Lead-Free Hybrid Perovskite Absorbers for Viable Application: Can We Eat the Cake and Have It too?

Efficient Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cell with a Cesium Acetate Pre-buried PEDOT:PSS Hole Transport Layer

The strong Lewis acid tin halide leads to an excessively fast crystallization rate, resulting in more defects in the film and degraded device performance. In this work, a cesium acetate (CsAc) pre-buried poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) hole transport layer acts as nucleation points during the crystallization of tin-based perovskite, which can induce preferential orientation growth of crystals and increase the grain size to improve the quality of crystallization. The addition of CsAc not only can increase the conductivity of PEDOT:PSS but also can improve the wettability of the perovskite precursor solution to enhance the interface contact between the hole transport layer and perovskite layer. Because of the incorporation of CsAc in PEDOT:PSS, the average short-circuit current density increases from 23.80 to 27.60 mA cm-2. Furthermore, a power conversion efficiency of 10.99% is achieved for a tin-based perovskite solar cell with CsAc-doped PEDOT:PSS as the hole transport layer.

Utilizing the Undesirable Oxidation of Lead-Free Hybrid Halide Perovskite Nanosheets for Solar-Driven Photocatalytic C(sp3)─H Activation: Unraveling the Serendipity

Hybrid halide perovskites (HHPs), whose every branch generates intrusiveness, have been utilized in solar cells from a broader perspective. However, the inclusiveness of employing HHP as a photocatalyst is in its initial stage. This study mainly focuses on the unexpected utilization of, so far, undesirable material vacancy-ordered MA2SnBr6 quantum dots synthesized from MASnBr3 nanosheets. Here, the quantum confinement grounded a large blue shift in ultraviolet (UV) and photoluminescence (PL) spectra with a Stokes shift of 420 meV, where the band gap increase is observed as size decreases in MA2SnBr6. Remarkably, MA2SnBr6 exhibits air and moisture stability, better charge transfer, and high oxidation potential compared to MASnBr3. The first-principles-based atomistic computations reveal the strain relaxation in the Sn-Br framework that structurally stabilizes the MA2SnBr6 lattice. Furthermore, the direct band gap and strongly localized valence band edge give rise to a new potential photocatalyst MA2SnBr6 for efficient solar-driven C(sp3)─H activation of cyclohexane and toluene under ambient conditions.

Investigation of Vacancy-Ordered Double Perovskite Halides A2Sn1-xTixY6 (A = K, Rb, Cs; Y = Cl, Br, I): Promising Materials for Photovoltaic Applications

In the present study, the structural, mechanical, electronic and optical properties of all-inorganic vacancy-ordered double perovskites A2Sn1-xTixY6 (A = K, Rb, Cs; Y = Cl, Br, I) are explored by density functional theory. The structural and thermodynamic stabilities are confirmed by the tolerance factor and negative formation energy. Moreover, by doping Ti ions into vacancy-ordered double perovskite A2SnY6, the effect of Ti doping on the electronic and optical properties was investigated in detail. Then, according to the requirement of practical applications in photovoltaics, the optimal concentration of Ti ions and the most suitable halide element are determined to screen the right compositions. In addition, the mechanical, electronic and optical properties of the selected compositions are discussed, exhibiting the maximum optical absorption both in the visible and ultraviolet energy ranges; thus, the selected compositions can be considered as promising materials for application in solar photovoltaics. The results suggest a great potential of A2Sn1-xTixY6 (A = K, Rb, Cs; Y = Cl, Br, I) for further theoretical research as well as experimental research on the photovoltaic performance of stable and toxic-free perovskite solar cells.

Ligand Engineering in Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have attracted aggressive attention in the photovoltaic field in light of the rapid increasing power conversion efficiency. However, their large-scale application and commercialization are limited by the toxicity issue of lead (Pb). Among all the lead-free perovskites, tin (Sn)-based perovskites have shown potential due to their low toxicity, ideal bandgap structure, high carrier mobility, and long hot carrier lifetime. Great progress of Sn-based PSCs has been realized in recent years, and the certified efficiency has now reached over 14%. Nevertheless, this record still falls far behind the theoretical calculations. This is likely due to the uncontrolled nucleation states and pronounced Sn (IV) vacancies. With insights into the methodologies resolving both issues, ligand engineering-assisted perovskite film fabrication dictates the state-of-the-art Sn-based PSCs. Herein, we summarize the role of ligand engineering during each state of film fabrication, ranging from the starting precursors to the ending fabricated bulks. The incorporation of ligands to suppress Sn2+ oxidation, passivate bulk defects, optimize crystal orientation, and improve stability is discussed, respectively. Finally, the remained challenges and perspectives toward advancing the performance of Sn-based PSCs are presented. We expect this review can draw a clear roadmap to facilitate Sn-based PSCs via ligand engineering.

Uncovering the Role of Electronic Doping in Lead-free Perovskite (CH3 NH3 )2 CuCl4-x Brx and Solar Cells Fabrication

Lead halide perovskites are attractive pigments to fabricate solar cells in the laboratory, owing to their high power conversion efficiency. However, given the presence of Pb, such materials also have a high level of toxicity and are carcinogenic for humans and aquatic life. Arguably, this hampers their acceptability for immediate commercialization. This study entails the synthesis, optoelectronic properties, and photovoltaic parameters of two-dimensional copper-based perovskites as an environmentally benign alternative to lead-based perovskites. The perovskites - (CH3 NH3 )2 CuCl4-x Brx with x=0.3 and 0.66 - are derivatives of the stable (CH3 NH3 )2 CuCl4 . The single crystals and powders diffractograms suggest compositions with variations in Cl/Br ratio and dissimilar bromine localization in the inorganic framework. The copper mixed halide perovskite exhibits a narrow absorption with a bandgap of 2.54-2.63 eV related to the halide ratio disparity (crystal color variation). These findings demonstrate the impact of halides to optimize the stability of methylammonium copper perovskites and provide an effective pathway to design eco-friendly perovskites for optoelectronic applications.

Structural, Electric and Dynamic Properties of (Pyrrolidinium)3[Bi2I9] and (Pyrrolidinium)3[Sb2I9]: New Lead-Free, Organic-Inorganic Hybrids with Narrow Band Gaps

Hybrid organic-inorganic iodides based on Bi(III) and Sb(III) provide integrated functionalities through the combination of high dielectric constants, semiconducting properties and ferroic phases. Here, we report a pyrrolidinium-based bismuth (1) and antimony (2) iodides of (NC₄H₁₀)₃[M₂I₉] (M: Bi(III), Sb(III)) formula which are ferroelastic at room temperature. The narrow band gaps (~2.12 eV for 1 and 2.19 eV for 2) and DOS calculations indicate the semiconducting characteristics of both materials. The crystal structure consists of discrete, face-sharing bioctahedra [M₂I₉]^3- and disordered pyrrolidinium amines providing charge balance and acting as spacers between inorganic moieties. At room temperature, 1 and 2 accommodate orthorhombic Cmcm symmetry. 1 displays a complex temperature-induced polymorphism. It is stable up to 525 K and undergoes a sequence of low-temperature phase transitions (PTs) at 221/222 K (I ↔ II) and 189/190 K (II ↔ III) and at 131 K (IV→III), associated with the ordering of pyrrolidinium cations and resulting in Cmcm symmetry breaking. 2 undergoes only one PT at T = 215 K. The dielectric studies disclose a relaxation process in the kilohertz frequency region, assigned to the dynamics of organic cations, described well by the Cole-Cole relation. A combination of single-crystal X-ray diffraction, synchrotron powder diffraction, spin-lattice relaxation time of ¹H NMR, dielectric and calorimetric studies is used to determine the structural phase diagram, cation dynamics and electric properties of (NC₄H₁₀)₃[M₂I₉]_.

Modulation of the Excitation States in All-Inorganic Halide Perovskites via Sb3+ and Bi3+ Codoping

Sb³⁺-doped halide perovskites are promising candidates for solid-state lighting due to their diverse fluorescent colors and high efficiency. However, the mismatched high excitation energy with commercial UV chips is one of the critical issues to be addressed. Herein, a Bi³⁺ codoping strategy was established as a general and efficient approach to modulate the excitation spectrum from the Sb³⁺-doping center in all-inorganic perovskites of Cs₂InCl₅·H₂O, Cs₂NaInCl₆, and Rb₃InCl₆. The incorporated Bi³⁺ greatly enhanced the splitting of the A band (¹S₀-³P₁ transition) and boosts the enormous redshift of the low-energy branch in all these systems. The interactions persist strongly even at extremely low doping concentrations, suggesting a dipole-based long-range interaction. The results provide an in-depth insight into the contribution mechanism of Bi³⁺ to Sb³⁺ in all-inorganic perovskites, which throws light upon tuning the excitation spectrum of broadband emission from the extrinsic self-trapped exciton (STE).

A Review on the Progress, Challenges, and Performances of Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells

In this twenty-first century, energy shortages have become a global issue as energy demand is growing at an astounding rate while the energy supply from fossil fuels is depleting. Thus, the urge to develop sustainable renewable energy to replace fossil fuels is significant to prevent energy shortages. Solar energy is the most promising, accessible, renewable, clean, and sustainable substitute for fossil fuels. Third-generation (3G) emerging solar cell technologies have been popular in the research field as there are many possibilities to be explored. Among the 3G solar cell technologies, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are the most rapidly developing technology, making them suitable for generating electricity efficiently with low production costs. However, the toxicity of Pb in organic-inorganic metal halide PSCs has inherent shortcomings, which will lead to environmental contamination and public health problems. Therefore, developing a lead-free perovskite solar cell is necessary to ensure human health and a pollution-free environment. This review paper summarized numerous types of Sn-based perovskites with important achievements in experimental-based studies to date.

Tb3+ and Bi3+ Co-Doping of Lead-Free Cs2NaInCl6 Double Perovskite Nanocrystals for Tailoring Optical Properties

Lead halide perovskites have achieved remarkable success in various photovoltaic and optoelectronic applications, especially solar cells and light-emitting diodes (LEDs). Despite the significant advances of lead halide perovskites, lead toxicity and insufficient stability limit their commercialization. Lead-free double perovskites (DPs) are potential materials to address these issues because of their non-toxicity and high stability. By doping DP nanocrystals (NCs) with lanthanide ions (Ln³⁺), it is possible to make them more stable and impart their optical properties. In this work, a variable temperature hot injection method is used to synthesize lead-free Tb³⁺-doped Cs₂NaInCl₆ DP NCs, which exhibit a major narrow green photoluminescence (PL) peak at 544 nm derived from the transition of Tb^{3+ 5}D₄→⁷F₅. With further Bi³⁺ co-doping, the Tb³⁺-Bi³⁺-co-doped Cs₂NaInCl₆ DP NCs are not only directly excited at 280 nm but are also excited at 310 nm and 342 nm. The latter have a higher PL intensity because partial Tb³⁺ ions are excited through more efficient energy transfer channels from the Bi³⁺ to the Tb³⁺ ions. The investigation of the underlying mechanism between the intrinsic emission of Cs₂NaInCl₆ NCs and the narrow green PL caused by lanthanide ion doping in this paper will facilitate the development of lead-free halide perovskite NCs.

Influence of interaction between organic cation and inorganic unit in bi-based hybrid perovskites for photoelectronic properties

With the increase of the passion on lead-free perovskites, more and more endeavor focused on halobismuthates. Here, we have introduced the p-iodoaniline and p-phenylenediamine into Bi-based hybrid materials, and two photoactive iodobismuthate named p-phenylenediamine iodobismuthate (PDABI) and p-iodoaniline iodobismuthate (PIDBI) were prepared. Their single structures, band gaps, thermostability and other properties were explored. The structure results revealed that they all have 1D BiI₄ ^- anion chains with edge-shared BiI₆ octahedron. The DFT result revealed that PIDBI had an inherent interaction between the I substituent in p-iodoaniline cation and the Bi atom in inorganic BiI₄ ^- anion chains. The photodetector assembled by PDABI and PIDBI revealed that the interaction provided by symmetric p-phenylenediamine has a positive effect on PIDBI's optoelectronic properties compared to the role of asymmetric p-iodoaniline in PDABI.

Emerging Chalcohalide Materials for Energy Applications

Semiconductors with multiple anions currently provide a new materials platform from which improved functionality emerges, posing new challenges and opportunities in material science. This review has endeavored to emphasize the versatility of the emerging family of semiconductors consisting of mixed chalcogen and halogen anions, known as "chalcohalides". As they are multifunctional, these materials are of general interest to the wider research community, ranging from theoretical/computational scientists to experimental materials scientists. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the development of emerging Bi- and Sb-based as well as a new Cu, Sn, Pb, Ag, and hybrid organic-inorganic perovskite-based chalcohalides. We first highlight the high-throughput computational techniques to design and develop these chalcohalide materials. We then proceed to discuss their optoelectronic properties, band structures, stability, and structural chemistry employing theoretical and experimental underpinning toward high-performance devices. Next, we present an overview of recent advancements in the synthesis and their wide range of applications in energy conversion and storage devices. Finally, we conclude the review by outlining the impediments and important aspects in this field as well as offering perspectives on future research directions to further promote the development of chalcohalide materials in practical applications in the future.

Potassium Iodide-Modified Lead-Free Cs3Bi2I9 Perovskites for Enhanced High-Efficiency Solar Cells

Lead-free, bismuth-based perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are promising, non-toxic, and stable alternatives to lead-based PSCs, which are environmentally harmful and highly unstable under deprived air conditions. However, bismuth-based PSCs still suffer from low-power-conversion efficiency (PCE) due to their large bandgap and poor film morphology. Their poor film-forming ability is the greatest obstacle to Cs₃Bi₂I₉ progress in thin-film solar cell technology. This study synthesizes novel, lead-free perovskites with a small bandgap, excellent stability, and highly improved photovoltaic performance by integrating different amounts of potassium iodide (KI) into a perovskite precursor solution. KI incorporation improves the crystallinity of the perovskite, increases the grain size, and decreases the potential contact distribution, which is demonstrated by X-ray diffraction, electronic scanning microscopy, atomic force microscopy, and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy. The Cs₃Bi₂I₉ PSC device with 2 vol. % incorporation of KI shows the highest PCE of 2.81% and Voc of 1.01 V as far as all the Bi-based cells fabricated for this study are concerned. The study demonstrates that incorporating KI in the Cs₃Bi₂I₉ perovskite layer highly stabilizes the resultant PSC device against humidity to the extent that it maintains 98% of the initial PCE after 90 days, which is suitable for solar cell applications. The devices also demonstrate greater resistance to airborne contaminants and high temperatures without encapsulation, opening up new possibilities for lead-free Cs₃Bi₂I₉ PSCs in future commercialization.

Cs3Cu2I5/ZnO Heterostructure for Flexible Visible-Blind Ultraviolet Photodetection

Wearable, portable, and biocompatible optoelectronic devices made of all-green and abundant materials and fabricated by low-temperature solution method are the key point in the development of next generation of intelligent optoelectronics. However, this is usually limited by the weaknesses of mono-component materials, such as non-adjustable photoresponse region, high carrier recombination rate, high signal-to-noise ratio, as well as the weak mechanical flexibility of bulk films. In this work, the Cs₃Cu₂I₅/ZnO heterostructure flexible photodetectors were constructed by a low-temperature solution method combined with spin-coating technique. The heterostructure combines the low dark current and strong deep ultraviolet absorption of Cs₃Cu₂I₅ quantum dots with the high carrier mobility of ZnO quantum dots as well as the efficient charge separation of the vertical p-n junction, to improve the photodetection performance. The heterostructure shows enhanced light/dark current ratio and ultraviolet-to-visible rejection ratios. Under an illumination of 280 nm light, an optical detectivity as high as 1.26 × 10¹¹ Jones was obtained; the optical responsivity and response time are much better than those of control devices. After 300 times of 180° bending cycles, the photocurrent had no obvious change. The results demonstrate that the Cs₃Cu₂I₅/ZnO heterostructure has great potential in wearable and portable visible-blind ultraviolet optoelectronic devices.

Photoinduced Small Hole Polarons Formation and Recombination in All-Inorganic Perovskite from Quantum Dynamics Simulation

We conducted ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD) and nonadiabatic MD to simulate polaron formation and recombination in all-inorganic Cs₃Bi₂Br₉ perovskite. The meticulously designed AIMD simulations show that two types of small hole polaron, including localized and semidelocalized small hole polaron on either an intralayer or an interlayer Br dimer, are adiabatically formed within 1.71 ps. The localized small hole polaron reduces nonadiabatic coupling and decoherence time and, thus, delays charge recombination to 213 ns. In contrast, the dominant semidelocalized polaron increases nonadiabatic coupling by enhancing electron-hole overlap and restores the energy gap and decoherence time to the pristine system, accelerating recombination to 4.7 ns compared to a 10 ns charge carrier lifetime in the pristine system. All the obtained time scales agree well with experiments. The study offers a fundamental understanding of the excited-state dynamics of small hole polaron in Cs₃Bi₂Br₉ and helps to design high-performance perovskite optoelectronics and photovoltaics.

Humidity Sensing Applications of Lead-Free Halide Perovskite Nanomaterials

Over the past decade, perovskite-based nanomaterials have gained notoriety within the scientific community and have been used for a variety of viable applications. The unique structural properties of these materials, namely good direct bandgap, low density of defects, large absorption coefficient, high sensitivity, long charge carrier lifetime, good selectivity, acceptable stability at room temperature, and good diffusion length have prompted researchers to explore their potential applications in photovoltaics, light-emitting devices, transistors, sensors, and other areas. Perovskite-based devices have shown very excellent sensing performances to numerous chemical and biological compounds in both solid and liquid mediums. When used in sensing devices, Perovskite nanomaterials are for the most part able to detect O₂, NO₂, CO₂, H₂O, and other smaller molecules. This review article looks at the use of lead-free halide perovskite materials for humidity sensing. A complete description of the underlying mechanisms and charge transport characteristics that are necessary for a thorough comprehension of the sensing performance will be provided. An overview of considerations and potential recommendations for the creation of new lead-free perovskite nanostructure-based sensors is presented.

Post-doping induced morphology evolution boosts Mn2+ luminescence in the Cs2NaBiCl6:Mn2+ phosphor

As we know, defects caused in the synthetic process of metal halide perovskite are the most difficult to overcome, and greatly limit their photoelectric performances. Herein, a post-doped strategy was utilized to achieve an interesting morphology evolution from a standard octahedron to a snowflake-like sheet during the Mn²⁺-doped Cs₂NaBiCl₆ process, which realizes the obvious photoluminescence quantum efficiency (PLQY) enhancement of the Cs₂NaBiCl₆:Mn²⁺ phosphor. This surprising evolution is ascribed to the morphology collapse and reconstruction induced by Mn²⁺ exchange. The obtained phosphor exhibits enhanced 31.56% PLQY, which is two-fold higher than that synthesized by the traditional co-precipitation method, with broad emission spectrum and good PL color stability at 150 °C. Combined with the Cs₂SnCl₆ : 1mol%Bi³⁺ phosphor to fabricate the phosphor-converted light-emitting diode, bright white light emission with Ra = 88, CCT = 4320 K, CIE (0.36, 0.33) and a good application potential in high-resolution PL imaging agents was obtained. This work provides a possible effective strategy to improve the PL performance for impurity-doped lead-free metal halide perovskite.

Zinc Germanium Nitrides and Oxide Nitrides: The Influence of Oxygen on Electronic and Structural Properties

Zinc containing ternary nitrides, in particular ZnSnN2 and ZnGeN2, have great potential as earth-abundant and low toxic light-absorbing materials. The incorporation of oxygen in this system – may it be...

Reveal the Humidity Effect on the Phase Pure CsPbBr3 Single Crystals Formation at Room Temperature and Its Application for Ultrahigh Sensitive X-Ray Detector

Generally, growing phase pure CsPbBr₃ single crystals is challenging, and CsPb₂ Br₅ or Cs₄ PbBr₆ by-products are usually formed due to the different solubilities of CsBr and PbBr₂ in the single solvent. Herein, the growth of high-quality phase pure CsPbBr₃ perovskite single crystals at room temperature by a humidity controlled solvent evaporation method is reported first. Meanwhile, the room temperature phase transition process from three dimensional (3D) cubic CsPbBr₃ to two dimensional (2D) layered tetragonal CsPb₂ Br₅ and the detailed mechanism induced by humidity are revealed. Moreover, compared with the organic-inorganic perovskite, the prepared CsPbBr₃ single crystals are much more stable under high humidity, which satisfies the long-term working conditions of X-ray detectors. The X-ray detectors based on CsPbBr₃ single crystals show a high sensitivity and a low detection limit of 1.89 μGy_air s^-1 , all of which meet the needs of medical diagnosis.

A halogen bonding assembled hybrid copper halide framework as a promising hypotoxicity photodetector

The first halogen bonding assembled three-dimensional hybrid copper iodide was obtained by a facile and sustainable “All-in-One” synthesis strategy and shows great application potential as a hypotoxicity photodetector.

Self-trapped exciton emission in an Sn(II)-doped all-inorganic zero-dimensional zinc halide perovskite variant

The toxicity of Pb in conventional perovskites impedes the commercialization of their optoelectronic devices. Therefore, the search for comparable Pb-free perovskites is vital and needs urgent attention. Herein, for the first time, we successfully synthesize the Sn(II)-doped Pb-free zinc-based perovskite variant Cs₂ZnCl₄. The influence of doping is investigated both experimentally and theoretically. Broad bright red emission with a large Stokes shift is observed and attributed to the self-trapped exciton (STE) emission of the doped disphenoidal [SnCl₄]^2- units in the host matrix, from ³P₁ to ¹S₀. Temperature-dependent photoluminescence (PL) shows a peak split at cryogenic temperature, which is ascribed to the Jahn-Teller effect of the ³P₁ state. Theoretical study reveals that the impurity states of Sn²⁺ shrink the bandgap and localize the band edges, and distortion of [SnCl₄]^2- under excitation ultimately leads to the STE emission. This work is significant for STE emission studies and will pave a way for Pb-free perovskite variants in illumination applications.

Lead-Free Perovskite Photodetectors: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities

State-of-the-art photodetectors which apply hybrid perovskite materials have emerged as powerful candidates for next-generation light sensing. Among them, lead-based ones are the most popular beyond doubt on account of their unique and superior optoelectronic properties. Nevertheless, trade-off toward commercialization exists between nontoxicity and high performance, with the poor stability of lead-based perovskites, indicating that it is indispensable to substitute lead with nontoxic element meanwhile bringing about a comparable figure of merit of photodetectors and relatively long-term stability. Herein, recent advances in lead-free perovskite photodetectors are reviewed, analyzing the principle while designing new materials and highlighting some remarkable progress, which are comparable, even superior, to lead-based photodetectors. Furthermore, their potential strategy in optical communication, image sensing, narrowband photodetection, etc., is examined and a perspective on developing new materials and photodetectors with superior properties for more practical applications is provided.

Germanium-Based Halide Perovskites: Materials, Properties, and Applications

Perovskites are attracting an increasing interest in the wide community of photovoltaics, optoelectronic, and detection, traditionally relying on lead-based systems. This Minireview provides an overview of the current status of experimental and computational results available on Ge-containing 3D and low-dimensional halide perovskites. While stability issues analogous to those of tin-based materials are present, some strategies to afford this problem in Ge metal halide perovskites (MHPs) for photovoltaics have already been identified and successfully employed, reaching efficiencies of solar devices greater than 7 % at up to 500 h of illumination. Interestingly, some Ge-containing MHPs showed promising nonlinear optical responses as well as quite broad emissions, which are worthy of further investigation starting from the basic materials chemistry perspective, where a large space for properties modulation through compositions/alloying/fnanostructuring is present.

Recent advances toward environment-friendly photodetectors based on lead-free metal halide perovskites and perovskite derivatives

Recently, metal-halide perovskites have emerged as promising materials for photodetector (PD) applications owing to their superior optoelectronic properties, such as ambipolar charge transport characteristics, high carrier mobility, and so on. In the past few years, rapid progress in lead-based perovskite PDs has been witnessed. However, the critical environmental instability and lead-toxicity seriously hinder their further applications and commercialization. Therefore, searching for environmentally stable and lead-free halide perovskites (LFHPs) to address the above hurdles is certainly a worthwhile subject. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of currently explored LFHPs with an emphasis on their crystal structures, optoelectronic properties, synthesis and modification methods, as well as the PD applications. LFHPs are classified into four categories according to the replacement strategies of Pb²⁺, including AB(ii)X₃, A₃B(iii)₂X₉, A₂B(i)B(iii)'X₆, and newly-emerging perovskite derivatives. Then, we give a demonstration of the preliminary achievements and limitations in environment-friendly PDs based on such LFHPs and perovskite derivatives, and also discuss their applications in biological synapses, imaging, and X-ray detection. With the perspective of their properties and current challenges, we provide an outlook for future directions in this rapidly evolving field to achieve high-quality LFHPs and perovskite derivatives for a broader range of fundamental research and practical applications.

Ionic Liquid-Induced Ostwald Ripening Effect for Efficient and Stable Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells

Tin-based perovskite solar cells (PVSCs) are regarded as the most promising alternative among lead-free PVSCs. However, the rapid crystallization for tin-based perovskite tends to cause inferior film morphology and abundant defect states, which make poor photovoltaic performance. Here, 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (BMIBr) ionic liquids (ILs) with strong polarity and a low melting point are first employed to produce the Ostwald ripening effect and obtain high-quality tin-based perovskite films with a large grain size. Meanwhile, the non-radiative recombination ascribed from defect states can also be effectively reduced for BMIBr-treated perovskite films. Consequently, a photoelectric conversion efficiency (PCE) of 10.09% for inverted tin-based PVSCs is attained by the Ostwald ripening effect. Moreover, the unencapsulated devices with BMIBr retain near 85% of the original PCE in a N₂ glovebox beyond 1200 h and about 40% of the original PCE after exposure to air for 48 h.

Gentle Materials Need Gentle Fabrication: Encapsulation of Perovskites by Gas-Phase Alumina Deposition

Metal halide perovskites have attracted tremendous attention as promising materials for future-generation optoelectronic devices. Despite their outstanding optical and transport properties, the lack of environmental and operational stability remains a major practical challenge. One of the promising stabilization avenues is metal oxide encapsulation via atomic layer deposition (ALD); however, the unavoidable reaction of metal precursors with the perovskite surface in conventional ALD leads to degradation and restructuring of the perovskites' surfaces. This Perspective highlights the development of a modified gas-phase ALD technique for alumina encapsulation that not only prevents perovskites' degradation but also significantly improves their optical properties and air stability. The correlation between precise atomic interactions at the perovskite-metal oxide interface with the dramatically enhanced optical properties is supported by density functional theory calculations, which also underlines the widespread applicability of this gentle technique for a variety of perovskite nanostructures unbarring potential opportunities offered by combination of these approaches.

High-Quality Ruddlesden-Popper Perovskite Film Formation for High-Performance Perovskite Solar Cells

In the last decade, perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have undergone unprecedented rapid development and become a promising candidate for a new-generation solar cell. Among various PSCs, typical 3D halide perovskite-based PSCs deliver the highest efficiency but they suffer from severe instability, which restricts their practical applications. By contrast, the low-dimensional Ruddlesden-Popper (RP) perovskite-based PSCs have recently raised increasing attention due to their superior stability. Yet, the efficiency of RP perovskite-based PSCs is still far from that of the 3D counterparts owing to the difficulty in fabricating high-quality RP perovskite films. In pursuit of high-efficiency RP perovskite-based PSCs, it is critical to manipulate the film formation process to prepare high-quality RP perovskite films. This review aims to provide comprehensive understanding of the high-quality RP-type perovskite film formation by investigating the influential factors. On this basis, several strategies to improve the RP perovskite film quality are proposed via summarizing the recent progress and efforts on the preparation of high-quality RP perovskite film. This review will provide useful guidelines for a better understanding of the crystallization and phase kinetics during RP perovskite film formation process and the design and development of high-performance RP perovskite-based PSCs, promoting the commercialization of PSC technology.

Impact of Hydroiodic Acid on Resistive Switching Performance of Lead-Free Cs3Cu2I5 Perovskite Memory

Herein, we employed lead-free Cs₃Cu₂I₅ perovskite films as the functional layers to construct Al/Cs₃Cu₂I₅/ITO memory devices and systematically investigated the impact on the corresponding resistive switching (RS) performance via adding different amounts of hydroiodic acid (HI) in Cs₃Cu₂I₅ precursor solution. The results demonstrated that the crystallinity and morphology of the Cs₃Cu₂I₅ films can be improved and the resistive switching performance can be modulated by adding an appropriate amount of HI. The obtained Cs₃Cu₂I₅ films by adding 5 μL HI exhibit the fewest lattice defects and flattest surface (RMS = 13.3 nm). Besides, the memory device, utilizing the optimized films, has a low electroforming voltage (1.44 V), a large on/off ratio (∼65), and a long retention time (10⁴ s). The RS performance impacted by adding HI, providing a scientific strategy for improving the RS performance of iodine halide perovskite-based memories.

Lead-free, stable orange-red-emitting hybrid copper based organic-inorganic compounds

Metal halide perovskites have been extensively studied recently by virtue of their extraordinary luminescence characteristics. However, they still suffer from severe stability issues, and contain a toxic metal lead. Here, single crystals of (PEA)₄Cu₄I₄, a lead-free orange-red-emitting organic-inorganic copper-halide compound with a photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) of 68%, were synthesized via a simple solvent vapor diffusion process with commercially-available phenylethylamine (PEA) as a ligand. The crystals show superior stability to perovskites with retaining 60% of their initial photoluminescence (PL) intensity after 60 days in water, which is due to the hydrophobic nature of PEA and the stable Cu-N bonds. Phase transition is found to take place upon lowering the temperature, which causes a redshift of the PL peak. The emission band is identified to be associated with triplet cluster-centered (CC) excited states because of their shortened Cu-Cu distances, excitation-independent PL and long PL lifetime. In addition, micron-sized oleic acid capped (PEA)₄Cu₄I₄ particles were developed by a hot-injection method, and they possess similar stability to that of bulk crystals. A monochrome LED was further fabricated by employing the as-prepared micron-sized particles as phosphors, demonstrating their potential for optoelectronic applications.

Lead-Free Perovskite Materials for Solar Cells

The toxicity issue of lead hinders large-scale commercial production and photovoltaic field application of lead halide perovskites. Some novel non- or low-toxic perovskite materials have been explored for development of environmentally friendly lead-free perovskite solar cells (PSCs). This review studies the substitution of equivalent/heterovalent metals for Pb based on first-principles calculation, summarizes the theoretical basis of lead-free perovskites, and screens out some promising lead-free candidates with suitable bandgap, optical, and electrical properties. Then, it reports notable achievements for the experimental studies of lead-free perovskites to date, including the crystal structure and material bandgap for all of lead-free materials and photovoltaic performance and stability for corresponding devices. The review finally discusses challenges facing the successful development and commercialization of lead-free PSCs and predicts the prospect of lead-free PSCs in the future.

The roles of fused-ring organic semiconductor treatment on SnO2 in enhancing perovskite solar cell performance

It took only 11 years for the power conversion efficiency (PCE) of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) to increase from 3.8% to 25.2%. It is worth noting that, as a new thin-film solar cell technique, defect passivation at the interface is crucial for the PSCs. Decorating and passivating the interface between the perovskite and electron transport layer (ETL) is an effective way to suppress the recombination of carriers at the interface and improve the PCE of the device. In this work, several acceptor-donor-acceptor (A-D-A) type fused-ring organic semiconductors (FROS) with indacenodithiophene (IDT) or indacenodithienothiophene (IDDT) as the bridging donor moiety and 1,3-diethyl-2-thiobarbituric or 1,1-dicyromethylene-3-indanone as the strong electron-withdrawing units, were deposited on the SnO2 ETL to prepare efficient planar junction PSCs. The PCEs of the PSCs increased from 18.63% for the control device to 19.37%, 19.75%, and 19.32% after modification at the interface by three FROSs. Furthermore, impedance spectroscopy, steady-state and time-resolved photoluminescence spectra elucidated that the interface decorated by FROSs enhance not only the extraction of electrons but also the charge transportation at the interface between the perovskite and ETL. These results can provide significant insights in improving the perovskite/ETL interface and the photovoltaic performance of PSCs.

Sustainability in Perovskite Solar Cells

At a current value of 25.5%, perovskites have reached some of the highest power conversion efficiencies of all single-junction solar cell devices. Researchers, however, are questioning their readiness for the commercial market, citing reasons of the toxicity of the lead-based active layer and instability. Closer examination of the life cycle of perovskite solar cells reveals that there are more areas than just these which should be addressed in order to bring an environmentally friendly and sustainable technology to global use. In this review, we discuss these issues. Life cycle analyses show that high temperature processes, heavy use of organic solvents, and extensive use of certain materials can have high up and downstream consequences in terms of emissions, human and ecotoxicity. We further bring attention to the toxicity of the perovskites themselves, where the most direct analyses suggest that the lead cannot be considered totally safe, despite its small quantity and that replacements such as tin may be more toxic in certain scenarios. As a way to reduce the negative environmental impact, we highlight ways in which researchers have used encapsulation and recycling to extend the life of the entire unit and its components and to prevent lead leakage. We hope this review directs researchers toward new strategies to introduce a clean solar technology to the world.

Improving the efficiency and stability of tin-based perovskite solar cells using anilinium hypophosphite additive

We demonstrate that anilinium hypophosphite can improve the performance and stability of Sn-perovskite solar cells.

Probing the emissive behaviour of the lead-free Cs2AgBiCl6 double perovskite with Cu(ii) doping

Cu ion induced change in photoluminescence behaviour of Cs2AgBiCl6 double perovskite.

Design, Synthesis, and Photocatalytic Application of Moisture-Stable Hybrid Lead-Free Perovskite

The employment of hybrid perovskite MAPbX₃ (MA = CH₃NH₃⁺, X = Br or I) as photocatalysts in a photocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction represents a promising approach to store solar energy. However, the toxicity of Pb makes these materials difficult to pass environmental evaluation while the intrinsic moisture sensitivity puts forward high anhydrous requirements in photocatalysts synthesis, storage, and application, which further reduces their service life. Herein, we demonstrate a hydrogen-bond-free strategy to synthesize moisture-stable hypotoxic hybrid perovskite for photocatalytic application by replacing traditional protonated countercations with alkylated countercations in a Pb-free hybrid system, which prevents water eroding hybrid perovskites via strong hydrogen bonds. A zero-dimensional Bi-based perovskite (3-ethylbenzo[d]thiazol-3-ium)₄Bi₂I₁₀ (EtbtBi₂I₁₀) was synthesized, which contains dimeric (Bi₂I₁₀)^4- formed by edge-sharing (BiI₆) octahedra being different from the binuclear cluster in widely studied MA₃Bi₂I₉. Theoretical calculations indicate that the electron communication between inorganic and organic moieties is responsible for its broadband absorption with a narrow band gap of 2.04 eV. EtbtBi₂I₁₀ exhibits excellent stability in distilled water, moisture air, acid solution, and UV-light irradiation. It shows effective photocatalytic performance in HI splitting to generate hydrogen with the performance comparable with MAPbI₃. Introducing electron and hole-transporting channels drastically enhances the photocatalytic reaction.

Recent Progress in Interconnection Layer for Hybrid Photovoltaic Tandems

Hybrid tandem solar cells offer the benefits of low cost and full solar spectrum utilization. Among the hybrid tandem structures explored to date, the most popular ones have four (simple stacking design) or two (terminal/tunneling layer addition design) terminal electrodes. Although the latter design is more cost-effective than the former, its widespread application is hindered by the difficulty of preparing an interface between two solar cell materials. The oldest approach to the in-series bonding of two or more bandgap solar cells relies on the introduction of a tunneling layer in multijunction III-V solar cells, but it has some limitations, e.g., the related materials/technologies are applicable only to III-V and certain other solar cells. Thus, alternative methods of realizing junction contacts based on the use of novel materials are highly sought after. Here, the strategies used to realize high-performance tandem cells are described, focusing on interface control in terms of bonding two or more solar cells for tandem approaches. The presented information is expected to aid the establishment of ideal methods of connecting two or more solar cells to obtain the highest performance for different solar cell choices with minimized energy loss through the interface.

Synthesis of lead-free Cs4(Cd1-xMnx)Bi2Cl12 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1) layered double perovskite nanocrystals with controlled Mn-Mn coupling interaction

Lead-free perovskites and their analogues have been extensively studied as a class of next-generation luminescent and optoelectronic materials. Herein, we report the synthesis of new colloidal Cs4M(ii)Bi2Cl12 (M(ii) = Cd, Mn) nanocrystals (NCs) with unique luminescence properties. The obtained Cs4M(ii)Bi2Cl12 NCs show a layered double perovskite (LDP) crystal structure with good particle stability. Density functional theory calculations show that both samples exhibit a wide, direct bandgap feature. Remarkably, the strong Mn-Mn coupling effect of the Cs4M(ii)Bi2Cl12 NCs results in an ultra-short Mn photoluminescence (PL) decay lifetime of around 10 μs, around two orders of magnitude faster than commonly observed Mn2+ dopant emission in NCs. Diluting the Mn2+ ion concentration through forming Cs4(Cd1-xMnx)Bi2Cl12 (0 < x < 1) alloyed LDP NCs leads to prolonged PL lifetimes and enhanced PL quantum yields. Our study provides the first synthetic example of Bi-based LDP colloidal NCs with potential for serving as a new category of stable lead-free perovskite-type materials for various applications.

Solid-State NMR and NQR Spectroscopy of Lead-Halide Perovskite Materials

Two- and three-dimensional lead-halide perovskite (LHP) materials are novel semiconductors that have generated broad interest owing to their outstanding optical and electronic properties. Characterization and understanding of their atomic structure and structure-property relationships are often nontrivial as a result of the vast structural and compositional tunability of LHPs as well as the enhanced structure dynamics as compared with oxide perovskites or more conventional semiconductors. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy contributes to this thrust through its unique capability of sampling chemical bonding element-specifically (1/2H, 13C, 14/15N, 35/37Cl, 39K, 79/81Br, 87Rb, 127I, 133Cs, and 207Pb nuclei) and locally and shedding light onto the connectivity, geometry, topology, and dynamics of bonding. NMR can therefore readily observe phase transitions, evaluate phase purity and compositional and structural disorder, and probe molecular dynamics and ionic motion in diverse forms of LHPs, in which they can be used practically, ranging from bulk single crystals (e.g., in gamma and X-ray detectors) to polycrystalline films (e.g., in photovoltaics, photodetectors, and light-emitting diodes) and colloidal nanocrystals (e.g., in liquid crystal displays and future quantum light sources). Herein we also outline the immense practical potential of nuclear quadrupolar resonance (NQR) spectroscopy for characterizing LHPs, owing to the strong quadrupole moments, good sensitivity, and high natural abundance of several halide nuclei (79/81Br and 127I) combined with the enhanced electric field gradients around these nuclei existing in LHPs as well as the instrumental simplicity. Strong quadrupole interactions, on one side, make 79/81Br and 127I NMR rather impractical but turn NQR into a high-resolution probe of the local structure around halide ions.

Lead-Free Antimony Halide Perovskite with Heterovalent Mn2+ Doping

Lead toxicity is hindering the applications of conventional lead halide perovskites (PVKs), and antimony (Sb) is a promising nontoxic Pb alternative, showing huge potential in optoelectronic devices. Herein, pure and Mn-doped Cs₃Sb₂Cl₉ crystals are synthesized in a facile route and studied both experimentally and theoretically. All the pure and Mn-doped Cs₃Sb₂Cl₉ crystals show good crystallinity and similar crystal structures, exhibiting visible photoluminescence (PL) characteristics with emission peaks at 422 and 613 nm, respectively. Combined density functional theory (DFT) calculations and experimental analyses reveal that the structure of the host PVK compound Cs₃Sb₂Cl₉ is not influenced by the formation of [MnCl₆]^4- octahedra and that Mn 3d orbitals generate impurity states in the forbidden energy gap of Cs₃Sb₂Cl₉. Therefore, energy transfer from Cs₃Sb₂Cl₉ to Mn 3d states is observed, resulting in the d-d transition and bright red luminescence. Mn-doped Sb-based PVK can be utilized as a new platform for optoelectronic applications.

Element Code from Pseudopotential as Efficient Descriptors for a Machine Learning Model to Explore Potential Lead-Free Halide Perovskites

The rapid development of machine learning has proven its potential in material science. To acquire an accurate and promising result, the choice of descriptor plays an essential role in dictating the model performance. In this work, we introduce a set of novel descriptors, Element Code, which is generated from pseudopotential. Using a variational autoencoder to perform unsupervised learning, the produced Element Code is verified to contain representative information on elements. Attributed to the successful extraction of information from pseudopotential, Element Code can serve as the primary descriptor for the machine learning model. We construct a model using Element Code as the sole descriptor to predict the bandgap of a lead-free double halide perovskite, and an accuracy of 0.951 and mean absolute error of 0.266 eV are achieved. We believe our work can offer insights into selecting lead-free halide perovskites and establish a paradigm of exploring new materials.

Halide Mixing and Phase Segregation in Cs2AgBiX6 (X = Cl, Br, and I) Double Perovskites from Cesium-133 Solid-State NMR and Optical Spectroscopy

All-inorganic double perovskites (elpasolites) are a promising potential alternatives to lead halide perovskites in optoelectronic applications. Although halide mixing is a well-established strategy for band gap tuning, little is known about halide mixing and phase segregation phenomena in double perovskites. Here, we synthesize a wide range of single- and mixed-halide Cs₂AgBiX₆ (X = Cl, Br, and I) double perovskites using mechanosynthesis and probe their atomic-level microstructure using ¹³³Cs solid-state MAS NMR. We show that mixed Cl/Br materials form pure phases for any Cl/Br ratio while Cl/I and Br/I mixing is only possible within a narrow range of halide ratios (<3 mol % I) and leads to a complex mixture of products for higher ratios. We characterize the optical properties of the resulting materials and show that halide mixing does not lead to an appreciable tunability of the PL emission. We find that iodide incorporation is particularly pernicious in that it quenches the PL emission intensity and radiative charge carrier lifetimes for iodide ratios as low as 0.3 mol %. Our study shows that solid-state NMR, in conjunction with optical spectroscopies, provides a comprehensive understanding of the structure-activity relationships, halide mixing, and phase segregation phenomena in Cs₂AgBiX₆ (X = Cl, Br, and I) double perovskites.

Indium Doping of Lead-Free Perovskite Cs2SnI6

Structure and properties of an inorganic perovskite Cs₂SnI₆ demonstrated its potential as a light-harvester or electron-hole transport material; however, its optoelectronic properties are poorer than those of lead-based perovskites. Here, we report the way of light tuning of absorption and transport properties of cesium iodostannate(IV) Cs₂SnI₆ via partial heterovalent substitution of tin for indium. Light absorption and optical bandgaps of materials have been investigated by UV-vis absorption and photoluminescent spectroscopies. Low-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy was used to study the kind of paramagnetic centers in materials.

Metal-Free Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Perovskites for Photovoltaics

There has been intense interest in hybrid organic-inorganic perovskites (HOIPs) in the materials science community due to their unexpected and fascinating properties with respect to photovoltaic applications. The intrinsic toxicity of Pb-based HOIPs, however, seriously hinders its practical large-scale commercialization. Exploring novel stable and environmentally friendly high-performance HOIPs for sunlight harvesting therefore becomes a scientific research hotspot in the photovoltaic research community. In contrast to devoting a great amount of effort to searching promising metal-cation-based HOIPs for photovoltaics, a comprehensive investigation of a series of silicon-based HOIPs is carried out in this study to discover metal-free high-performance HOIPs for photovoltaics. Remarkably, a new family of unexplored metal-free HOIPs with promising electronic properties for solar cells, theoretically confirmed to possess excellent thermal and environmental stability, is eventually discovered and expected to be tested for further experimental synthesis and characterization. The present study marks a significant step toward discovering a series of novel metal-free HOIPs for photovoltaics and provides novel cognition for rational design regarding eco-friendly and environmentally friendly materials.

The crystal structures of α-Rb7Sb3Br16, α- and β-Tl7Bi3Br16 and their relationship to close packings of spheres

Yellow prismatic crystals of rubidium bromido-antimonate(III) Rb7Sb3Br16 and of two different modifications of thallium bromido-bismuthate(III) Tl7Bi3Br16 were obtained by solvent-free synthesis and by precipitation from acidic aqueous solutions. X-ray diffraction analyses revealed the Tl7Bi3I16-type for α-Tl7Bi3Br16 (orthorhombic, Cmcm, a = 2324.31(8) pm, b = 1346.69(4) pm, c = 3460.0(1) pm; Pearson symbol oC312) and a new structure type for β-Tl7Bi3Br16 (monoclinic, C2/c, a = 2331.87(5) pm, b = 1343.33(3) pm, c = 3546.01(7) pm, β = 102.708(1)°; mC312). The antimonate Rb7Sb3Br16 adopts the Tl7Bi3I16-type, too (orthorhombic, Cmcm, a = 2347.16(3) pm, b = 1357.89(5) pm, c = 3539.47(9) pm; oC312). The crystal structures of α- and β-Tl7Bi3Br16 comprise alternating slabs of isolated [BiBr6]3– octahedra and [Bi2Br10]4– octahedra pairs. Both structure types are hierarchically organized and can be regarded as sphere close packing with the same stacking sequence, if octahedra and octahedra pairs are replaced by spheres of equal size. The structural relationship between the Tl7Bi3I16-type and the hydrate Na7Bi3Br16 · 18H2O, which comprises similar structural features, is discussed.

A Potential Checkmate to Lead: Bismuth in Organometal Halide Perovskites, Structure, Properties, and Applications

The remarkable optoelectronic properties and considerable performance of the organo lead-halide perovskites (PVKs) in various optoelectronic applications grasp tremendous scientific attention. However, the existence of the toxic lead in these compounds is threatening human health and remains a major concern in the way of their commercialization. To address this issue, numerous nontoxic alternatives have been reported. Among these alternatives, bismuth-based PVKs have emerged as a promising substitute because of similar optoelectronic properties and extended environmental stability. This work communicates briefly about the possible lead-alternatives and explores bismuth-based perovskites comprehensively, in terms of their structures, optoelectronic properties, and applications. A brief description of lead-toxification is provided and the possible Pb-alternatives from the periodic table are scrutinized. Then, the classification and crystal structures of various Bi-based perovskites are elaborated on. Detailed optoelectronic properties of Bi-based perovskites are also described and their optoelectronic applications are abridged. The overall photovoltaic applications along with device characteristics (i.e., V OC, J SC, fill factor, FF, and power conversion efficiency, PCE), fabrication method, device architecture, and operational stability are also summarized. Finally, a conclusion is drawn where a brief outlook highlights the challenges that hamper the future progress of Bi-based optoelectronic devices and suggestions for future directions are provided.

Opportunity of the Lead-Free All-Inorganic Cs3Cu2I5 Perovskite Film for Memristor and Neuromorphic Computing Applications

Recently, several types of lead halide perovskites have been demonstrated as active layers in resistive switching memory or artificial synaptic devices for neuromorphic computing applications. However, the thermal instability and toxicity of lead halide perovskites severely restricted their further practical applications. Herein, the environmentally friendly and uniform Cs₃Cu₂I₅ perovskite films are introduced to act as the active layer in the Ag/Cs₃Cu₂I₅/ITO memristor. Generally, the Ag ions could react with iodide ions and form AgI_x compounds easily, so the Ag/PMMA/Cs₃Cu₂I₅/ITO memristor was designed by employing the ultrathin polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) layer to avoid the direct contact between the top Ag electrode and Cs₃Cu₂I₅ perovskite films. After optimization, the obtained memristor demonstrated bipolar resistive switching with low operating voltage (< ±1 V), large on/off ratio (10²), stable endurance (100 cycles), and long retention (>10⁴ s). Additionally, biological synaptic behaviors including long-term potentiation and long-term depression have been investigated. By using the MNIST handwritten recognition data set, the handwritten recognition rate based on experimental data could reach 94%. In conclusion, our work provides the opportunity of exploring the novel application for the development of next-generation neuromorphic computing based on lead-free halide perovskites.

Reducing Agents for Improving the Stability of Sn-based Perovskite Solar Cells

Organic-inorganic hybrid perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have aroused tremendous research interest for their high efficiency, low cost and solution processability. However, the involvement of toxic lead in state-of-art perovskites hinders their market prospects. As an alternative, Sn-based perovskites exhibit similar semiconductor characteristics and can potentially achieve comparable photovoltaic performance in comparison with their lead-based counterparts. The main challenge of developing Sn-based PCSs lies in the intrinsic poor stability of Sn²⁺ , which could be oxidized and converted to Sn⁴⁺ . Notably, introduction of SnX₂ (X=Cl, Br, I) additive becomes indispensable in the fabrication process, which highlights the importance of incorporating a reducing agent to improve the device stability. Additionally, efforts are made to utilize other reducing agents with different functions for the further enhancement of device performance. Currently, Sn-based PSCs could attain a record efficiency over 10% with great stability. In this review, we present the recent progress on reducing agents for improving the stability of Sn-based PSCs, and we hope to shed light on the challenges and opportunities of this research field.

Unveiling Predominant Air-Stable Organotin Bromide Perovskite toward Mechanical Energy Harvesting

Organotin halide perovskites are developed as an appropriate substitute to replace highly toxic lead-based hybrid perovskites, which are a major concern for the environment as well as for human health. However, instability of the lead-free Sn-based perovskites under ambient conditions has hindered their wider utility in device applications. In this study, we report a predominantly stable lead-free methylammonium tin bromide (MASnBr₃) perovskite that has air stability over 120 days without passivation under ambient conditions. Further, the feasibility of this predominant air-stable MASnBr₃ perovskite for use in the harvesting of mechanical energy is described with the fabrication of an ecofriendly, flexible, and cost-effective piezoelectric generator (PEG) using MASnBr₃-polydimethylsiloxane composite films. The fabricated PEG exhibits high performance along with good mechanical durability and long-term stability. This flexible device reveals a high piezoelectric output voltage of ∼18.8 V, current density of ∼13.76 μA/cm², and power density of ∼74.52 μW/cm² under a periodic applied pressure of 0.5 MPa. Further, the ability of PEG to scavenge energy from various easily accessible biomechanical movements is demonstrated. The energy generated from PEG by finger tapping is stored in a capacitor and is used to power both a stopwatch and a commercial light-emitting diode. These findings offer a new insight to achieve long-term air-stable Sn-based hybrid perovskites, demonstrating the feasibility of using organotin halide perovskites to realize highly efficient, ecofriendly, mechanical energy harvesters with a wide range of utility that includes wearable and portable electronics as well as biomedical devices.