1
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Wang J, Xu Y, Song Y, Wang Q. Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor Based on Fe 2O 3/Au for Alcohol Concentration Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:4477. [PMID: 39065875 DOI: 10.3390/s24144477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2024] [Revised: 06/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Hematite (α-Fe2O3) is widely used in sensor sensitization due to its excellent optical properties. In this study, we present a sensitivity-enhanced surface plasmon resonance alcohol sensor based on Fe2O3/Au. We describe the fabrication process of the sensor and characterize its structure. We conduct performance testing on sensors coated multiple times and use solutions with the same gradient of refractive indices as the sensing medium. Within the refractive index range of 1.3335-1.3635, the sensor that was coated twice achieved the highest sensitivity, reaching 2933.2 nm/RIU. This represents a 30.26% enhancement in sensitivity compared to a sensor with a pure gold monolayer film structure. Additionally, we demonstrated the application of this sensor in alcohol concentration detection by testing the alcohol content of common beverages, showing excellent agreement with theoretical values and highlighting the sensor's potential in food testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyi Wang
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Yanpei Xu
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Yutong Song
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
| | - Qi Wang
- College of Sciences, Northeastern University, Shenyang 110819, China
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2
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Ye C, Lukas H, Wang M, Lee Y, Gao W. Nucleic acid-based wearable and implantable electrochemical sensors. Chem Soc Rev 2024. [PMID: 38985007 DOI: 10.1039/d4cs00001c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
The rapid advancements in nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for implantable and wearable applications have marked a significant leap forward in the domain of personal healthcare over the last decade. This technology promises to revolutionize personalized healthcare by facilitating the early diagnosis of diseases, monitoring of disease progression, and tailoring of individual treatment plans. This review navigates through the latest developments in this field, focusing on the strategies for nucleic acid sensing that enable real-time and continuous biomarker analysis directly in various biofluids, such as blood, interstitial fluid, sweat, and saliva. The review delves into various nucleic acid sensing strategies, emphasizing the innovative designs of biorecognition elements and signal transduction mechanisms that enable implantable and wearable applications. Special perspective is given to enhance nucleic acid-based sensor selectivity and sensitivity, which are crucial for the accurate detection of low-level biomarkers. The integration of such sensors into implantable and wearable platforms, including microneedle arrays and flexible electronic systems, actualizes their use in on-body devices for health monitoring. We also tackle the technical challenges encountered in the development of these sensors, such as ensuring long-term stability, managing the complexity of biofluid dynamics, and fulfilling the need for real-time, continuous, and reagentless detection. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of these sensors in the future of medical engineering, offering insights into design considerations and future research directions to overcome existing limitations and fully realize the potential of nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for healthcare applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Ye
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Heather Lukas
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Minqiang Wang
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Yerim Lee
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
| | - Wei Gao
- Andrew and Peggy Cherng Department of Medical Engineering, Division of Engineering and Applied Science, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.
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3
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Jiang X, Wilkirson EC, Bailey AO, Russell WK, Lillehoj PB. Microneedle-based sampling of dermal interstitial fluid using a vacuum-assisted skin patch. CELL REPORTS. PHYSICAL SCIENCE 2024; 5:101975. [PMID: 38947182 PMCID: PMC11211974 DOI: 10.1016/j.xcrp.2024.101975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 07/02/2024]
Abstract
Interstitial fluid (ISF) contains a wealth of biomolecules, yet it is underutilized for diagnostic testing due to a lack of rapid and simple techniques for collecting abundant amounts of fluid. Here, we report a simple and minimally invasive technique for rapidly sampling larger quantities of ISF from human skin. A microneedle array is used to generate micropores in skin from which ISF is extracted using a vacuum-assisted skin patch. Using this technique, an average of 20.8 μL of dermal ISF is collected in 25 min, which is an ∼6-fold improvement over existing sampling methods. Proteomic analysis of collected ISF reveals that it has nearly identical protein composition as blood, and >600 medically relevant biomarkers are identified. Toward this end, we demonstrate the detection of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies in ISF collected from COVID-19 vaccinees using two commercial immunoassays, showcasing the utility of this technique for diagnostic testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Jiang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, Houston 77005, TX, USA
| | | | - Aaron O. Bailey
- Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77550, TX, USA
| | - William K. Russell
- Mass Spectrometry Facility, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston 77550, TX, USA
| | - Peter B. Lillehoj
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, Houston 77005, TX, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, Houston 77030, TX, USA
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4
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Chen X, Li J, Roy S, Ullah Z, Gu J, Huang H, Yu C, Wang X, Wang H, Zhang Y, Guo B. Development of Polymethine Dyes for NIR-II Fluorescence Imaging and Therapy. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2304506. [PMID: 38441392 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202304506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/16/2024]
Abstract
Fluorescence imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II) is burgeoning because of its higher imaging fidelity in monitoring physiological and pathological processes than clinical visible/the second near-infrared window fluorescence imaging. Notably, the imaging fidelity is heavily dependent on fluorescence agents. So far, indocyanine green, one of the polymethine dyes, with good biocompatibility and renal clearance is the only dye approved by the Food and Drug Administration, but it shows relatively low NIR-II brightness. Importantly, tremendous efforts are devoted to synthesizing polymethine dyes for imaging preclinically and clinically. They have shown feasibility in the customization of structure and properties to fulfill various needs in imaging and therapy. Herein, a timely update on NIR-II polymethine dyes, with a special focus on molecular design strategies for fluorescent, photoacoustic, and multimodal imaging, is offered. Furthermore, the progress of polymethine dyes in sensing pathological biomarkers and even reporting drug release is illustrated. Moreover, the NIR-II fluorescence imaging-guided therapies with polymethine dyes are summarized regarding chemo-, photothermal, photodynamic, and multimodal approaches. In addition, artificial intelligence is pointed out for its potential to expedite dye development. This comprehensive review will inspire interest among a wide audience and offer a handbook for people with an interest in NIR-II polymethine dyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chen
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jieyan Li
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Shubham Roy
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Zia Ullah
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Jingsi Gu
- Education Center and Experiments and Innovations, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Haiyan Huang
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Chen Yu
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Xuejin Wang
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Han Wang
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Yinghe Zhang
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
| | - Bing Guo
- School of Science, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Flexible Printed Electronics Technology, Shenzhen Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Carbon Materials Research and Comprehensive Application, Harbin Institute of Technology, Shenzhen, 518055, China
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5
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Li Y, Wang Y, Mei R, Lv B, Zhao X, Bi L, Xu H, Chen L. Hydrogel-Coated SERS Microneedles for Drug Monitoring in Dermal Interstitial Fluid. ACS Sens 2024; 9:2567-2574. [PMID: 38696667 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.4c00276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
In vivo drug monitoring is crucial for evaluating the effectiveness and safety of drug treatment. Blood sampling and analysis is the current gold standard but needs professional skills and cannot meet the requirements of point-of-care testing. Dermal interstitial fluid (ISF) showed great potential to replace blood for in vivo drug monitoring; however, the detection was challenging, and the drug distribution behavior in ISF was still unclear until now. In this study, we proposed surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) microneedles (MNs) for the painless and real-time analysis of drugs in ISF after intravenous injection. Using methylene blue (MB) and mitoxantrone (MTO) as model drugs, the innovative core-satellite structured Au@Ag SERS substrate, hydrogel coating over the MNs, rendered sensitive and quantitative drug detection in ISF of mice within 10 min. Based on this technique, the pharmacokinetics of the two drugs in ISF was investigated and compared with those in blood, where the drugs were analyzed via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. It was found that the MB concentration in ISF and blood was comparable, whereas the concentration of MTO in ISF was 2-3 orders of magnitude lower than in blood. This work proposed an efficient tool for ISF drug monitoring. More importantly, it experimentally proved that the penetration ratio of blood to ISF was drug-dependent, providing insightful information into the potential of ISF as a blood alternative for in vivo drug detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Li
- School of pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Yunqing Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Rongchao Mei
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Bingqian Lv
- School of pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Xizhen Zhao
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Liyan Bi
- School of Pharmacy, Binzhou Medical University, Yantai 264003, China
| | - Hui Xu
- School of pharmacy, Key Laboratory of Molecular pharmacology and Drug Evaluation, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Drug Delivery System and Biotech Drugs in Universities of Shandong, Yantai University, Yantai 264005, China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation, Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yantai 264003, China
- Laboratory for Marine Biology and Biotechnology, Qingdao Marine Science and Technology Center, Qingdao 266237, China
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6
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Chenani H, Saeidi M, Rastkhiz MA, Bolghanabadi N, Aghaii AH, Orouji M, Hatamie A, Simchi A. Challenges and Advances of Hydrogel-Based Wearable Electrochemical Biosensors for Real-Time Monitoring of Biofluids: From Lab to Market. A Review. Anal Chem 2024; 96:8160-8183. [PMID: 38377558 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c03942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Chenani
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohsen Saeidi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - MahsaSadat Adel Rastkhiz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - Nafiseh Bolghanabadi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Hossein Aghaii
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - Mina Orouji
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Hatamie
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Department of Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences (IASBS), Prof. Sobouti Boulevard, PO Box 45195-1159, Zanjan 45137-66731, Iran
| | - Abdolreza Simchi
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, 14588 89694 Tehran, Iran
- Center for Bioscience and Technology, Institute for Convergence Science and Technology, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588-89694, Iran
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7
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Sanz-de Diego E, Aires A, Palacios-Alonso P, Cabrera D, Silvestri N, Vequi-Suplicy CC, Artés-Ibáñez EJ, Requejo-Isidro J, Delgado-Buscalioni R, Pellegrino T, Cortajarena AL, Terán FJ. Multiparametric modulation of magnetic transduction for biomolecular sensing in liquids. NANOSCALE 2024; 16:4082-4094. [PMID: 38348700 DOI: 10.1039/d3nr06489a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
The recent COVID19 pandemic has remarkably boosted the research on in vitro diagnosis assays to detect biomarkers in biological fluids. Specificity and sensitivity are mandatory for diagnostic kits aiming to reach clinical stages. Whilst the modulation of sensitivity can significantly improve the detection of biomarkers in liquids, this has been scarcely explored. Here, we report on the proof of concept and parametrization of a novel biosensing methodology based on the changes of AC magnetic hysteresis areas observed for magnetic nanoparticles following biomolecular recognition in liquids. Several parameters are shown to significantly modulate the transducing capacity of magnetic nanoparticles to detect analytes dispersed in saline buffer at concentrations of clinical relevance. Magnetic nanoparticles were bio-conjugated with an engineered recognition peptide as a receptor. Analytes are engineered tetratricopeptide binding domains fused to the fluorescent protein whose dimerization state allows mono- or divalent variants. Our results unveil that the number of receptors per particle, analyte valency and concentration, nanoparticle composition and concentration, and field conditions play a key role in the formation of assemblies driven by biomolecular recognition. Consequently, all these parameters modulate the nanoparticle transduction capacity. Our study provides essential insights into the potential of AC magnetometry for customizing biomarker detection in liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Sanz-de Diego
- iMdea Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Antonio Aires
- CIC biomaGUNE, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo de Miramón 194, 20014, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.
| | | | - David Cabrera
- iMdea Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- School of Pharmacy and Bioengineering, Keele University, Guy Hilton Research Centre, Thurnburrow Drive, ST4 7QB, Stoke on Trent, UK
| | | | | | - Emilio J Artés-Ibáñez
- iMdea Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- Nanotech Solutions, 40150 Villacastín, Spain
| | - José Requejo-Isidro
- Centro Nacional de Biotecnologia (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
- Nanobiotecnología (iMdea-Nanociencia), Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Aitziber L Cortajarena
- iMdea Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- CIC biomaGUNE, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo de Miramón 194, 20014, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain.
- Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
| | - Francisco J Terán
- iMdea Nanociencia, Ciudad Universitaria de Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
- Nanobiotecnología (iMdea-Nanociencia), Unidad Asociada al Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CSIC), 28049 Madrid, Spain
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8
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Wang M, Lin B, Chen Y, Liu H, Ju Z, Lv R. Fluorescence-Recovered Wearable Hydrogel Patch for In Vitro Detection of Glucose Based on Rare-Earth Nanoparticles. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2024; 10:1128-1138. [PMID: 38221709 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.3c01682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2024]
Abstract
The physiological state of the human body can be indicated by analyzing the composition of sweat. In this research, a fluorescence-recovered wearable hydrogel patch has been designed and realized which can noninvasively monitor the glucose concentration in human sweat. Rare-earth nanoparticles (RENPs) of NaGdF4 doped with different elements (Yb, Er, and Ce) are synthesized and optimized for better luminescence in the near-infrared second (NIR-II) and visible region. In addition, RENPs are coated with CoOOH of which the absorbance has an extensive peak in the visible and NIR regions. The concentration of H2O2 in the environment can be detected by the fluorescence recovery degree of CoOOH-modified RENPs based on the fluorescence resonance energy transfer effect. For in vivo detection, the physiological state of oxidative stress at tumor sites can be visualized through its fluorescence in NIR-II with low background noise and high penetration depth. For the in vitro detection, CoOOH-modified RENP and glucose oxidase (GOx) were doped into a polyacrylamide hydrogel, and a patch that can emit green upconversion fluorescence under a 980 nm laser was prepared. Compared with the conventional electrochemical detection method, the fluorescence we presented has higher sensitivity and linear detection region to detect the glucose. This improved anti-interference sweat patch that can work in the dark environment was obtained, and the physiological state of the human body is conveniently monitored, which provides a new facile and convenient method to monitor the sweat status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Wang
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
| | - Bi Lin
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
| | - Yitong Chen
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
| | - Hanyu Liu
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
| | - Ziyue Ju
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
| | - Ruichan Lv
- Engineering Research Center of Molecular and Neuro Imaging, Ministry of Education, School of Life Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710126, P. R. China
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9
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Portugal-Cohen M, Oron M, Cohen D, Ma'or Z, Soroka Y, Frusic-Zlotkin M, Kohen R. Advancements in non-invasive skin sampling: Clinical conditions characterization via the assessment of skin surface cytokine biomarkers. Exp Dermatol 2024; 33:e15037. [PMID: 38389180 DOI: 10.1111/exd.15037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
The skin is increasingly recognized as a biological active organ interacting with the immune system. Given that the epidermal skin layer actively releases various cytokines, non-invasive skin sampling methods could detect these cytokines, offering insights into clinical conditions. This study aims non-invasively measuring cytokine levels directly from the skin surface to characterize different inflammatory chronic disorders in the adult and elderly population: psoriasis, diabetes type 2, rosacea, chronic kidney disease (CKD) and aging. Cytokines IL-1β, IL-8 and IL-10 were sampled from healthy subjects and patients aged 18-80 using skin surface wash technique. A well with sterile phosphate-buffered saline solution was placed on the skin for 30 min, and the extracted solution was collected from the well for further cytokine levels analysis using ELISA assay. Results show distinct cytokine profiles in different pathological processes, healthy controls, affected and unaffected areas. Aging was associated with increased IL-1β, IL-8, and IL-10 levels in skin. In diabetes, IL-1β and IL-8 levels were elevated in lesional areas, while IL-10 levels were decreased in non-lesional skin. Psoriatic lesions showed elevated levels of IL-1β and IL-8. Rosacea patients had lower IL-10 levels in both lesional and non-lesional areas. CKD patients exhibited significantly lower IL-10 levels compared to healthy individuals. In conclusion, skin surface wash-derived cytokine profiles could serve as "alert biomarkers" for disease prediction, enabling early detection. Additionally, this method's cost-effectiveness allows pre-screening of molecules in clinical studies and holds potential as a tool for biomarkers and omics analysis, enhancing disorder characterization and disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dror Cohen
- DermAb.io, Haifa, Israel
- The Myers Skin Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ze'evi Ma'or
- The Skin Research Institute, The Dead-Sea & Arava Science Center, Israel
| | - Yoram Soroka
- The Myers Skin Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Marina Frusic-Zlotkin
- The Myers Skin Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ron Kohen
- The Myers Skin Research Laboratory, Faculty of Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Institute for Drug Research, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
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10
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Lee I, Kwon SJ, Heeger P, Dordick JS. Ultrasensitive ImmunoMag-CRISPR Lateral Flow Assay for Point-of-Care Testing of Urinary Biomarkers. ACS Sens 2024; 9:92-100. [PMID: 38141036 PMCID: PMC11090086 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Rapid, accurate, and noninvasive detection of biomarkers in saliva, urine, or nasal fluid is essential for the identification, early diagnosis, and monitoring of cancer, organ failure, transplant rejection, vascular diseases, autoimmune disorders, and infectious diseases. We report the development of an Immuno-CRISPR-based lateral flow assay (LFA) using antibody-DNA barcode complexes with magnetic enrichment of the target urinary biomarkers CXCL9 and CXCL10 for naked eye detection (ImmunoMag-CRISPR LFA). An intermediate approach involving a magnetic bead-based Immuno-CRISPR assay (ImmunoMag-CRISPR) resulted in a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.6 pg/mL for CXCL9. This value surpasses the detection limits achieved by previously reported assays. The highly sensitive detection method was then re-engineered into an LFA format with an LOD of 18 pg/mL for CXCL9, thereby enabling noninvasive early detection of acute kidney transplant rejection. The ImmunoMag-CRISPR LFA was tested on 42 clinical urine samples from kidney transplant recipients, and the assay could determine 11 positive and 31 negative urinary samples through a simple visual comparison of the test line and the control line of the LFA strip. The LFA system was then expanded to quantify the CXCL9 and CXCL10 levels in clinical urine samples from images. This approach has the potential to be extended to a wide range of point-of-care tests for highly sensitive biomarker detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inseon Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Center for Biotechnology & Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, United States
| | - Seok-Joon Kwon
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Center for Biotechnology & Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, United States
| | - Peter Heeger
- Comprehensive Transplant Center, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, United States
| | - Jonathan S. Dordick
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, and Center for Biotechnology & Interdisciplinary Studies, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, 110 8th Street, Troy, NY 12180, United States
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11
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Khokhar M. Non-invasive detection of renal disease biomarkers through breath analysis. J Breath Res 2024; 18:024001. [PMID: 38099568 DOI: 10.1088/1752-7163/ad15fb] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024]
Abstract
Breath biomarkers are substances found in exhaled breath that can be used for non-invasive diagnosis and monitoring of medical conditions, including kidney disease. Detection techniques include mass spectrometry (MS), gas chromatography (GC), and electrochemical sensors. Biosensors, such as GC-MS or electronic nose (e-nose) devices, can be used to detect volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in exhaled breath associated with metabolic changes in the body, including the kidneys. E-nose devices could provide an early indication of potential kidney problems through the detection of VOCs associated with kidney dysfunction. This review discusses the sources of breath biomarkers for monitoring renal disease during dialysis and different biosensor approaches for detecting exhaled breath biomarkers. The future of using various types of biosensor-based real-time breathing diagnosis for renal failure is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Khokhar
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India
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12
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Wu Y, Zhu L, Zhang Y, Xu W. Multidimensional Applications and Challenges of Riboswitches in Biosensing and Biotherapy. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2304852. [PMID: 37658499 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202304852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
Riboswitches have received significant attention over the last two decades for their multiple functionalities and great potential for applications in various fields. This article highlights and reviews the recent advances in biosensing and biotherapy. These fields involve a wide range of applications, such as food safety detection, environmental monitoring, metabolic engineering, live cell imaging, wearable biosensors, antibacterial drug targets, and gene therapy. The discovery, origin, and optimization of riboswitches are summarized to help readers better understand their multidimensional applications. Finally, this review discusses the multidimensional challenges and development of riboswitches in order to further expand their potential for novel applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Longjiao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yangzi Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Wentao Xu
- Key Laboratory of Precision Nutrition and Food Quality, Beijing Laboratory for Food Quality and Safety, Department of Nutrition and Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100191, China
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Weber CJ, Clay OM, Lycan RE, Anderson GK, Simoska O. Advances in electrochemical biosensor design for the detection of the stress biomarker cortisol. Anal Bioanal Chem 2024; 416:87-106. [PMID: 37989847 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-05047-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 11/08/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
The monitoring of stress levels in humans has become increasingly relevant, given the recent incline of stress-related mental health disorders, lifestyle impacts, and chronic physiological diseases. Long-term exposure to stress can induce anxiety and depression, heart disease, and risky behaviors, such as drug and alcohol abuse. Biomarker molecules can be quantified in biological fluids to study human stress. Cortisol, specifically, is a hormone biomarker produced in the adrenal glands with biofluid concentrations that directly correlate to stress levels in humans. The rapid, real-time detection of cortisol is necessary for stress management and predicting the onset of psychological and physical ailments. Current methods, including mass spectrometry and immunoassays, are effective for sensitive cortisol quantification. However, these techniques provide only single measurements which pose challenges in the continuous monitoring of stress levels. Additionally, these analytical methods often require trained personnel to operate expensive instrumentation. Alternatively, low-cost electrochemical biosensors enable the real-time detection and continuous monitoring of cortisol levels while also providing adequate analytical figures of merit (e.g., sensitivity, selectivity, sensor response times, detection limits, and reproducibility) in a simple design platform. This review discusses the recent developments in electrochemical biosensor design for the detection of cortisol in human biofluids. Special emphasis is given to biosensor recognition elements, including antibodies, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), and aptamers, as critical components of electrochemical biosensors for cortisol detection. Furthermore, the advantages and limiting factors of various electrochemical techniques and sensing in complex biofluid matrices are overviewed. Remarks on the current challenges and future perspectives regarding electrochemical biosensors for stress monitoring are provided, including matrix effects (pH dependence and biological interferences), wearability, and large-scale production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney J Weber
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Olivia M Clay
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Reese E Lycan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Gracie K Anderson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Olja Simoska
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
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14
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Lorestani F, Zhang X, Abdullah AM, Xin X, Liu Y, Rahman M, Biswas MAS, Li B, Dutta A, Niu Z, Das S, Barai S, Wang K, Cheng H. A highly sensitive and long-term stable wearable patch for continuous analysis of biomarkers in sweat. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2023; 33:2306117. [PMID: 38525448 PMCID: PMC10959519 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202306117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Although increasing efforts have been devoted to the development of non-invasive wearable or stretchable electrochemical sweat sensors for monitoring physiological and metabolic information, most of them still suffer from poor stability and specificity over time and fluctuating temperatures. This study reports the design and fabrication of a long-term stable and highly sensitive flexible electrochemical sensor based on nanocomposite-modified porous graphene by simple and facile laser treatment for detecting biomarkers such as glucose in sweat. The laser-reduced and patterned stable conductive nanocomposite on the porous graphene electrode provides the resulting glucose sensor with an excellent sensitivity of 1317.69 μAmM-1cm-2 with an ultra-low limit of detection (LOD) of 0.079 μM. The sensor can also detect pH and exhibit extraordinary stability to maintain more than 91% sensitivity over 21 days in ambient conditions. Taken together with a temperature sensor based on the same material system, the dual glucose and pH sensor integrated with a flexible microfluidic sweat sampling network further results in accurate continuous on-body glucose detection calibrated by the simultaneously measured pH and temperature. The low-cost, highly sensitive, and long-term stable platform could facilitate and pave the way for the early identification and continuous monitoring of different biomarkers for non-invasive disease diagnosis and treatment evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farnaz Lorestani
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Xianzhe Zhang
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Abu Musa Abdullah
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Xin Xin
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Yushen Liu
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Mashfiqur Rahman
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Md Abu Sayeed Biswas
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Bowen Li
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Ankan Dutta
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
- Center for Neural Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Zhenyuan Niu
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Shuvendu Das
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Shishir Barai
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
| | - Ke Wang
- Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802
| | - Huanyu Cheng
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA,16802, USA
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Lelis GC, Fonseca WT, de Lima AH, Okazaki AK, Figueiredo EC, Riul A, Schleder GR, Samorì P, de Oliveira RF. Harnessing Small-Molecule Analyte Detection in Complex Media: Combining Molecularly Imprinted Polymers, Electrolytic Transistors, and Machine Learning. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 38134415 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Small-molecule analyte detection is key for improving quality of life, particularly in health monitoring through the early detection of diseases. However, detecting specific markers in complex multicomponent media using devices compatible with point-of-care (PoC) technologies is still a major challenge. Here, we introduce a novel approach that combines molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), electrolyte-gated transistors (EGTs) based on 2D materials, and machine learning (ML) to detect hippuric acid (HA) in artificial urine, being a critical marker for toluene intoxication, parasitic infections, and kidney and bowel inflammation. Reduced graphene oxide (rGO) was used as the sensory material and molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) as supramolecular receptors. Employing supervised ML techniques based on symbolic regression and compressive sensing enabled us to comprehensively analyze the EGT transfer curves, eliminating the need for arbitrary signal selection and allowing a multivariate analysis during HA detection. The resulting device displayed simultaneously low operating voltages (<0.5 V), rapid response times (≤10 s), operation across a wide range of HA concentrations (from 0.05 to 200 nmol L-1), and a low limit of detection (LoD) of 39 pmol L-1. Thanks to the ML multivariate analysis, we achieved a 2.5-fold increase in the device sensitivity (1.007 μA/nmol L-1) with respect to the human data analysis (0.388 μA/nmol L-1). Our method represents a major advance in PoC technologies, by enabling the accurate determination of small-molecule markers in complex media via the combination of ML analysis, supramolecular analyte recognition, and electrolytic transistors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabrielle Coelho Lelis
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
| | - Wilson Tiago Fonseca
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
| | - Alessandro Henrique de Lima
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
| | - Anderson Kenji Okazaki
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Costa Figueiredo
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Alfenas, Alfenas, MG 37130-001, Brazil
| | - Antonio Riul
- Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin, Campinas, SP 13083-859, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Ravanhani Schleder
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
- John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Paolo Samorì
- Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, ISIS, 8 allée Gaspard Monge, Strasbourg 67000, France
| | - Rafael Furlan de Oliveira
- Brazilian Nanotechnology National Laboratory (LNNano), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), Campinas, SP 13083-100, Brazil
- Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Física Gleb Wataghin, Campinas, SP 13083-859, Brazil
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Dai Y, Nolan J, Madsen E, Fratus M, Lee J, Zhang J, Lim J, Hong S, Alam MA, Linnes JC, Lee H, Lee CH. Wearable Sensor Patch with Hydrogel Microneedles for In Situ Analysis of Interstitial Fluid. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 38041570 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c12740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
Continuous real-time monitoring of biomarkers in interstitial fluid is essential for tracking metabolic changes and facilitating the early detection and management of chronic diseases such as diabetes. However, developing minimally invasive sensors for the in situ analysis of interstitial fluid and addressing signal delays remain a challenge. Here, we introduce a wearable sensor patch incorporating hydrogel microneedles for rapid, minimally invasive collection of interstitial fluid from the skin while simultaneously measuring biomarker levels in situ. The sensor patch is stretchable to accommodate the swelling of the hydrogel microneedles upon extracting interstitial fluid and adapts to skin deformation during measurements, ensuring consistent sensing performance in detecting model biomarker concentrations, such as glucose and lactate, in a mouse model. The sensor patch exhibits in vitro sensitivities of 0.024 ± 0.002 μA mM-1 for glucose and 0.0030 ± 0.0004 μA mM-1 for lactate, with corresponding linear ranges of 0.1-3 and 0.1-12 mM, respectively. For in vivo glucose sensing, the sensor patch demonstrates a sensitivity of 0.020 ± 0.001 μA mM-1 and a detection range of 1-8 mM. By integrating a predictive model, the sensor patch can analyze and compensate for signal delays, improving calibration reliability and providing guidance for potential optimization in sensing performance. The sensor patch is expected to serve as a minimally invasive platform for the in situ analysis of multiple biomarkers in interstitial fluid, offering a promising solution for continuous health monitoring and disease management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yumin Dai
- School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - James Nolan
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Emilee Madsen
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Marco Fratus
- Elmore Family School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Junsang Lee
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jinyuan Zhang
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jongcheon Lim
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Seokkyoon Hong
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Muhammad A Alam
- Elmore Family School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Jacqueline C Linnes
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Department of Public Health, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Hyowon Lee
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Implantable Devices, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
| | - Chi Hwan Lee
- School of Materials Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
- Center for Implantable Devices, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907, United States
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17
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Garland NT, Kaveti R, Bandodkar AJ. Biofluid-Activated Biofuel Cells, Batteries, and Supercapacitors: A Comprehensive Review. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2303197. [PMID: 37358398 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202303197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Recent developments in wearable and implanted devices have resulted in numerous, unprecedented capabilities that generate increasingly detailed information about a user's health or provide targeted therapy. However, options for powering such systems remain limited to conventional batteries which are large and have toxic components and as such are not suitable for close integration with the human body. This work provides an in-depth overview of biofluid-activated electrochemical energy devices, an emerging class of energy sources judiciously designed for biomedical applications. These unconventional energy devices are composed of biocompatible materials that harness the inherent chemistries of various biofluids to produce useable electrical energy. This work covers examples of such biofluid-activated energy devices in the form of biofuel cells, batteries, and supercapacitors. Advances in materials, design engineering, and biotechnology that form the basis for high-performance, biofluid-activated energy devices are discussed. Innovations in hybrid manufacturing and heterogeneous integration of device components to maximize power output are also included. Finally, key challenges and future scopes of this nascent field are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nate T Garland
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
- Center for Advanced Self-Powered Systems of Integrated Sensors and Technologies (ASSIST), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
| | - Rajaram Kaveti
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
- Center for Advanced Self-Powered Systems of Integrated Sensors and Technologies (ASSIST), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
| | - Amay J Bandodkar
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
- Center for Advanced Self-Powered Systems of Integrated Sensors and Technologies (ASSIST), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
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18
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Sim D, Huang T, Kim SS. Peptide-Functionalized Carbon Nanotube Chemiresistors: The Effect of Nanotube Density on Gas Sensing. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:8469. [PMID: 37896562 PMCID: PMC10611220 DOI: 10.3390/s23208469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Revised: 10/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Biorecognition element (BRE)-based carbon nanotube (CNT) chemiresistors have tremendous potential to serve as highly sensitive, selective, and power-efficient volatile organic compound (VOC) sensors. While many research groups have studied BRE-functionalized CNTs in material science and device development, little attention has been paid to optimizing CNT density to improve chemiresistor performance. To probe the effect of CNT density on VOC detection, we present the chemiresistor-based sensing results from two peptide-based CNT devices counting more than 60 different individual measurements. We find that a lower CNT density shows a significantly higher noise level and device-to-device variation while exhibiting mildly better sensitivity. Further investigation with SEM images suggests that moderately high CNT density with a stable connection of the nanotube network is desirable to achieve the best signal-to-noise ratio. Our results show an essential design guideline for tuning the nanotube density to provide sensitive and stable chemiresistors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Sim
- Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433, USA; (D.S.); (T.H.)
- Integrative Health & Performance Sciences Division, UES Inc., Dayton, OH 45432, USA
| | - Tiffany Huang
- Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433, USA; (D.S.); (T.H.)
| | - Steve S. Kim
- Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL), 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, OH 45433, USA; (D.S.); (T.H.)
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19
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Diaz PM, Leehans A, Ravishankar P, Daily A. Multiomic Approaches for Cancer Biomarker Discovery in Liquid Biopsies: Advances and Challenges. Biomark Insights 2023; 18:11772719231204508. [PMID: 37846373 PMCID: PMC10576933 DOI: 10.1177/11772719231204508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 10/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer is a complex and heterogeneous disease that poses a significant threat to global health. Early diagnosis and treatment are critical for improving patient outcomes, and the use of liquid biopsies has emerged as a promising approach for cancer detection and monitoring. Traditionally, cancer diagnosis has relied on invasive tissue biopsies, the collection of which can prove challenging for patients and the results of which may not always provide accurate results due to tumor heterogeneity. Liquid biopsies have gained increasing attention as they provide a non-invasive and accessible source of cancer biomarkers, which can be used to diagnose cancer, monitor treatment response, and detect relapse. The integration of -omics technologies, such as proteomics, genomics, and metabolomics, has further enhanced the capabilities of liquid biopsies by introducing precision oncology and enabling the tailoring of treatment for individual patients based on their unique tumor biology. In this review, we will discuss the challenges and advances in the field of cancer liquid biopsies and the integration of -omics technologies for different types of liquid biopsies, including blood, tear, urine, sweat, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Monterroso Diaz
- Namida Lab Inc., Fayetteville, AR, USA
- University of Arkansas, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Fayetteville, AR, USA
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Zhang Y, Hou C, Zhao P, Zeng X, Liu Y, Chen J, Gao Y, Wang C, Hou J, Huo D. Fe Single-Atom Nanozyme-Modified Wearable Hydrogel Patch for Precise Analysis of Uric Acid at Rest. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:43541-43549. [PMID: 37694575 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c08978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Resting sweat analysis could provide unique insight into the metabolic levels of physiological and pathological states. However, the low secretion rate of resting sweat and the low concentration of metabolic molecules pose challenges for the development of noninvasive wearable sensors. Here, we demonstrated a wearable patch for the precise analysis of uric acid at rest. Fe single-atom nanozymes (FeSAs) with excellent electrocatalytic activity were used to develop a sensor for selective catalysis of uric acid (UA, 1-425 μM), and the catalytic mechanism of UA was later explored by density functional theory. In addition, polyaniline was integrated into the wearable patch for pH detection; thus, accurate analysis of sweat UA molecules can be achieved by pH calibration. Then, we explored the possibility of collecting resting sweat with different ratios of agarose hydrogels to reduce the sweat accumulation time. Finally, the possibility of a wearable patch for accurate UA detection in volunteer sweat samples was experimentally verified. We believe that our work provides novel insights and ideas for the analysis of resting sweat using wearable devices, further driving advancements in the field of personalized medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Changjun Hou
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Peng Zhao
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Xin Zeng
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Yiyi Liu
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Jian Chen
- Chongqing University Three Gorges Hospital, Chongqing 404000, PR China
| | - Yifan Gao
- School of Electrical Engineering, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing401331, PR China
| | - Cuncun Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Jingzhou Hou
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
- Postdoctoral Research Station, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
| | - Danqun Huo
- Key Laboratory for Biorheological Science and Technology of Ministry of Education, Bioengineering College of Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Bio-perception & Intelligent Information Processing, School of Microelectronics and Communication Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, PR China
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Yogev D, Goldberg T, Arami A, Tejman-Yarden S, Winkler TE, Maoz BM. Current state of the art and future directions for implantable sensors in medical technology: Clinical needs and engineering challenges. APL Bioeng 2023; 7:031506. [PMID: 37781727 PMCID: PMC10539032 DOI: 10.1063/5.0152290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Implantable sensors have revolutionized the way we monitor biophysical and biochemical parameters by enabling real-time closed-loop intervention or therapy. These technologies align with the new era of healthcare known as healthcare 5.0, which encompasses smart disease control and detection, virtual care, intelligent health management, smart monitoring, and decision-making. This review explores the diverse biomedical applications of implantable temperature, mechanical, electrophysiological, optical, and electrochemical sensors. We delve into the engineering principles that serve as the foundation for their development. We also address the challenges faced by researchers and designers in bridging the gap between implantable sensor research and their clinical adoption by emphasizing the importance of careful consideration of clinical requirements and engineering challenges. We highlight the need for future research to explore issues such as long-term performance, biocompatibility, and power sources, as well as the potential for implantable sensors to transform healthcare across multiple disciplines. It is evident that implantable sensors have immense potential in the field of medical technology. However, the gap between research and clinical adoption remains wide, and there are still major obstacles to overcome before they can become a widely adopted part of medical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Ben M. Maoz
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: and
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22
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Li R, Fan H, Zhou H, Chen Y, Yu Q, Hu W, Liu GL, Huang L. Nanozyme-Catalyzed Metasurface Plasmon Sensor-Based Portable Ultrasensitive Optical Quantification Platform for Cancer Biomarker Screening. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2301658. [PMID: 37358326 PMCID: PMC10460869 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202301658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Developing plasmonic biosensors that are low-cost, portable, and relatively simple to operate remains challenging. Herein, a novel metasurface plasmon-etch immunosensor is described, namely a nanozyme-linked immunosorbent surface plasmon resonance biosensor, for the ultrasensitive and specific detection of cancer biomarkers. Gold-silver composite nano cup array metasurface plasmon resonance chip and artificial nanozyme-labeled antibody are used in two-way sandwich analyte detection. Changes in the biosensor's absorption spectrum are measured before and after chip surface etching, which can be applied to immunoassays without requiring separation or amplification. The device achieved a limit of alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) detection < 21.74 fM, three orders of magnitude lower than that of commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Additionally, carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) and carbohydrate antigen 125 (CA125) are used for quantitative detection to verify the universality of the platform. More importantly, the accuracy of the platform is verified using 60 clinical samples; compared with the hospital results, the three biomarkers achieve high sensitivity (CEA: 95.7%; CA125: 90.9%; AFP: 86.7%) and specificity (CEA: 97.3%; CA125: 93.9%; AFP: 97.8%). Due to its rapidity, ease of use, and high throughput, the platform has the potential for high-throughput rapid detection to facilitate cancer screening or early diagnostic testing in biosensing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Li
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
| | - Hongli Fan
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
| | - Hanlin Zhou
- Biosensor R&D DepartmentLiangzhun (Wuhan) Life Technology Co., Ltd.666 Gaoxin AvenueWuhan430070P. R. China
| | - Youqian Chen
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
| | - Qingcai Yu
- School of Life and Health ScienceAnhui Science and Technology UniversityFengyang233100P. R. China
| | - Wenjun Hu
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
| | - Gang L. Liu
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
| | - Liping Huang
- College of Life Science and TechnologyHuazhong University of Science and Technology1037 Luo Yu RoadWuhan430074P. R. China
- Biosensor R&D DepartmentLiangzhun (Wuhan) Life Technology Co., Ltd.666 Gaoxin AvenueWuhan430070P. R. China
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23
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Yang J, Luo R, Yang L, Wang X, Huang Y. Microneedle-Integrated Sensors for Extraction of Skin Interstitial Fluid and Metabolic Analysis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:9882. [PMID: 37373027 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24129882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin interstitial fluid (ISF) has emerged as a fungible biofluid sample for blood serum and plasma for disease diagnosis and therapy. The sampling of skin ISF is highly desirable considering its easy accessibility, no damage to blood vessels, and reduced risk of infection. Particularly, skin ISF can be sampled using microneedle (MN)-based platforms in the skin tissues, which exhibit multiple advantages including minimal invasion of the skin tissues, less pain, ease of carrying, capacity for continuous monitoring, etc. In this review, we focus on the current development of microneedle-integrated transdermal sensors for collecting ISF and detecting specific disease biomarkers. Firstly, we discussed and classified microneedles according to their structural design, including solid MNs, hollow MNs, porous MNs, and coated MNs. Subsequently, we elaborate on the construction of MN-integrated sensors for metabolic analysis with highlights on the electrochemical, fluorescent, chemical chromogenic, immunodiagnostic, and molecular diagnostic MN-integrated sensors. Finally, we discuss the current challenges and future direction for developing MN-based platforms for ISF extraction and sensing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Targeting Oncology, National Center for International Research of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Targeting Tumor Diagnosis and Therapy, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Ruiyu Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Targeting Oncology, National Center for International Research of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Targeting Tumor Diagnosis and Therapy, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
| | - Lei Yang
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325001, China
| | - Xiaocheng Wang
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou 325001, China
| | - Yong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Targeting Oncology, National Center for International Research of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Guangxi Key Laboratory of Bio-Targeting Theranostics, Collaborative Innovation Center for Targeting Tumor Diagnosis and Therapy, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning 530021, China
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24
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Wang F, Gong Y, Xu Y, Ma Z, Han H. Electrochemical sensing interface based on the oriented self-assembly of histidine labeled peptides induced by Ni2+ for protease detection. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 230:115259. [PMID: 37001291 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
Abstract
To construct an electrochemical sensing interface which was convenient for protease recognition and cleavage, we designed a strategy for directed self-assembly of histidine-tagged peptides on the electrode led by Ni2+ ions for electrochemical detection of prostate specific antigen (PSA). The electrode surface was first functionalized using carboxylated multiwalled carbon nanotubes and then modified with the metal ion chelating agent (5 S)-N-(5-Amino-1-carboxypentyl) iminodiacetic acid (NIA). After the Ni2+ was captured by NIA, the designed immune-functional peptide could be oriented assembly to the electrode interface through the imidazole ring of histidine at the tail, completing the construction of the recognition layer. Therefore, by adding the analyte PSA to identify and shear the immune-functional peptide, the ferrocene in its head was released, resulting in a reduction in the electrical signal, enabling sensitive detection. In addition, the self-assembly layer could be removed by pickling to realize the reconstruction of the recognition layer. Under optimal conditions, the electrochemical sensor had an ultralow detection limit of 11.8 fg mL-1 for PSA, with a wide detection range from 1 pg mL-1 to 100 ng mL-1. In this work, an electrochemical sensing interface based on the histidine-tagged peptide induced by Ni2+ was formed to enable controllable oriented assembly on the electrode surface, and the recognition layer could be reconstructed via pickling, providing a potential approach for the design of repeatable interfaces.
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25
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Ahmad NN, Ghazali NNN, Abdul Rani AT, Othman MH, Kee CC, Jiwanti PK, Rodríguez-Gómez A, Wong YH. Finger-Actuated Micropump of Constant Flow Rate without Backflow. MICROMACHINES 2023; 14:881. [PMID: 37421113 DOI: 10.3390/mi14040881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2023] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
This paper presents a finger-actuated micropump with a consistent flow rate and no backflow. The fluid dynamics in interstitial fluid (ISF) extraction microfluidics are studied through analytical, simulation, and experimental methods. Head losses, pressure drop, diodocity, hydrogel swelling, criteria for hydrogel absorption, and consistency flow rate are examined in order to access microfluidic performance. In terms of consistency, the experimental result revealed that after 20 s of duty cycles with full deformation on the flexible diaphragm, the output pressure became uniform and the flow rate remained at nearly constant levels of 2.2 μL/min. The flow rate discrepancy between the experimental and predicted flow rates is around 22%. In terms of diodicity, when the serpentine microchannel and hydrogel-assisted reservoir are added to the microfluidic system integration, the diodicity increases by 2% (Di = 1.48) and 34% (Di = 1.96), respectively, compared to when the Tesla integration (Di = 1.45) is used alone. A visual and experimentally weighted analysis finds no signs of backflow. These significant flow characteristics demonstrate their potential usage in many low-cost and portable microfluidic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- NurFarrahain Nadia Ahmad
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Federal Territory, Malaysia
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia
| | - Nik Nazri Nik Ghazali
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Federal Territory, Malaysia
| | - Ahmad Taufiq Abdul Rani
- Industrial and Mechanical Design, Faculty of Engineering, German-Malaysian Institute, Jalan Ilmiah, Taman Universiti, Kajang 43000, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohammad Hafiz Othman
- Department of Process & Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chia Ching Kee
- Centre for Advance Materials and Intelligent Manufacturing, Faculty of Engineering, Built Environment & Information Technology, SEGi University, Petaling Jaya 47810, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Prastika Krisma Jiwanti
- Nanotechnology Engineering, Faculty of Advanced Technology and Multidiscipline, Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya 60115, Indonesia
| | - Arturo Rodríguez-Gómez
- Instituto de Física, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito de la Investigación Científica s/n, Ciudad Universitaria, A.P. 20-364, Coyoacán, Ciudad de México 04510, Mexico
| | - Yew Hoong Wong
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Federal Territory, Malaysia
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26
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Bi Y, Sun M, Wang J, Zhu Z, Bai J, Emran MY, Kotb A, Bo X, Zhou M. Universal Fully Integrated Wearable Sensor Arrays for the Multiple Electrolyte and Metabolite Monitoring in Raw Sweat, Saliva, or Urine. Anal Chem 2023; 95:6690-6699. [PMID: 36961950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c00361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023]
Abstract
Fully integrated wearable sensors are capable of dynamically, directly, and independently tracking biomarkers in raw noninvasive biofluids without any other equipment or accessories by integrating the unique on-body monitoring feature with the special complete functional implementation attribute. Sweat, saliva, and urine are three important noninvasive biofluids, and changes in their biomarkers hold great potential for revealing physiological conditions. However, it is still a challenge to design single fully integrated wearable sensor arrays (FIWSAs) that are universally able to concurrently measure electrolytes and metabolites in three of the most common noninvasive biofluids including sweat, saliva, and urine. Here, we propose the first single universal FIWSAs for wirelessly, noninvasively, and simultaneously measuring various metabolites (i.e., uric acid) and electrolytes (i.e., Na+ and H+) in raw sweat, saliva, or urine under subjects' exercise by integrating the specifically designed microfluidic, sensing, and electronic modules in a seamless manner. We evaluate its utility for noninvasive gout management in healthy subjects and in gout patients through a purine-rich meal challenge and with a medicine-treatment control, respectively. Noninvasive monitoring of multiple electrolytes and metabolites in a variety of raw noninvasive biofluids via such single universal FIWSAs may enrich the understanding of the biomarkers' levels in the body and would also facilitate self-health management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanni Bi
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Mimi Sun
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Jingjuan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Ziyu Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Jing Bai
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Mohammed Y Emran
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Kotb
- Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Xiangjie Bo
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
| | - Ming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Polyoxometalate and Reticular Material Chemistry of Ministry of Education, National and Local United Engineering Laboratory for Power Batteries, Key Laboratory of Nanobiosensing and Nanobioanalysis at Universities of Jilin Province, Analysis and Testing Center, Department of Chemistry, Northeast Normal University, Changchun, Jilin Province 130024, China
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27
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Wilkirson EC, Singampalli KL, Li J, Dixit DD, Jiang X, Gonzalez DH, Lillehoj PB. Affinity-based electrochemical sensors for biomolecular detection in whole blood. Anal Bioanal Chem 2023:10.1007/s00216-023-04627-5. [PMID: 36917265 PMCID: PMC10011785 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-023-04627-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023]
Abstract
The detection and/or quantification of biomarkers in blood is important for the early detection, diagnosis, and treatment of a variety of diseases and medical conditions. Among the different types of sensors for detecting molecular biomarkers, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and small-molecule drugs, affinity-based electrochemical sensors offer the advantages of high analytical sensitivity and specificity, fast detection times, simple operation, and portability. However, biomolecular detection in whole blood is challenging due to its highly complex matrix, necessitating sample purification (i.e., centrifugation), which involves the use of bulky, expensive equipment and tedious sample-handling procedures. To address these challenges, various strategies have been employed, such as purifying the blood sample directly on the sensor, employing micro-/nanoparticles to enhance the detection signal, and coating the electrode surface with blocking agents to reduce nonspecific binding, to improve the analytical performance of affinity-based electrochemical sensors without requiring sample pre-processing steps or laboratory equipment. In this article, we present an overview of affinity-based electrochemical sensor technologies that employ these strategies for biomolecular detection in whole blood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth C Wilkirson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX, 77005, USA
| | - Kavya L Singampalli
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6500 Main St., Houston, TX, 77030, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, Baylor College of Medicine, 1 Baylor Plaza, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Jiran Li
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX, 77005, USA
| | - Desh Deepak Dixit
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX, 77005, USA
| | - Xue Jiang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX, 77005, USA
| | - Diego H Gonzalez
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6500 Main St., Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Peter B Lillehoj
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rice University, 6100 Main St., Houston, TX, 77005, USA.
- Department of Bioengineering, Rice University, 6500 Main St., Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
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28
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A novel biosensing platform for detection of glaucoma biomarker GDF15 via an integrated BLI-ELASA strategy. Biomaterials 2023; 294:121997. [PMID: 36638554 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2023.121997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2022] [Revised: 12/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/07/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Glaucoma is a leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. Early discovery and prioritized intervention significantly impact its prognosis. Precise monitoring of the biomarker GDF15 contributes towards effective diagnosis and assessment of glaucoma. In this study, we demonstrate that GDF15 monitoring can also aid screening for glaucoma risk and early diagnosis. We obtained an aptamer (APT2TM) with high affinity, high specificity, and high stability for binding to both human-derived and rat-derived GDF15. Simulation results showed that the binding capabilities of APT2TM are mainly affected by the interplay between van der Waals forces and polar solvation energy, and that salt bridges and hydrogen bonds play critical roles. We then integrated an enzyme-linked aptamer sandwich assay (ELASA) into a biolayer interferometry (BLI) system to develop an automated, high-throughput, real-time monitoring BLI-ELASA biosensing platform. This platform exhibited a wide linear detection window (10-810 pg/mL range) and high sensitivity for GDF15 (detection limit of 5-6 pg/mL). Moreover, we confirmed its excellent performance when applied to GDF15 quantification in real samples from glaucomatous rats and clinical patients. We believe that this technology represents a robust, convenient, and cost-effective approach for risk screening, early diagnosis, and animal modeling evaluation of glaucoma in the near future.
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29
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Shafique H, de Vries J, Strauss J, Khorrami Jahromi A, Siavash Moakhar R, Mahshid S. Advances in the Translation of Electrochemical Hydrogel-Based Sensors. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2201501. [PMID: 36300601 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202201501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Novel biomaterials for bio- and chemical sensing applications have gained considerable traction in the diagnostic community with rising trends of using biocompatible and lowly cytotoxic material. Hydrogel-based electrochemical sensors have become a promising candidate for their swellable, nano-/microporous, and aqueous 3D structures capable of immobilizing catalytic enzymes, electroactive species, whole cells, and complex tissue models, while maintaining tunable mechanical properties in wearable and implantable applications. With advances in highly controllable fabrication and processability of these novel biomaterials, the possibility of bio-nanocomposite hydrogel-based electrochemical sensing presents a paradigm shift in the development of biocompatible, "smart," and sensitive health monitoring point-of-care devices. Here, recent advances in electrochemical hydrogels for the detection of biomarkers in vitro, in situ, and in vivo are briefly reviewed to demonstrate their applicability in ideal conditions, in complex cellular environments, and in live animal models, respectively, to provide a comprehensive assessment of whether these biomaterials are ready for point-of-care translation and biointegration. Sensors based on conductive and nonconductive polymers are presented, with highlights of nano-/microstructured electrodes that provide enhanced sensitivity and selectivity in biocompatible matrices. An outlook on current challenges that shall be addressed for the realization of truly continuous real-time sensing platforms is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Houda Shafique
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 0E9, Canada
| | - Justin de Vries
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 0E9, Canada
| | - Julia Strauss
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 0E9, Canada
| | | | | | - Sara Mahshid
- Department of Bioengineering, McGill University, Montreal, QC, H3A 0E9, Canada
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30
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Zhang T, Ratajczak AM, Chen H, Terrell JA, Chen C. A Step Forward for Smart Clothes─Fabric-Based Microfluidic Sensors for Wearable Health Monitoring. ACS Sens 2022; 7:3857-3866. [PMID: 36455259 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c01827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
We report the first demonstration of fabric-based microfluidics for wearable sensing. A new technology to develop microfluidics on fabrics, as a part of an undergarment, is described here. Compared to conventional microfluidics from polydimethylsiloxane, fabric-based microfluidics are simple to make, robust, and suitable for efficient sweat delivery. Specifically, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) films with precut microfluidic patterns were infused through fabrics to form hydrophobic areas in a specially controlled sandwich structure. Experimental tests and simulations confirmed the sweat delivery efficiency of the microfluidics. Electrodes were screen-printed onto the fabric-based microfluidic. A novel wearable potentiometer based on Arduino was also developed as the transducer and signal readouts, which was low-cost, standardized, open-source, and capable of wireless data transfer. We applied the sensor system as a standalone or as a module of a T-shirt to quantify [Ca2+] in a wearer's sweat, with physiological and accurate results generated. Overall, this work represents a critical step in turning regular undergarments into biochemically smart platforms for health monitoring, which will broadly benefit human healthcare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, 21250, United States
| | - Adam Michael Ratajczak
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, 21250, United States
| | - Hui Chen
- Department of Chemical, Biochemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, 21250, United States
| | - John A Terrell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, 21250, United States
| | - Chengpeng Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, Maryland, 21250, United States
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31
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Wang X, He A, Yu B, Zhang L, Pang W, Zhang H, Niu P. Uncovering the Sweat Biofouling Components and Distributions in Electrochemical Sensors. Anal Chem 2022; 94:14402-14409. [PMID: 36197729 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Interest is growing in the creation of wearable sweat sensors for continuous, low-cost, and noninvasive health diagnosis at the molecular level. The biofouling phenomenon leads to degradation of sweat sensors' performance over time, further limiting the successive monitoring of human health status. However, to date, the mechanism of sweat fouling is still unclear, with the inability to provide effective guidance on antifouling strategies. This study clarifies chemical compositions in sweat fouling and fouling distributions on the surface of sensors. Gold film electrodes were prepared on glass and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) substrates and contaminated by human facial sweat (from eccrine sweat glands and apocrine sweat glands) and palm sweat (only from eccrine sweat glands). A scanning electron microscope (SEM), an optical microscope (OM), and an atomic force microscope (AFM) were employed to study the surface morphology of biofouling electrodes. The existence of sweat fouling was characterized by AFM adhesion force, a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), and X-ray photoelectron spectra (XPS). FTIR along with XPS was adopted to analyze the biofouling components, and differential reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) was undertaken to observe the distribution of biofouling on the surface of the electrodes. As a result, we found that neither skin cell pieces nor recognized protein adsorption is the dominant source of biofouling, but the lipids in sweat form an inhomogeneous fouling layer on the electrode surface to reduce the electrochemical reactivity of sensors. This study provides deeper insights into sweat biofouling components and distributions and points out the right direction for resolving the problem of limited continuity in wearable sweat sensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohe Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Anwei He
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Bo Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Liang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Wei Pang
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Haolong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Pengfei Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Precision Measuring Technology & Instruments, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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32
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Zheng P, Raj P, Wu L, Szabo M, Hanson WA, Mizutani T, Barman I. Leveraging Nanomechanical Perturbations in Raman Spectro-Immunoassays to Design a Versatile Serum Biomarker Detection Platform. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2204541. [PMID: 36117050 PMCID: PMC9948683 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202204541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2022] [Revised: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
While immunoassays are pivotal to medical diagnosis and bioanalytical chemistry, the current landscape of public health has catalyzed an important shift in the requirements of immunoassays that demand innovative solutions. For example, rapid, label-free, and low-cost screening of a given analyte is required to inform the best countermeasures to combat infectious diseases in a timely manner. Yet, the current design of immunoassays cannot accommodate such requirements as constraint by accumulative challenges, such as repeated incubation and washing, and the need of two types of antibodies in the sandwich format. To provide a potential solution, herein, a plasmonic Raman immunoassay with single-antibody, multivariate regression, and shift-of-peak strategies, coined as the PRISM assay, for serum biomarkers detection, is reported. The PRISM assay relies on Raman reporter-antibody conjugates to capture analytes on a plasmonic substrate. The ensuing nanomechanical perturbations to vibration of Raman reporters induce subtle but characteristic spectral changes that encode rich information related to the captured analytes. By fusing Raman spectroscopy and chemometric analysis, both Raman frequency shift- and multivariate regression models for sensitive detection of biomarkers are developed. The PRISM assay is expected to find a wide range of applications in clinical diagnosis, food safety surveillance, and environmental monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Zheng
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
| | - Piyush Raj
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
| | - Lintong Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
| | - Miklos Szabo
- Beckman Coulter Diagnostics – Immunoassay Business Unit, 1000 Lake Hazeltine Dr, Chaska, MN 55318
| | - William A. Hanson
- Beckman Coulter Diagnostics – Immunoassay Business Unit, 1000 Lake Hazeltine Dr, Chaska, MN 55318
| | - Takayuki Mizutani
- Beckman Coulter Diagnostics – Immunoassay Business Unit, 1000 Lake Hazeltine Dr, Chaska, MN 55318
| | - Ishan Barman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, United States
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
- The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21287, United States
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33
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Cui Y, Zhang H, Wang S, Lu J, He J, Liu L, Liu W. Stimulated Parotid Saliva Is a Better Method for Depression Prediction. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10092220. [PMID: 36140321 PMCID: PMC9496557 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10092220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Saliva cortisol is considered to be a biomarker of depression prediction. However, saliva collection methods can affect the saliva cortisol level. Objective: This study aims to determine the ideal saliva collection method and explore the application value of saliva cortisol in depression prediction. Methods: 30 depressed patients and 30 healthy controls were instructed to collect saliva samples in the morning with six collection methods. Simultaneous venous blood was collected. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to determine the cortisol level. The 24-observerrated Hamilton depression rating scale (HAMD-24) was used to assess the severity of depression. Results: The significant differences in saliva cortisol levels depend on the saliva collection methods. The level of unstimulated whole saliva cortisol was most correlated with blood (r = 0.91). The stimulated parotid saliva cortisol can better predict depression. The area under the curve was 0.89. In addition, the saliva cortisol level of the depression patients was significantly higher than the healthy controls. The correlation between the cortisol level and the HAMD-24 score was highly significant. The higher the saliva cortisol level, the higher the HAMD-24 score. Conclusions: All the above findings point to an exciting opportunity for non-invasive monitoring of cortisol through saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyang Cui
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Hankun Zhang
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Song Wang
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
- Correspondence: (S.W.); (W.L.); Tel.: +86-0755-26558633 (S.W.); +86-0755-26551376 (W.L.)
| | - Junzhe Lu
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Jinmei He
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Lanlan Liu
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Weiqiang Liu
- Tsinghua Shenzhen International Graduate School, Tsinghua University, Shenzhen 518055, China
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
- Biomechanics and Biotechnology Lab, Research Institute of Tsinghua University in Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518057, China
- Correspondence: (S.W.); (W.L.); Tel.: +86-0755-26558633 (S.W.); +86-0755-26551376 (W.L.)
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Numan A, Singh PS, Alam A, Khalid M, Li L, Singh S. Advances in Noble-Metal Nanoparticle-Based Fluorescence Detection of Organophosphorus Chemical Warfare Agents. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:27079-27089. [PMID: 35967060 PMCID: PMC9366967 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c03645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Efficient and simple detection of chemical warfare agents (CWAs) is an essential step in minimizing the potentially lethal consequences of chemical weapons. CWAs are a family of organic chemicals that are used as chemical weapons because of their enormous severity and lethal effects when faced with unforeseen challenges. To stop the spread of CWAs, it is critical to develop a platform that detects them in a sensitive, timely, selective, and minimally invasive manner. Rapid advances in the demand for on-site sensors, metal nanoparticles, and biomarker identification for CWAs have made it possible to use fluorescence as a precise real-time and point-of-care (POCT) testing technique. For POCT-based applications, the new capabilities of micro- and nanomotors offer enormous prospects. In recent decades, significant progress has been made in the design of fluorescent sensors and the further development of noble metal nanoparticles for the detection of organophosphorus CWAs, as described in this review. Through this work, recent attempts to fabricate sensors that can detect organophosphorus CWAs through changes in their fluorescence properties have been summarized. Finally, an integrated outlook on how noble metal nanoparticles could be used to develop smart sensors for organophosphorus CWAs that communicate with and control electronic devices to monitor and improve the health of individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arshid Numan
- Graphene
& Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Engineering
and Technology, Sunway University, 5, Jalan University, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling
Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Prabh Simran Singh
- Department
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Khalsa College
of Pharmacy, Amritsar 143001, Punjab, India
| | - Aftab Alam
- College
of Pharmacy, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz
University, Al-Kharj 16278, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohammad Khalid
- Graphene
& Advanced 2D Materials Research Group (GAMRG), School of Engineering
and Technology, Sunway University, 5, Jalan University, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Petaling
Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Lijie Li
- College
of Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA1 8EN, United Kingdom
| | - Sima Singh
- IES
Institute of Pharmacy, IES University, Kalkheda, Ratibad Main Road, Bhopal 462044, Madhya Pradesh, India
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From Triboelectric Nanogenerator to Polymer-Based Biosensor: A Review. BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:bios12050323. [PMID: 35624624 PMCID: PMC9138307 DOI: 10.3390/bios12050323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Nowadays, self-powered wearable biosensors that are based on triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) are playing an important role in the continuous efforts towards the miniaturization, energy saving, and intelligence of healthcare devices and Internets of Things (IoTs). In this review, we cover the remarkable developments in TENG−based biosensors developed from various polymer materials and their functionalities, with a focus on wearable and implantable self-powered sensors for health monitoring and therapeutic devices. The functions of TENGs as power sources for third-party biosensors are also discussed, and their applications in a number of related fields are concisely illustrated. Finally, we conclude the review with a discussion of the challenges and problems of leveraging TENG−based intelligent biosensors.
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