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Shahzad K, Alatalo JM, Zhu M, Cao L, Hao Y, Dai J. Geographic conditions impact the relationship between plant phenology and phylogeny. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 945:174083. [PMID: 38906301 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2024] [Revised: 06/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/23/2024]
Abstract
Plant phenology is influenced by a combined effect of phylogeny and climate, although it is yet unclear how these two variables work together to change phenology. We synthesized 107 previously published studies to examine whether phenological changes were impacted by both phylogeny and climate changes in various geographical settings globally. Phenological observation data from 52,463 plant species at 71 sites worldwide revealed that 90 % of phenological records showed phylogenetic conservation. i.e., closely related species exhibited similar phenology. To explore the significant and non-significant phylogenetic conservation between plant phenophases, our dataset comprises 5,47,000 observation records from the four main phenophases (leaf bud, leaf, flower, and fruit). Three-dimensional geographical distribution (altitude, latitude, and longitude) data analysis revealed that plant phenology may exhibit phylogenetic signals at finer special scales (optimal environmental conditions) that vanish in high altitude and latitude regions. Additionally, climatic sensitivity analysis suggested that phylogenetic signals were associated with plant phenophases and were stronger in the regions of ideal temperature (7-18 °C) and photoperiod (10-14 h) and weaker in harsh climatic conditions. These results show that phylogenetic conservation in plant phenological traits is frequently influenced by the interaction of harsh climatic conditions and geographical ranges. This meta-analysis enhances our knowledge of predicting species responses over geographic gradients under varied climatic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khurram Shahzad
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China; Nebraska Food for Health Center, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA.
| | | | - Mengyao Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Lijuan Cao
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yulong Hao
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Junhu Dai
- Key Laboratory of Land Surface Pattern and Simulation, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, CAS, Beijing 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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Preceding Phenological Events Rather than Climate Drive the Variations in Fruiting Phenology in the Desert Shrub Nitraria tangutorum. PLANTS 2022; 11:plants11121578. [PMID: 35736729 PMCID: PMC9227467 DOI: 10.3390/plants11121578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Fruit setting and ripening are crucial in the reproductive cycle of many desert plant species, but their response to precipitation changes is still unclear. To clarify the response patterns, a long-term in situ water addition experiment with five treatments, namely natural precipitation (control) plus an extra 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% of the local mean annual precipitation (145 mm), was conducted in a temperate desert in northwestern China. A whole series of fruiting events including the onset, peak, and end of fruit setting and the onset, peak, and end of fruit ripening of a locally dominant shrub, Nitraria tangutorum, were observed from 2012 to 2018. The results show that (1) water addition treatments had no significant effects on all six fruiting events in almost all years, and the occurrence time of almost all fruiting events remained relatively stable compared with leaf phenology and flowering phenology after the water addition treatments; (2) the occurrence times of all fruiting events were not correlated to the amounts of water added in the treatments; (3) there are significant inter-annual variations in each fruiting event. However, neither temperature nor precipitation play key roles, but the preceding flowering events drive their inter-annual variation.
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3
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Gallinat AS, Ellwood ER, Heberling JM, Miller-Rushing AJ, Pearse WD, Primack RB. Macrophenology: insights into the broad-scale patterns, drivers, and consequences of phenology. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BOTANY 2021; 108:2112-2126. [PMID: 34755895 DOI: 10.1002/ajb2.1793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Plant phenology research has surged in recent decades, in part due to interest in phenological sensitivity to climate change and the vital role phenology plays in ecology. Many local-scale studies have generated important findings regarding the physiology, responses, and risks associated with shifts in plant phenology. By comparison, our understanding of regional- and global-scale phenology has been largely limited to remote sensing of green-up without the ability to differentiate among plant species. However, a new generation of analytical tools and data sources-including enhanced remote sensing products, digitized herbarium specimen data, and public participation in science-now permits investigating patterns and drivers of phenology across extensive taxonomic, temporal, and spatial scales, in an emerging field that we call macrophenology. Recent studies have highlighted how phenology affects dynamics at broad scales, including species interactions and ranges, carbon fluxes, and climate. At the cusp of this developing field of study, we review the theoretical and practical advances in four primary areas of plant macrophenology: (1) global patterns and shifts in plant phenology, (2) within-species changes in phenology as they mediate species' range limits and invasions at the regional scale, (3) broad-scale variation in phenology among species leading to ecological mismatches, and (4) interactions between phenology and global ecosystem processes. To stimulate future research, we describe opportunities for macrophenology to address grand challenges in each of these research areas, as well as recently available data sources that enhance and enable macrophenology research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S Gallinat
- Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 3210 N Maryland Ave, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
| | - Elizabeth R Ellwood
- iDigBio, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611, USA
- La Brea Tar Pits and Museum, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles California, Los Angeles, CA, 90036, USA
| | - J Mason Heberling
- Section of Botany, Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, PA, 15213, USA
| | | | - William D Pearse
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Rd., Ascot, Berkshire, SL5 7PY, UK
| | - Richard B Primack
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA, 02215, USA
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Rosbakh S, Hartig F, Sandanov DV, Bukharova EV, Miller TK, Primack RB. Siberian plants shift their phenology in response to climate change. GLOBAL CHANGE BIOLOGY 2021; 27:4435-4448. [PMID: 34101938 DOI: 10.1111/gcb.15744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2021] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Siberia has undergone dramatic climatic changes due to global warming in recent decades. Yet, the ecological responses to these climatic changes are still poorly understood due to a lack of data. Here, we use a unique data set from the Russian 'Chronicles of Nature' network to analyse the long-term (1976-2018) phenological shifts in leaf out, flowering, fruiting and senescence of 67 common Siberian plant species. We find that Siberian boreal forest plants advanced their early season (leaf out and flowering) and mid-season (fruiting) phenology by -2.2, -0.7 and -1.6 days/decade, and delayed the onset of senescence by 1.6 days/decade during this period. These mean values, however, are subject to substantial intraspecific variability, which is partly explained by the plants' growth forms. Trees and shrubs advanced leaf out and flowering (-3.1 and -3.3. days/decade) faster than herbs (-1 day/decade), presumably due to the more direct exposure of leaf and flower buds to ambient air for the woody vegetation. For senescence, we detected a reverse pattern: stronger delays in herbs (2.1 days/decade) than in woody plants (1.0-1.2 days/decade), presumably due to the stronger effects of autumn frosts on the leaves of herbs. Interestingly, the timing of fruiting in all four growth forms advanced at similar paces, from 1.4 days/decade in shrubs to 1.7 days/decade in trees and herbs. Our findings point to a strong, yet heterogeneous, response of Siberian plant phenology to recent global warming. Furthermore, the results highlight that species- and growth form-specific differences among study species could be used to identify plants particularly at risk of decline due to their low adaptive capacity or a loss of synchronization with important interaction partners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergey Rosbakh
- Ecology and Nature Conservation Biology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
- Plant Biodiversity Lab, Central Siberian Botanical Garden, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Florian Hartig
- Theoretical Ecology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Denis V Sandanov
- Institute of General and Experimental Biology, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Ulan-Ude, Russia
| | | | - Tara K Miller
- Department of Biology, Boston University, Boston, MA, USA
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Primack RB, Ellwood ER, Gallinat AS, Miller-Rushing AJ. The growing and vital role of botanical gardens in climate change research. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2021; 231:917-932. [PMID: 33890323 DOI: 10.1111/nph.17410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Botanical gardens make unique contributions to climate change research, conservation, and public engagement. They host unique resources, including diverse collections of plant species growing in natural conditions, historical records, and expert staff, and attract large numbers of visitors and volunteers. Networks of botanical gardens spanning biomes and continents can expand the value of these resources. Over the past decade, research at botanical gardens has advanced our understanding of climate change impacts on plant phenology, physiology, anatomy, and conservation. For example, researchers have utilized botanical garden networks to assess anatomical and functional traits associated with phenological responses to climate change. New methods have enhanced the pace and impact of this research, including phylogenetic and comparative methods, and online databases of herbarium specimens and photographs that allow studies to expand geographically, temporally, and taxonomically in scope. Botanical gardens have grown their community and citizen science programs, informing the public about climate change and monitoring plants more intensively than is possible with garden staff alone. Despite these advances, botanical gardens are still underutilized in climate change research. To address this, we review recent progress and describe promising future directions for research and public engagement at botanical gardens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elizabeth R Ellwood
- iDigBio, Florida Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 33430, USA
- La Brea Tar Pits and Museum, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County, Los Angeles, CA, 90036, USA
| | - Amanda S Gallinat
- Department of Biology and Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT, 84322, USA
- Department of Geography, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, 53211, USA
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Miller TK, Gallinat AS, Smith LC, Primack RB. Comparing fruiting phenology across two historical datasets: Thoreau's observations and herbarium specimens. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2021; 128:159-170. [PMID: 33830225 PMCID: PMC8324031 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcab019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Fruiting remains under-represented in long-term phenology records, relative to leaf and flower phenology. Herbarium specimens and historical field notes can fill this gap, but selecting and synthesizing these records for modern-day comparison requires an understanding of whether different historical data sources contain similar information, and whether similar, but not equivalent, fruiting metrics are comparable with one another. METHODS For 67 fleshy-fruited plant species, we compared observations of fruiting phenology made by Henry David Thoreau in Concord, Massachusetts (1850s), with phenology data gathered from herbarium specimens collected across New England (mid-1800s to 2000s). To identify whether fruiting times and the order of fruiting among species are similar between datasets, we compared dates of first, peak and last observed fruiting (recorded by Thoreau), and earliest, mean and latest specimen (collected from herbarium records), as well as fruiting durations. KEY RESULTS On average, earliest herbarium specimen dates were earlier than first fruiting dates observed by Thoreau; mean specimen dates were similar to Thoreau's peak fruiting dates; latest specimen dates were later than Thoreau's last fruiting dates; and durations of fruiting captured by herbarium specimens were longer than durations of fruiting observed by Thoreau. All metrics of fruiting phenology except duration were significantly, positively correlated within (r: 0.69-0.88) and between (r: 0.59-0.85) datasets. CONCLUSIONS Strong correlations in fruiting phenology between Thoreau's observations and data from herbaria suggest that field and herbarium methods capture similar broad-scale phenological information, including relative fruiting times among plant species in New England. Differences in the timing of first, last and duration of fruiting suggest that historical datasets collected with different methods, scales and metrics may not be comparable when exact timing is important. Researchers should strongly consider matching methodology when selecting historical records of fruiting phenology for present-day comparisons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tara K Miller
- Boston University, Biology Department, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Amanda S Gallinat
- Department of Biology and Ecology Center, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322, USA
| | - Linnea C Smith
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research, Leipzig 04103, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Leipzig University, Leipzig 04103, Germany
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7
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González-Varo JP, Rumeu B, Albrecht J, Arroyo JM, Bueno RS, Burgos T, da Silva LP, Escribano-Ávila G, Farwig N, García D, Heleno RH, Illera JC, Jordano P, Kurek P, Simmons BI, Virgós E, Sutherland WJ, Traveset A. Limited potential for bird migration to disperse plants to cooler latitudes. Nature 2021; 595:75-79. [PMID: 34163068 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-021-03665-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Climate change is forcing the redistribution of life on Earth at an unprecedented velocity1,2. Migratory birds are thought to help plants to track climate change through long-distance seed dispersal3,4. However, seeds may be consistently dispersed towards cooler or warmer latitudes depending on whether the fruiting period of a plant species coincides with northward or southward migrations. Here we assess the potential of plant communities to keep pace with climate change through long-distance seed dispersal by migratory birds. To do so, we combine phenological and migration information with data on 949 seed-dispersal interactions between 46 bird and 81 plant species from 13 woodland communities across Europe. Most of the plant species (86%) in these communities are dispersed by birds migrating south, whereas only 35% are dispersed by birds migrating north; the latter subset is phylogenetically clustered in lineages that have fruiting periods that overlap with the spring migration. Moreover, the majority of this critical dispersal service northwards is provided by only a few Palaearctic migrant species. The potential of migratory birds to assist a small, non-random sample of plants to track climate change latitudinally is expected to strongly influence the formation of novel plant communities, and thus affect their ecosystem functions and community assembly at higher trophic levels.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Beatriz Rumeu
- Departamento de Biología, IVAGRO, Universidad de Cádiz, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - Jörg Albrecht
- Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Centre (BiK-F), Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - Juan M Arroyo
- Integrative Ecology Group, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Rafael S Bueno
- Dipartimento Scienze Agrarie, Alimentari e Forestali e Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche, Università degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
| | - Tamara Burgos
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain
| | - Luís P da Silva
- CIBIO-InBIO, Research Center in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources, University of Porto, Vairão, Portugal
| | - Gema Escribano-Ávila
- Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
| | - Nina Farwig
- Conservation Ecology, Department of Biology, University of Marburg, Marburg, Germany
| | - Daniel García
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University, Mieres, Spain
| | - Ruben H Heleno
- CFE - Centre for Functional Ecology, Department of Life Sciences, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Juan C Illera
- Research Unit of Biodiversity (UO-CSIC-PA), Oviedo University, Mieres, Spain
| | - Pedro Jordano
- Integrative Ecology Group, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD-CSIC), Sevilla, Spain
| | - Przemysław Kurek
- Department of Plant Ecology and Environmental Protection, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, Poland
| | - Benno I Simmons
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Emilio Virgós
- Departamento de Biología y Geología, Física y Química Inorgánica, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain
| | - William J Sutherland
- Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Anna Traveset
- Global Change Research Group, Mediterranean Institute of Advanced Studies (CSIC-UIB), Esporles, Spain
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8
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Nordt B, Hensen I, Bucher SF, Freiberg M, Primack RB, Stevens A, Bonn A, Wirth C, Jakubka D, Plos C, Sporbert M, Römermann C. The PhenObs initiative: A standardised protocol for monitoring phenological responses to climate change using herbaceous plant species in botanical gardens. Funct Ecol 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Birgit Nordt
- Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum BerlinFreie Universität Berlin Berlin Germany
| | - Isabell Hensen
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden Martin Luther University Halle‐Wittenberg Halle Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
| | - Solveig Franziska Bucher
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution with Herbarium Haussknecht and Botanical Garden Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
| | - Martin Freiberg
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Biology Leipzig University Leipzig Germany
| | | | | | - Aletta Bonn
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Department of Ecosystem Services Helmholtz‐Centre for Environmental Research – UFZ Leipzig Germany
- Institue of Biodiversity Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
| | - Christian Wirth
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Biology Leipzig University Leipzig Germany
- Max‐Planck‐Institute for Biogeochemistry Jena Germany
| | - Desiree Jakubka
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution with Herbarium Haussknecht and Botanical Garden Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
| | - Carolin Plos
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden Martin Luther University Halle‐Wittenberg Halle Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
| | - Maria Sporbert
- Institute of Biology/Geobotany and Botanical Garden Martin Luther University Halle‐Wittenberg Halle Germany
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution with Herbarium Haussknecht and Botanical Garden Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
| | - Christine Römermann
- German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle‐Jena‐Leipzig Leipzig Germany
- Institute of Ecology and Evolution with Herbarium Haussknecht and Botanical Garden Friedrich Schiller University Jena Jena Germany
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McDonough MacKenzie C, Gallinat AS, Zipf L. Low-cost observations and experiments return a high value in plant phenology research. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2020; 8:e11338. [PMID: 32351799 PMCID: PMC7186900 DOI: 10.1002/aps3.11338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant ecologists in the Anthropocene are tasked with documenting, interpreting, and predicting how plants respond to environmental change. Phenology, the timing of seasonal biological events including leaf-out, flowering, fruiting, and leaf senescence, is among the most visible and oft-recorded facets of plant ecology. Climate-driven shifts in plant phenology can alter reproductive success, interspecific competition, and trophic interactions. Low-cost phenology research, including observational records and experimental manipulations, is fundamental to our understanding of both the mechanisms and effects of phenological change in plant populations, species, and communities. Traditions of local-scale botanical phenology observations and data leveraged from written records and natural history collections provide the historical context for recent observations of changing phenologies. New technology facilitates expanding the spatial, taxonomic, and human interest in this research by combining contemporary field observations by researchers and open access community science (e.g., USA National Phenology Network) and available climate data. Established experimental techniques, such as twig cutting and common garden experiments, are low-cost methods for studying the mechanisms and drivers of plant phenology, enabling researchers to observe phenological responses under novel environmental conditions. We discuss the strengths, limitations, potential hidden costs (i.e., volunteer and student labor), and promise of each of these methods for addressing emerging questions in plant phenology research. Applied thoughtfully, economically, and creatively, many low-cost approaches offer novel opportunities to fill gaps in our geographic, taxonomic, and mechanistic understanding of plant phenology worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Amanda S. Gallinat
- Department of BiologyUtah State UniversityLoganUtah84322USA
- Ecology CenterUtah State UniversityLoganUtah84322USA
| | - Lucy Zipf
- Biology DepartmentBoston University5 Cummington MallBostonMassachusetts02215USA
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MacKenzie CM, Johnston J, Miller-Rushing AJ, Sheehan W, Pinette R, Primack R. Advancing Leaf-Out and Flowering Phenology is Not Matched by Migratory Bird Arrivals Recorded in Hunting Guide's Journal in Aroostook County, Maine. Northeast Nat (Steuben) 2019. [DOI: 10.1656/045.026.0309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Johnston
- Department of Biology, University of Maine at Presque Isle, 181 Main Street, Presque Isle, ME 04769
| | | | | | - Robert Pinette
- Professor Emeritus, University of Maine at Presque Isle, 18 Melden Drive, Brunswick, ME 04011
| | - Richard Primack
- Department of Biology, Boston University, 5 Cummington Mall, Boston, MA 02215
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