies, biological imaging, and disease diagnostics. Consequently, the integration of advanced nanotechnology promises to trigger a new revolution in the realm of hydrogels. HMs loaded with nanomaterials combine the advantages of both hydrogels and nanomaterials, which enables multifaceted functionalities such as efficient drug delivery, sustained release, targeted therapy, biological lubrication, biochemical detection, medical imaging, biosensing monitoring, and micro-robotics. Here, this review comprehensively expounds upon commonly used nanomaterials and their classifications. Then, it provides comprehensive insights into the raw materials and preparation methods of HMs. Besides, the common strategies employed to achieve nano-micron combinations are summarized, and the latest applications of these advanced nano-micron combined HMs in the biomedical field are elucidated. Finally, valuable insights into the future design and development of nano-micron combined HMs are provided.

Stimuli-responsive peptide assemblies: Design, self-assembly, modulation, and biomedical applications

Peptide molecules have design flexibility, self-assembly ability, high biocompatibility, good biodegradability, and easy functionalization, which promote their applications as versatile biomaterials for tissue engineering and biomedicine. In addition, the functionalization of self-assembled peptide nanomaterials with other additive components enhances their stimuli-responsive functions, promoting function-specific applications that induced by both internal and external stimulations. In this review, we demonstrate recent advance in the peptide molecular design, self-assembly, functional tailoring, and biomedical applications of peptide-based nanomaterials. The strategies on the design and synthesis of single, dual, and multiple stimuli-responsive peptide-based nanomaterials with various dimensions are analyzed, and the functional regulation of peptide nanomaterials with active components such as metal/metal oxide, DNA/RNA, polysaccharides, photosensitizers, 2D materials, and others are discussed. In addition, the designed peptide-based nanomaterials with temperature-, pH-, ion-, light-, enzyme-, and ROS-responsive abilities for drug delivery, bioimaging, cancer therapy, gene therapy, antibacterial, as well as wound healing and dressing applications are presented and discussed. This comprehensive review provides detailed methodologies and advanced techniques on the synthesis of peptide nanomaterials from molecular biology, materials science, and nanotechnology, which will guide and inspire the molecular level design of peptides with specific and multiple functions for function-specific applications.

Antimicrobial peptide mimetic minimalistic approach leads to very short peptide amphiphiles-gold nanostructures for potent antibacterial activity

Strategically controlling concentrations of lipid-conjugated L-tryptophan (vsPA) guides the self-assembly of nanostructures, transitioning from nanorods to fibres and culminating in spherical shapes. The resulting Peptide-Au hybrids, exhibiting size-controlled 1D, 2D, and 3D nanostructures, show potential in antibacterial applications. Their high biocompatibility, favourable surface area-to-volume ratio, and plasmonic properties contribute to their effectiveness against clinically relevant bacteria. This controlled approach not only yields diverse nanostructures but also holds promise for applications in antibacterial therapeutics.

Smart Contact Lenses for Healthcare Monitoring and Therapy

The eye contains a wealth of physiological information and offers a suitable environment for noninvasive monitoring of diseases via smart contact lens sensors. Although extensive research efforts recently have been undertaken to develop smart contact lens sensors, they are still in an early stage of being utilized as an intelligent wearable sensing platform for monitoring various biophysical/chemical conditions. In this review, we provide a general introduction to smart contact lenses that have been developed for disease monitoring and therapy. First, different disease biomarkers available from the ocular environment are summarized, including both physical and chemical biomarkers, followed by the commonly used materials, manufacturing processes, and characteristics of contact lenses. Smart contact lenses for eye-drug delivery with advancing technologies to achieve more efficient treatments are then introduced as well as the latest developments for disease diagnosis. Finally, sensor communication technologies and smart contact lenses for antimicrobial and other emerging bioapplications are also discussed as well as the challenges and prospects of the future development of smart contact lenses.

In situ peptide assemblies for bacterial infection imaging and treatment

Bacterial infections, especially antibiotic-resistant ones, remain a major threat to human health. Advances in nanotechnology have led to the development of numerous antimicrobial nanomaterials. Among them, in situ peptide assemblies, formed by biomarker-triggered self-assembly of peptide-based building blocks, have received increasing attention due to their unique merits of good spatiotemporal controllability and excellent disease accumulation and retention. In recent years, a variety of "turn on" imaging probes and activatable antibacterial agents based on in situ peptide assemblies have been developed, providing promising alternatives for the treatment and diagnosis of bacterial infections. In this review, we introduce representative design strategies for in situ peptide assemblies and highlight the bacterial infection imaging and treatment applications of these supramolecular materials. Besides, current challenges in this field are proposed.

Advancements in nanosensors for detecting pathogens in healthcare environments

ESKAPEE pathogens: where we can find them in hospital environments and how to detect them through nanotechnologies devices.

Cholesterol-linoleic acid liposomes induced extracellular vesicles secretion from immortalized adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells for in vitro cell migration

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small vesicles that are naturally released by cells and play a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication, tissue repair and regeneration. As naturally secreted EVs are limited, liposomes with different physicochemical properties, such as 1,2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium propane (DOTAP) and linoleic acid (LA) with modifications have been formulated to improve EVs secretion for in vitro wound healing. Various analyses, including dynamic light scattering (DLS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) were performed to monitor the successful preparation of different types of liposomes. The results showed that cholesterol-LA liposomes significantly improved the secretion of EVs from immortalized adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AD-MSCs) by 1.5-fold. Based on the cell migration effects obtained from scratch assay, both LA liposomal-induced EVs and cholesterol-LA liposomal-induced EVs significantly enhanced the migration of human keratinocytes (HaCaT) cell line. These findings suggested that LA and cholesterol-LA liposomes that enhance EVs secretion are potentially useful and can be extended for various tissue regeneration applications.

Goldilocks Energy Minimum: Peptide-Based Reversible Aggregation and Biosensing

Colorimetric biosensors based on gold nanoparticle (AuNP) aggregation are often challenged by matrix interference in biofluids, poor specificity, and limited utility with clinical samples. Here, we propose a peptide-driven nanoscale disassembly approach, where AuNP aggregates induced by electrostatic attractions are dissociated in response to proteolytic cleavage. Initially, citrate-coated AuNPs were assembled via a short cationic peptide (RRK) and characterized by experiments and simulations. The dissociation peptides were then used to reversibly dissociate the AuNP aggregates as a function of target protease detection, i.e., main protease (Mpro), a biomarker for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. The dissociation propensity depends on peptide length, hydrophilicity, charge, and ligand architecture. Finally, our dissociation strategy provides a rapid and distinct optical signal through Mpro cleavage with a detection limit of 12.3 nM in saliva. Our dissociation peptide effectively dissociates plasmonic assemblies in diverse matrices including 100% human saliva, urine, plasma, and seawater, as well as other types of plasmonic nanoparticles such as silver. Our peptide-enabled dissociation platform provides a simple, matrix-insensitive, and versatile method for protease sensing.

Bio-inspired peptide-conjugated liposomes for enhanced planktonic bacteria killing and biofilm eradication

Developing new antimicrobial agents has become an urgent task to address the increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant pathogens and the emergence of biofilms. Cationic antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) have been regarded as promising candidates due to their unique non-specific membrane rupture mechanism. However, a series of problems with the peptides hindered their practical application due to their high toxicity and low bioactivity and stability. Here, inspired by broadening the application of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), we selected five different sequences of cationic peptides which are considered as both CPPs and AMPs, and developed a biomimetic strategy to construct cationic peptide-conjugated liposomes with the virus-like structure for both enhancements of antibacterial efficacy and biosafety. The correlation between available peptide density/peptide variety and antimicrobial capabilities was evaluated from quantitative perspectives. Computational simulation and experimental investigations assisted to identify the optimal peptide-conjugated liposomes and revealed that the designed system provides high charge density for enhanced anionic bacterial membrane binding capability without compromised cytotoxicity, being capable of enhanced antibacterial efficacy of bacteria/biofilm of clinically important pathogens. The bio-inspired design has shown enhanced therapeutic efficiency of peptides and may promote the development of next-generation antimicrobials.

Biomimetic Antithrombotic Tissue-Engineered Vascular Grafts for Converting Cholesterol and Free Radicals into Nitric Oxide

Small-diameter tissue-engineered vascular grafts (sdTEVGs) are essential materials used in bypass or replacement surgery for cardiovascular diseases; however, their application efficacy is limited because of patency rates, especially under hyperlipidemia, which is also clinically observed in patients with cardiovascular diseases. In such cases, improving sdTEVG patency is challenging because cholesterol crystals easily cause thrombosis and impede endothelialization. Herein, the development of a biomimetic antithrombotic sdTEVG incorporating cholesterol oxidase and arginine into biomineralized collagen-gold hydrogels on a sdTEVG surface is described. Biomimetic antithrombotic sdTEVGs represent a multifunctional substrate for the green utilization of hazardous substances and can convert cholesterol into hydrogen peroxide, which can react with arginine to generate nitric oxide (NO). NO is a vasodilator that can simulate the antithrombotic action of endothelial cells under hyperlipidemic conditions. In vivo studies show that sdTEVGs can rapidly produce large amounts of NO via a cholesterol catalytic cascade to inhibit platelet aggregation, thereby improving the blood flow velocity and patency rates 60 days after sdTEVG transplantation. A practical and reliable strategy for transforming "harmful" substances into "beneficial" factors at early transplantation stages is presented, which can also promote vascular transplantation in patients with hyperlipidemia.

Perspectives and trends in advanced optical and electrochemical biosensors based on engineered peptides

With the advancement of life medicine, in vitro diagnostics (IVD) technology has become an auxiliary tool for early diagnosis of diseases. However, biosensors for IVD now face some disadvantages such as poor targeting, significant antifouling properties, low density of recognized molecules, and poor stability. In recent years, peptides have been demonstrated to have various functions in unnatural biological systems, such as targeting properties, antifouling properties, and self-assembly properties, which indicates that peptides can be engineered. These properties of peptides, combined with their good biocompatibility, can be well applied to the design of biosensors to solve the problems mentioned above. This review provides an overview of the properties of engineered functional peptides and their applications in enhancing biosensor performance, mainly in the field of optics and electrochemistry.

Physicochemical Properties and Route of Systemic Delivery Control the In Vivo Dynamics and Breakdown of Radiolabeled Gold Nanostars

The in vivo dynamics of nanoparticles requires a mechanistic understanding of multiple factors. Here, for the first time, the surprising breakdown of functionalized gold nanostars (F-AuNSs) conjugated with antibodies and 64 Cu radiolabels in vivo and in artificial lysosomal fluid ex vivo, is shown. The short-term biodistribution of F-AuNSs is driven by the route of systemic delivery (intravenous vs intraperitoneal) and long-term fate is controlled by the tissue type in vivo. In vitro studies including endocytosis pathways, intracellular trafficking, and opsonization, are combined with in vivo studies integrating a milieu of spectroscopy and microcopy techniques that show F-AuNSs dynamics is driven by their physicochemical properties and route of delivery. F-AuNSs break down into sub-20 nm broken nanoparticles as early as 7 days postinjection. Martini coarse-grained simulations are performed to support the in vivo findings. Simulations suggest that shape, size, and charge of the broken nanoparticles, and composition of the lipid membrane depicting various tissues govern the interaction of the nanoparticles with the membrane, and the rate of translocation across the membrane to ultimately enable tissue clearance. The fundamental study addresses critical gaps in the knowledge regarding the fate of nanoparticles in vivo that remain a bottleneck in their clinical translation.

Dual-Role Peptide with Capping and Cleavage Site Motifs in Nanoparticle-Based One-Pot Colorimetric and Electrochemical Protease Assay

A new method for enzyme substrate assembly and its use in proteolytic enzyme assays with colorimetric and electrochemical detection is presented. The novelty of the method is the use of dual-function synthetic peptide containing both gold clustering and protease-sensitive moieties, which not only induces the simple formation of the peptide-decorated gold nanoparticle test substrates but also allows for the detection of proteolysis in the same batch. Protease-treated nanoparticles with a destabilized peptide shell became more prone to electroactivity, and thus, the model enzyme plasmin activity could be quantified with stripping square wave voltammetry analysis as well, giving an alternative method to conduct aggregation-based assays. Spectrophotometric and electrochemical calibration data proved to be linear within the 40-100 nM active enzyme concentration range, with possible extensions of the dynamic range by varying substrate concentration. The simple initial components and the ease of synthesis make the assay substrate preparation economic and easy to implement. The possibility of cross-check analytical results with two independent measurement techniques in the same batch greatly increases the applicability of the proposed system.

Empirical Optimization of Peptide Sequence and Nanoparticle Colloidal Stability: The Impact of Surface Ligands and Implications for Colorimetric Sensing

Surface ligands play a critical role in controlling and defining the properties of colloidal nanocrystals. These aspects have been exploited to design nanoparticle aggregation-based colorimetric sensors. Here, we coated 13-nm gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with a large library of ligands (e.g., from labile monodentate monomers to multicoordinating macromolecules) and evaluated their aggregation propensity in the presence of three peptides containing charged, thiolate, or aromatic amino acids. Our results show that AuNPs coated with the polyphenols and sulfonated phosphine ligands were good choices for electrostatic-based aggregation. AuNPs capped with citrate and labile-binding polymers worked well for dithiol-bridging and π-π stacking-induced aggregation. In the example of electrostatic-based assays, we stress that good sensing performance requires aggregating peptides of low charge valence paired with charged NPs with weak stability and vice versa. We then present a modular peptide containing versatile aggregating residues to agglomerate a variety of ligated AuNPs for colorimetric detection of the coronavirus main protease. Enzymatic cleavage liberates the peptide segment, which in turn triggers NP agglomeration and thus rapid color changes in <10 min. The protease detection limit is 2.5 nM.

Modulating the Charge Transfer Plasmon in Bridged Au Core-Satellite Homometallic Nanostructures

The localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is one of the important properties for noble metal nanoparticles. Tuning the LSPR on demand thus has attracted tremendous interest. Beyond the size and shape control, manipulating intraparticle coupling is an effective way to tailor their LSPR. The charge transfer plasmon (CTP) is the most important mode of conductive coupling between subunits linked by conductive bridges that are well studied for structures prepared on substrates by lithography method. However, the colloidal synthesis of CTP structure remains a great challenge. This work reports the colloidal synthesis of extraordinary bridged Au core-satellite structures by exploiting the buffer effect of polydopamine shell on Au core for Au atom diffusion, in which the Au bridge is well controlled in terms of width and length. Benefiting from the tunable Au bridges, the resonance energy of the CTP can be readily controlled. As a result, the LSPR absorptions of the core-satellite structures are continuously tuned within the NIR spectral range (from 900 to >1300 nm), demonstrating their great potentials for ultrafast nano-optics and biomedical applications.

Application of functional peptides in the electrochemical and optical biosensing of cancer biomarkers

Early screening and diagnosis are the most effective ways to prevent the occurrence and progression of cancers, thus many biosensing strategies have been developed to achieve economic, rapid, and effective detection of various cancer biomarkers. Recently, functional peptides have been gaining increasing attention in cancer-related biosensing due to their advantageous features of a simple structure, ease of synthesis and modification, high stability, and good biorecognition, self-assembly and antifouling capabilities. Functional peptides can not only act as recognition ligands or enzyme substrates for the selective identification of different cancer biomarkers but also function as interfacial materials or self-assembly units to improve the biosensing performances. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in functional peptide-based biosensing of cancer biomarkers according to the used techniques and the roles of peptides. Particular attention is focused on the use of electrochemical and optical techniques, both of which are the most commonly used techniques in the field of biosensing. The challenges and promising prospects of functional peptide-based biosensors in clinical diagnosis are also discussed.

Identification of Antibiotic Resistance in ESKAPE Pathogens through Plasmonic Nanosensors and Machine Learning

Antibiotic-resistant ESKAPE pathogens cause nosocomial infections that lead to huge morbidity and mortality worldwide. Rapid identification of antibiotic resistance is vital for the prevention and control of nosocomial infections. However, current techniques like genotype identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing are generally time-consuming and require large-scale equipment. Herein, we develop a rapid, facile, and sensitive technique to determine the antibiotic resistance phenotype among ESKAPE pathogens through plasmonic nanosensors and machine learning. Key to this technique is the plasmonic sensor array that contains gold nanoparticles functionalized with peptides differing in hydrophobicity and surface charge. The plasmonic nanosensors can interact with pathogens to generate bacterial fingerprints that alter the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) spectra of nanoparticles. In combination with machine learning, it enables the identification of antibiotic resistance among 12 ESKAPE pathogens in less than 20 min with an overall accuracy of 89.74%. This machine-learning-based approach allows for the identification of antibiotic-resistant pathogens from patients and holds great promise as a clinical tool for biomedical diagnosis.

Peptide Amphiphile Mediated Co-assembly for Nanoplasmonic Sensing

Aromatic interactions are commonly involved in the assembly of naturally occurring building blocks, and these interactions can be replicated in an artificial setting to produce functional materials. Here we describe a colorimetric biosensor using co-assembly experiments with plasmonic gold and surfactant-like peptides (SLPs) spanning a wide range of aromatic residues, polar stretches, and interfacial affinities. The SLPs programmed in DDD-(ZZ)x -FFPC self-assemble into higher-order structures in response to a protease and subsequently modulate the colloidal dispersity of gold leading to a colorimetric readout. Results show the strong aggregation propensity of the FFPC tail without polar DDD head. The SLPs were specific to the target protease, i.e., Mpro , a biomarker for SARS-CoV-2. This system is a simple and visual tool that senses Mpro in phosphate buffer, exhaled breath condensate, and saliva with detection limits of 15.7, 20.8, and 26.1 nM, respectively. These results may have value in designing other protease testing methods.

Nanoenabled Tumor Energy Metabolism Disorder via Sonodynamic Therapy for Multidrug Resistance Reversal and Metastasis Inhibition

Cancer multidrug resistance (MDR) is an important reason that results in chemotherapy failure. As a main mechanism of MDR, overexpressed P-glycoprotein (P-gp) utilizes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to actively pump chemotherapy drugs out of cells. In addition, metabolic reprogramming of drug-resistant tumor cells (DRTCs) exacerbates the specific hypoxic microenvironment and promotes tumor metastasis and recurrence. Therefore, we propose a novel sonodynamic therapy (SDT) paradigm to induce energy metabolism disorder and drug resistance change of DRTCs. A US-controlled "Nanoenabled Energy Metabolism Jammer" (TL@HPN) is designed using perfluoropentane (PFP) adsorbing oxygen in the core, and a targeting peptide (CGNKRTR) is attached to the liposome as the delivery carrier shell to incorporate hematoporphyrin monomethyl ether (HMME) and paclitaxel (PTX). The TL@HPN with ultrasonic/photoacoustic imaging (PAI/USI) precisely controlled the release of drugs and oxygen after being triggered by ultrasound (US), which attenuated the hypoxic microenvironment. SDT boosted the reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in tumor tissues, preferentially inducing mitochondrial apoptosis and maximizing immunogenic cell death (ICD). Persistently elevated oxidative stress levels inhibited ATP production and downregulated P-gp expression by disrupting the redox balance and electron transfer of the respiratory chain. We varied the effect of TL@HPN combined with PD-1/PD-L1 to activate autoimmunity and inhibit tumor metastasis, providing a practical strategy for expanding the use of SDT-mediated tumor energy metabolism.

Origins of the pH-Responsive Photoluminescence of Peptide-Functionalized Au Nanoclusters

Ultrasmall peptide-protected gold nanoclusters are a promising class of bioresponsive material exhibiting pH-sensitive photoluminescence. We present a theoretical insight into the effect peptide-ligand environment has on pH-responsive fluorescence, with the aim of enhancing the rational design of gold nanoclusters for bioapplications. Employing a hybrid quantum/classical computational methodology, we systematically calculate deprotonation free energies of N-terminal cysteine amine groups in proximity to the inherently fluorescent core of Au₂₅(Peptide)₁₈ nanoclusters. We find that subtle changes in hexapeptide sequence alter the electrostatic environment and significantly shift the conventional N-terminal amine pK_a expected for amino acids free-in-solution. Our findings provide an insight into how the deprotonation equilibrium of N-terminal amine and side chain carboxyl groups cooperatively respond to solution pH changes, explaining the experimentally observed, yet elusive, pH-responsive fluorescence of peptide-functionalized Au₂₅ clusters.

Recent Advances in Colorimetric Sensors Based on Gold Nanoparticles for Pathogen Detection

Infectious pathogens cause severe threats to public health due to their frightening infectivity and lethal capacity. Rapid and accurate detection of pathogens is of great significance for preventing their infection. Gold nanoparticles have drawn considerable attention in colorimetric biosensing during the past decades due to their unique physicochemical properties. Colorimetric diagnosis platforms based on functionalized AuNPs are emerging as a promising pathogen-analysis technique with the merits of high sensitivity, low-cost, and easy operation. This review summarizes the recent development in this field. We first introduce the significance of detecting pathogens and the characteristics of gold nanoparticles. Four types of colorimetric strategies, including the application of indirect target-mediated aggregation, chromogenic substrate-mediated catalytic activity, point-of-care testing (POCT) devices, and machine learning-assisted colorimetric sensor arrays, are systematically introduced. In particular, three biomolecule-functionalized AuNP-based colorimetric sensors are described in detail. Finally, we conclude by presenting our subjective views on the present challenges and some appropriate suggestions for future research directions of colorimetric sensors.

Smartphone surface plasmon resonance imaging for the simultaneous and sensitive detection of acute kidney injury biomarkers with noninvasive urinalysis

A surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) platform integrated with a smartphone was constructed for the simultaneous and sensitive detection of acute kidney injury (AKI) biomarkers. The smartphone SPRi platform was developed without the requirement of additional light and power sources. The LED flash of the smartphone was used as the light source for the excitation of surface plasmon resonance of a gold sensor chip based on the Kretschmann configuration, while the reflected light was collected by the camera of the smartphone. This smartphone SPRi system was conveniently fabricated by 3D printing and showed a sensitivity of 1.78 × 10^-5 refractive index unit (RIU). In addition, based on a magnetic nanoparticle-enhanced sandwich immunoassay, the smartphone SPRi system with a gold array chip was employed for the detection of multiple AKI biomarkers, with a low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.19 ng ml^-1, 0.51 ng ml^-1 and 0.7 ng ml^-1 for the simultaneous detection of neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipocalin (NGAL), interleukin-18 (IL-18) and retinol-binding protein (RBP) in urine, respectively. The biosensors demonstrated high specificity and sensitivity for the simultaneous detection of multiple AKI biomarkers in PBST and urine. The smartphone SPRi system provided a portable and cost-effective platform for point-of-care diagnosis, in-field healthcare and environmental monitoring.

Spacer Matters: All-Peptide-Based Ligand for Promoting Interfacial Proteolysis and Plasmonic Coupling

Plasmonic coupling via nanoparticle assembly is a popular signal-generation method in bioanalytical sensors. Here, we customized an all-peptide-based ligand that carries an anchoring group, polyproline spacer, biomolecular recognition, and zwitterionic domains for functionalizing gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) as a colorimetric enzyme sensor. Our results underscore the importance of the polyproline module, which enables the SARS-CoV-2 main protease (M^pro) to recognize the peptidic ligand on nanosurfaces for subsequent plasmonic coupling via Coulombic interactions. AuNP aggregation is favored by the lowered surface potential due to enzymatic unveiling of the zwitterionic module. Therefore, this system provides a naked-eye measure for M^pro. No proteolysis occurs on AuNPs modified with a control ligand lacking a spacer domain. Overall, this all-peptide-based ligand does not require complex molecular conjugations and hence offers a simple and promising route for plasmonic sensing other proteases.

Gold-Silver Core-Shell Nanoparticle Crosslinking Mediated by Protease Activity for Colorimetric Enzyme Detection

Plasmonic nanoparticles produce a localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) under optical excitation. The LSPR of nanoparticles can shift in response to changes in the local dielectric environment and produce a color change. This color change can be observed by the naked eye due to the exceptionally large extinction coefficients (10⁸-10¹¹ M^-1 cm^-1) of plasmonic nanoparticles. Herein, we investigate the optical shifts (i.e., color change) of three unique gold-silver core-shell nanoparticle structures in response to changes in their dielectric environment upon nanoparticle aggregation. Aggregation is induced by a cysteine-containing peptide that has a sulfhydryl near its N and C termini, which crosslinks nanoparticles. Furthermore, we demonstrate that adding proline spacers between the cysteines impacts the degree of aggregation and, ultimately, the color response. Using this information, we construct a colorimetric enzyme assay, where the signal produced from nanoparticle aggregation is modulated by proteolysis. The degree of aggregation and the resulting optical shift can be correlated with enzyme concentration with high linearity (R² = 0.998). Overall, this study explores the optical properties of gold-silver core-shell nanoparticles in a dispersed vs aggregated state and leverages that information to develop an enzyme sensor with a spectral LOD of 0.47 ± 0.09 nM.

Small Peptides in the Detection of Mycotoxins and Their Potential Applications in Mycotoxin Removal

Mycotoxins pose significant risks to humans and livestock. In addition, contaminated food- and feedstuffs can only be discarded, leading to increased economic losses and potential ecological pollution. Mycotoxin removal and real-time toxin level monitoring are effective approaches to solve this problem. As a hot research hotspot, small peptides derived from phage display peptide libraries, combinatorial peptide libraries, and rational design approaches can act as coating antigens, competitive antigens, and anti-immune complexes in immunoassays for the detection of mycotoxins. Furthermore, as a potential approach to mycotoxin degradation, small peptides can mimic the natural enzyme catalytic site to construct artificial enzymes containing oxidoreductases, hydrolase, and lyase activities. In summary, with the advantages of mature synthesis protocols, diverse structures, and excellent biocompatibility, also sharing their chemical structure with natural proteins, small peptides are widely used for mycotoxin detection and artificial enzyme construction, which have promising applications in mycotoxin degradation. This paper mainly reviews the advances of small peptides in the detection of mycotoxins, the construction of peptide-based artificial enzymes, and their potential applications in mycotoxin control.

Nanomaterials: A powerful tool for tumor immunotherapy

Cancer represents the leading global driver of death and is recognized as a critical obstacle to increasing life expectancy. In recent years, with the development of precision medicine, significant progress has been made in cancer treatment. Among them, various therapies developed with the help of the immune system have succeeded in clinical treatment, recognizing and killing cancer cells by stimulating or enhancing the body’s intrinsic immune system. However, low response rates and serious adverse effects, among others, have limited the use of immunotherapy. It also poses problems such as drug resistance and hyper-progression. Fortunately, thanks to the rapid development of nanotechnology, engineered multifunctional nanomaterials and biomaterials have brought breakthroughs in cancer immunotherapy. Unlike conventional cancer immunotherapy, nanomaterials can be rationally designed to trigger specific tumor-killing effects. Simultaneously, improved infiltration of immune cells into metastatic lesions enhances the efficiency of antigen submission and induces a sustained immune reaction. Such a strategy directly reverses the immunological condition of the primary tumor, arrests metastasis and inhibits tumor recurrence through postoperative immunotherapy. This paper discusses several types of nanoscale biomaterials for cancer immunotherapy, and they activate the immune system through material-specific advantages to provide novel therapeutic strategies. In summary, this article will review the latest advances in tumor immunotherapy based on self-assembled, mesoporous, cell membrane modified, metallic, and hydrogel nanomaterials to explore diverse tumor therapies.

DNAzyme-controlled plasmonic coupling for SERS-based determination of Salmonella typhimurium using hybridization chain reaction self-assembled G-quadruplex

A facile and rapid SERS strategy for S. typhimurium detection based on hybridization chain reaction (HCR) self-assembled G-quadruplex DNAzyme (GQH DNAzyme)-controlled plasmonic coupling was developed. GQH DNAzyme is introduced as a biocatalyst to catalyze the oxidation of L-cysteines to cysteines (thiols to disulfides) to assist SERS signal transduction. This is the first time that the self-assembled split GQH DNAzyme-controlled plasmonic coupling is integrated with SERS sensing. The results reveal the proposed SERS strategy can quantify S. typhimurium with a wide linear range (5 to 10⁵ cfu mL^-1) and a low detection limit (4 cfu mL^-1; n = 5, mean ± standard deviation) and RSD of 7%. The method exhibited preeminent detection performance in spiked samples with recoveries of 93.1-117%. The proposed strategy has great potential for being a versatile SERS platform for detecting a wide spectrum of analytes by replacing them with the corresponding recognition elements. Therefore, this study not only creates a practical platform for pathogenic bacteria identification and related food safety testing and environmental monitoring, but also provides a new paradigm for building SERS sensor. A facile and rapid SERS strategy for S. Typhimurium detection based on hybridization chain reaction (HCR) self-assembled G-quadruplex DNAzyme-controlled plasmonic coupling.

A Charge-Switchable Zwitterionic Peptide for Rapid Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Main Protease

The transmission of SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has led to the COVID-19 pandemic. Nucleic acid testing while specific has limitations for mass surveillance. One alternative is the main protease (Mpro ) due to its functional importance in mediating the viral life cycle. Here, we describe a combination of modular substrate and gold colloids to detect Mpro via visual readout. The strategy involves zwitterionic peptide that carries opposite charges at the C-/N-terminus to exploit the specific recognition by Mpro . Autolytic cleavage releases a positively charged moiety that assembles the nanoparticles with rapid color changes (t<10 min). We determine a limit of detection for Mpro in breath condensate matrices <10 nM. We further assayed ten COVID-negative subjects and found no false-positive result. In the light of simplicity, our test for viral protease is not limited to an equipped laboratory, but also is amenable to integrating as portable point-of-care devices including those on face-coverings.

Peptidic Sulfhydryl for Interfacing Nanocrystals and Subsequent Sensing of SARS-CoV-2 Protease

There is a need for surveillance of COVID-19 to identify individuals infected with SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus. Although specific, nucleic acid testing has limitations in terms of point-of-care testing. One potential alternative is the nonstructural protease (nsp5, also known as Mpro/3CLpro) implicated in SARS-CoV-2 viral replication but not incorporated into virions. Here, we report a divalent substrate with a novel design, (Cys)2-(AA)x-(Asp)3, to interface gold colloids in the specific presence of Mpro leading to a rapid and colorimetric readout. Citrate- and tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine (TCEP)-AuNPs were identified as the best reporter out of the 17 ligated nanoparticles. Furthermore, we empirically determined the effects of varying cysteine valence and biological media on the sensor specificity and sensitivity. The divalent peptide was specific to Mpro, that is, there was no response when tested with other proteins or enzymes. Furthermore, the Mpro detection limits in Tris buffer and exhaled breath matrices are 12.2 and 18.9 nM, respectively, which are comparable to other reported methods (i.e., at low nanomolar concentrations) yet with a rapid and visual readout. These results from our work would provide informative rationales to design a practical and noninvasive alternative for COVID-19 diagnostic testing-the presence of viral proteases in biofluids is validated.

Material Evolution with Nanotechnology, Nanoarchitectonics, and Materials Informatics: What will be the Next Paradigm Shift in Nanoporous Materials?

Materials science and chemistry have played a central and significant role in advancing society. With the shift toward sustainable living, it is anticipated that the development of functional materials will continue to be vital for sustaining life on our planet. In the recent decades, rapid progress has been made in materials science and chemistry owing to the advances in experimental, analytical, and computational methods, thereby producing several novel and useful materials. However, most problems in material development are highly complex. Here, the best strategy for the development of functional materials via the implementation of three key concepts is discussed: nanotechnology as a game changer, nanoarchitectonics as an integrator, and materials informatics as a super-accelerator. Discussions from conceptual viewpoints and example recent developments, chiefly focused on nanoporous materials, are presented. It is anticipated that coupling these three strategies together will open advanced routes for the swift design and exploratory search of functional materials truly useful for solving real-world problems. These novel strategies will result in the evolution of nanoporous functional materials.

Highlights in ultrasound-targeted microbubble destruction-mediated gene/drug delivery strategy for treatment of malignancies

Ultrasound is one of the safest and most advanced medical imaging technologies that is widely used in clinical practice. Ultrasound microbubbles, traditionally used for contrast-enhanced imaging, are increasingly applied in Ultrasound-targeted Microbubble Destruction (UTMD) technology which enhances tissue and cell membrane permeability through cavitation and sonoporation, to result in a promising therapeutic gene/drug delivery strategy. Here, we review recent developments in the application of UTMD-mediated gene and drug delivery in the diagnosis and treatment of tumors, including the concept, mechanism of action, clinical application status, and advantages of UTMD. Furthermore, the future perspectives that should be paid more attention to in this field are prospected.

Epitope-Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles for Rapid and Selective Detection of SARS-CoV-2 IgG Antibodies

Rapid and inexpensive immunodiagnostic assays to monitor severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) seroconversion are essential for conducting large-scale COVID-19 epidemiological surveillance and profiling humoral responses against SARS-CoV-2 infections or immunizations. Herein, a colorimetic serological assay to detect SARS-CoV-2 IgGs in patients' plasma was developed using short antigenic epitopes conjugated to gold nanoparticles (AuNPs). Four immunodominant linear B-cell epitopes, located on the spike (S) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins of SARS-CoV-2, were characterized for their IgG binding affinity and used as highly specific biological motifs on the nanoparticle to recognize target antibodies. Specific bivalent binding between SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and epitope-functionalized AuNPs trigger nanoparticle aggregation, which manifests as a distinct optical transition in the AuNPs' plasmon characteristics within 30 min of antibody introduction. Co-immobilization of two epitopes improved the assay sensitivity relative to single-epitope AuNPs with a limit of detection of 3.2 nM, commensurate with IgG levels in convalescent COVID-19-infected patients. A passivation strategy was further pursued to preserve the sensing response in human plasma medium. When tested against 35 clinical plasma samples of varying illness severity, the optimized nanosensor assay can successfully identify SARS-CoV-2 infection with 100% specificity and 83% sensitivity. As the epitopes are conserved within the circulating COVID-19 variants, the proposed platform holds great potential to serve as a cost-effective and highly specific alternative to classical immunoassays employing recombinant viral proteins. These epitope-enabled nanosensors further expand the serodiagnostic toolbox for COVID-19 epidemiological study, humoral response monitoring, or vaccine efficiency assessment.

Dopamine Imaging in Living Cells and Retina by Surface-Enhanced Raman Scattering Based on Functionalized Gold Nanoparticles

Retinal dopamine is believed to be involved in the development of myopia, which is projected to affect almost half of the world population's visual health by 2050. Direct visualization of dopamine in the retina with high spatial precision is essential for understanding the biochemical mechanism during the development of myopia. However, there are very few approaches for the direct detection of dopamine in the visual system, particularly in the retina. Here, we report surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-based dopamine imaging in cells and retinal tissues with high spatial precision. The surface of gold nanoparticles is modified with N-butylboronic acid-2-mercaptoethylamine and 3,3'-dithiodipropionic acid di(N-hydroxysuccinimide ester), which shows excellent specific reaction with dopamine. The existence of dopamine triggers the aggregation of gold nanoparticles that subsequently form plasmonic hot spots to dramatically increase the Raman signal of dopamine. The as-synthesized SERS nanoprobes have been evaluated and applied for dopamine imaging in living cells and retinal tissues in form-deprivation (FD) myopia guinea pigs, followed by further investigation on localized dopamine levels in the FD-treated mice. The results suggest a declined dopamine level in mice retina after 2-week FD treatment, which is associated with the development of myopia. Our approach will greatly contribute to better understanding the localized dopamine level associated with myopia and its possible treatments. Furthermore, the imaging platform can be utilized to sensing other important small molecules within the biological samples.

The Peptide Functionalized Inorganic Nanoparticles for Cancer-Related Bioanalytical and Biomedical Applications

In order to improve their bioapplications, inorganic nanoparticles (NPs) are usually functionalized with specific biomolecules. Peptides with short amino acid sequences have attracted great attention in the NP functionalization since they are easy to be synthesized on a large scale by the automatic synthesizer and can integrate various functionalities including specific biorecognition and therapeutic function into one sequence. Conjugation of peptides with NPs can generate novel theranostic/drug delivery nanosystems with active tumor targeting ability and efficient nanosensing platforms for sensitive detection of various analytes, such as heavy metallic ions and biomarkers. Massive studies demonstrate that applications of the peptide-NP bioconjugates can help to achieve the precise diagnosis and therapy of diseases. In particular, the peptide-NP bioconjugates show tremendous potential for development of effective anti-tumor nanomedicines. This review provides an overview of the effects of properties of peptide functionalized NPs on precise diagnostics and therapy of cancers through summarizing the recent publications on the applications of peptide-NP bioconjugates for biomarkers (antigens and enzymes) and carcinogens (e.g., heavy metallic ions) detection, drug delivery, and imaging-guided therapy. The current challenges and future prospects of the subject are also discussed.

Conjugating Peptides onto 1D Rodlike Bionanoparticles for Enhanced Activity against Gram-Negative Bacteria

Gram-negative bacteria, which possess an impermeable outer membrane, are responsible for many untreatable infections. The lack of development of new relevant antibiotics for over 50 years has increased threats. Peptides are regarded as the most promising alternatives to antibiotics. However, since the activities of existing peptides are not yet comparable to those of current antibiotics, there is an urgent need to improve their antibacterial efficiencies. Herein, we conjugate peptides onto one-dimensional rod-like tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). The peptides on the obtained nanoparticles (peptide-TMV) are hundreds of times superior to free peptides in combating Gram-negative bacteria. Through morphology and gene detection of Escherichia coli, it was revealed that following peptide-TMV application, the high osmotic pressure related to membrane damage and the generated reactive oxygen species cause Escherichia coli's death. In addition, peptide-TMV causes a downregulation of biofilm-related genes, inhibiting biofilm formation. This work paves the way to combat Gram-negative bacteria-related infection.

Biomedical applications of the peptide decorated gold nanoparticles

Currently, peptide-nanoparticle (NP) conjugates have been demonstrated to be efficient and powerful tools for the treatment and the diagnosis of various diseases as well as in the bioimaging application. Several bioconjugation strategies have been adopted to formulate the peptide-NP conjugates. In this review, we discuss the exciting applications of peptide-gold (Au) NP conjugates in the area of drug delivery, targeting, cancer therapy, brain diseases, vaccines, immune modulation, biosensor, colorimetric detection of heavy metals, and bio-labeling in vitro and in vivo models. Within this framework, various approaches such as radiotherapy, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy and chemo-photothermal therapy have been demonstrated for the treatment of several diseases. Moreover, we highlight how the morphology, size, density of peptide and the protein corona influence the biological activity, biodistribution and biological fate of peptide-AuNP conjugates. In the end, we discuss the future outlook and the challenges being faced in the clinical translation of the peptide-AuNP conjugates. Overall, this review emphasizes that the peptide-AuNP conjugates might be used as potential theranostic agents for the treatment of life-threatening diseases in an economical fashion in the future.