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Hsiao H. Association of anthropometric characteristics of law enforcement officers with perceived ratings of fit, comfort, and pain in the use of body armor. ERGONOMICS 2024; 67:541-565. [PMID: 37399229 PMCID: PMC11391880 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2023.2232581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
Knowledge gaps exist on association between law enforcement officer (LEO) anthropometric characteristics and perceived body armour fit, armour discomfort, and armour-caused pain. This study assessed the correlation and identified influential torso dimensions for armour sizing and design applications. Nine-hundreds and seventy-four LEOs across the U.S. participated in a national study on LEO armour use and body dimensions. Perceived ratings of armour fit, armour discomfort, and body pain were found moderately correlated with each other. In addition, armour fit ratings were associated with certain torso anthropometric characteristics, such as chest circumference, chest breadth, chest depth, waist circumference, waist breadth (sitting), waist front length (sitting), body weight, and body mass index. LEOs who reported armour poor fit, armour discomfort, and armour-caused pain had a larger mean of body dimensions than the "armor good fit" group. More women than men had poor fit, discomfort, and body pain in the use of body armour.Practitioner summary: The identified influential body measurements can be used as the "drivers" for multivariate analyses to develop an improved armour sizing system to further LEO protection. The study also suggests consideration of gender specific armour sizing systems to accommodate differences in torso configurations between male and female officers and to resolve the concern that more female officers had poor armour fit than male officers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Hsiao
- Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX, USA
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH), Morgantown, WV, USA
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2
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Maguire ER, Paoline EA. Non-fatal injuries among police officers during use-of-force encounters. Occup Med (Lond) 2023; 73:479-483. [PMID: 37820063 DOI: 10.1093/occmed/kqad101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Occupational injuries are common in police work due to routine exposure to conflict, violence, accidents, and other hazards. However, little is known about the factors associated with non-fatal job-related injuries among police officers. AIMS To study the factors associated with non-fatal job-related injuries among Tucson, AZ, police officers during encounters involving the use of force. METHODS Data were analysed on all use-of-force cases involving Tucson police officers from January 2018 through June 2020. Logistic regression models were used to assess the factors that influence the likelihood of officer injuries. RESULTS Overall, about 11% of officers involved in a use-of-force encounter were injured. Multivariate analyses reveal that defensive physical resistance by the suspect increases injury risk among officers. When suspects assault officers or others during the encounter, the risk of officer injury also increases significantly. Certain types of force used by police, such as hands-on tactics and TASER use are also associated with increased risk of injury among officers. The age and race of the suspect are not associated with the likelihood of injury among officers. CONCLUSIONS Certain suspect behaviours and use-of-force modalities increase the risk of injury among officers. Understanding these risk factors can help employers put in place appropriate measures to reduce the risk of occupational injuries among police officers.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Maguire
- Watts College of Public Service and Community Solutions, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85004, USA
| | - E A Paoline
- Department of Criminal Justice, University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida 32816, USA
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3
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Hsiao H, Whisler R, Bradtmiller B. Needs and Procedures for a National Anthropometry Study of Law Enforcement Officers. HUMAN FACTORS 2023; 65:403-418. [PMID: 34078146 PMCID: PMC11061802 DOI: 10.1177/00187208211019157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This research aims to determine the need and extent for a national anthropometry survey of law enforcement officers (LEOs) via an exploratory investigation of anthropometric changes of LEOs in four decades and comparisons of the LEO data with three existing military and civilian anthropometry sources. BACKGROUND The best available anthropometric dataset of LEOs is 45 years old and has largely become outdated due to demographic changes. Assessing the extent of anthropometric changes of LEOs through a sample and evaluating the differences of the sample against existing anthropometric datasets is a step toward ascertaining the necessity for a national LEO anthropometry study. METHOD Thirty-two body dimensions of 67 regional male LEOs and seven female LEOs were measured, and the data of males were compared with the best available LEO anthropometry data from 1975 and three recent non-LEO anthropometry databases. RESULTS Anthropometric dimensions were significantly different between this LEO study and existing data sources, especially in chest circumference and body weight. Most of the significant differences are important differences for LEO protective gear and vehicle design. CONCLUSION The study confirmed that the existing 45-year-old LEO dataset and recent Army and civilian datasets would not be suitable for armor and equipment design for the current LEO population. APPLICATION The study results are useful in supporting the decision of investing in a national LEO anthropometry survey and for equipment manufacturers to recognize the distinctiveness of LEO anthropometry from other populations and the magnitude of anthropometry changes of LEOs over the past 45 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwei Hsiao
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV
| | - Richard Whisler
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV
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4
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Andersen DR, Karlsen IL, Jaspers SØ, Pedersen AHM, Andersen LPS, Aust B. Experiences of preventing violence in two high-risk sectors: A qualitative study of front-line workers. Work 2023:WOR220151. [PMID: 36710701 DOI: 10.3233/wor-220151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Exposure to workplace violence is associated with physical and/or psychological trauma. Despite its significant impact, little is known about front-line workers' experiences of preventing workplace violence. OBJECTIVE This study aimed to identify what workers identify as important to preventing workplace conflicts from escalating into violence. METHODS We conducted seventeen qualitative focus-group interviews with fifty-eight workers at the Danish Prison and Probation Service and psychiatric hospitals. We applied thematic analysis to identify types of violence-prevention practices, and prerequisites for successfully preventing workplace violence. RESULTS We identified two main categories of violence-prevention practices, and one main category of prerequisites for violence-prevention practices. Main category A), "the individual worker's violence-prevention practices" included the sub-categories, 1) identify the causes of workplace violence and potentially violent situations, 2) establish relationships, state rules, and set clear boundaries and 3) display empathy and communicate respectfully. Main category B), "collaborative practices for preventing workplace violence" included 4) communicate with co-workers, and share information and observations, 5) coordinate work, avoid being played off against colleagues, and support colleagues. Main category C), "prerequisites for violence-prevention practices" included 6) managing one's emotions, and 7) having sufficient time to do the job, and being a part of a stable team, whose members know each other and the inmates/patients". CONCLUSION This study contributes to a better understanding of the interplay among individual, collaborative, and contextual aspects of preventing workplace violence. We believe that an increased understanding of the complexity of preventing workplace violence in high-risk sectors is useful when designing comprehensive violence-prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorte R Andersen
- Department of Occupational Medicine - University Research Clinic, Danish Ramazzini Centre, Goedstrup Hospital, Herning, Denmark
| | - Iben L Karlsen
- The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Sofie Ø Jaspers
- The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anna Helene M Pedersen
- Department of Occupational Medicine - University Research Clinic, Danish Ramazzini Centre, Goedstrup Hospital, Herning, Denmark
| | - Lars Peter S Andersen
- Department of Occupational Medicine - University Research Clinic, Danish Ramazzini Centre, Goedstrup Hospital, Herning, Denmark
| | - Birgit Aust
- The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Copenhagen, Denmark
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5
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Gobaud AN, Mehranbod CA, Reeping PM, Bushover BR, Morrison CN. Firearm assaults against US law enforcement officers in the line-of-duty: Associations with firearm ownership and state firearm laws. Prev Med Rep 2022; 30:102002. [PMID: 36189125 PMCID: PMC9519372 DOI: 10.1016/j.pmedr.2022.102002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Law enforcement officers are disproportionately affected by occupational injury. Firearm violence is the second leading cause of occupational mortality for this group behind motor vehicle crashes. In the general population, greater firearm ownership and weaker firearm laws are associated with increased firearm violence incidence. It is plausible that a high prevalence of firearms could also be associated with a greater incidence of LEO assault with a firearm. Using data from the Federal Bureau of Investigation’s, Uniform Crime Reporting, Police Employee Data for 2006–2016, we conducted a panel analysis to estimate the association between state-level estimates of household firearm ownership and LEO assault with a firearm. We additionally examined if effect modification by universal background check law status was present. Higher state-level firearm ownership was associated with an increased odds of LEO assault with a firearm in multi-level models. This association was modified by universal background check law status. In states without a universal background check law, for every 1% increase in state-level firearm ownership per agency-year, there was a 12.4% increase in the odds of an LEO assault with a firearm when adjusting for confounders (OR:1.124; 95% CI:1.018,1.240). In states with a universal background check law, there was no association. Findings, though small in magnitude, suggest aggregate firearm ownership may contribute to LEO assault with a firearm in states without a universal background check law. Future research to prevent LEO assault with a firearm should combine measures to address high rates of firearm ownership with other evidence-based prevention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariana N Gobaud
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, NY, NY, United States
| | - Christina A Mehranbod
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, NY, NY, United States
| | - Paul M Reeping
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, NY, NY, United States
| | - Brady R Bushover
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, NY, NY, United States
| | - Christopher N Morrison
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, NY, NY, United States.,Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, Monash University School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Melbourne, Australia
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6
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Bir C, Padillo R, Rajaram P, Inaba K. Incidence of law enforcement officer fatalities related to motor vehicle accidents. Int J Inj Contr Saf Promot 2020; 28:127-131. [PMID: 33371786 DOI: 10.1080/17457300.2020.1858114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
A recent FBI report indicates that motor vehicle accidents (MVA) account for 71% of accidental law enforcement officer (LEO) fatalities. To better understand the factors surrounding these fatalities, a review of cases reported to the Officer Down Memorial Page (ODMP) was conducted. A total of 738 MVA fatalities over ten years were included in this analysis. When comparing younger (<34 years) to older officers (≥ 35 years), there was a statistically significant difference with more younger officers reported to have been going at a high rate of speed at the time of the accident (p = 0.011) and were involved more often in single car accidents (p = 0.0207). The data also indicated a fatality rate of 5.4 fatalities per 100,000 officers annually; twice that of other professionals involving high speed operations. Even given the downward trend of MVA fatalities, policy changes and training to help reduce these number of fatalities is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Bir
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Ricardo Padillo
- Keck School of Medicine, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Pranav Rajaram
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, USA
| | - Kenji Inaba
- Keck School of Medicine, The University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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7
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Violanti JM, Fekedulegn D, Shi M, Andrew ME. Hidden danger: A 22-years analysis of law enforcement deaths associated with duty-related illnesses (1997-2018). POLICING (BRADFORD, ENGLAND) 2020; 43:330-344. [PMID: 37207254 PMCID: PMC10194425 DOI: 10.1108/pijpsm-07-2019-0109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Purpose – Law enforcement is a dangerous profession not only due to assaults, accidents and homicides but also due to health risks. This study examined trends in the national frequency and rate of law enforcement jobrelated illness deaths in the United States over a 22-year period (1997-2018). Design/methodology/approach – Data were obtained from the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund (NLEOMF) on death frequencies related to health issues at work. Death rates were based on the total number of police officers in the United States [rate = (frequency/population at risk) × 100,000]. Trends were examined using standardized regression. Findings – A total of 646 deaths were attributed to job-related illness. There was a significant upward trend in overall job-related illness deaths (frequency analyses: β = 0.88, p < 0.0001; rate analyses: β = 0.82, p ≤ 0.0001) mainly driven by a significant increase in 911 cancer deaths (frequency analyses: β = 0.88, p < 0.0001; rate analyses: β = 0.88, p ≤ 0.0001). Nearly 82 percent of circulatory deaths were from a heart attack, with an average death age of 46.5 years. Research limitations/implications – Deaths were not included if they failed to meet medical requirements of the NLEOMF. The data are descriptive, do not estimate risk and should be interpreted cautiously. Practical implications – Police wellness programs may help to reduce the danger of deaths associated with job-related illness. Originality/value – This is among the first studies to examine frequency and rate of police health-related deaths due to job exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Violanti
- Department of Epidemiology and Environmental Health, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York, USA
| | - Desta Fekedulegn
- Bioanalytics, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Mingming Shi
- Bioanalytics, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Michael E Andrew
- Bioanalytics, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
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8
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Vera-Jiménez JC, Ferreiro-González M, Barbero GF, Álvarez JÁ, Fernández-Zacarías F, Ayuso J. OTP-PRL: an app for occupational risk prevention in policing activities. BMC Public Health 2019; 19:1549. [PMID: 31752804 PMCID: PMC6873564 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-019-7935-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The rapid progress in information and communication technologies has promoted the development of smartphone applications (apps) for a wide variety of purposes including workplace safety. However, no specific apps for occupational risk prevention in the police domain seemingly exist as yet. In this work, an app running under the iOS and Android operating systems was developed to help police officers become acquainted with policing-related occupational risks and to prevent their damaging consequences. Results The proposed app, which uses an iterative user-centered design to avoid occupational risks in policing activities, was assessed for performance by a group of users and experts through a System Usability Scale (SUS) questionnaire. The mean overall score for the questionnaire was 82.3. The app has backend support to facilitate continual improvement through contributions from users and administrators. A field test revealed increased awareness of policing occupational risks after using the app in many users. Conclusions A novel product that covers the needs of ORP requirements of police officers has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- José C Vera-Jiménez
- Cadiz Municipal Police, Police Technology Area, Public Safety School, Cadiz Council, Cadiz, Spain
| | - Marta Ferreiro-González
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, IVAGRO, CeiA3, University of Cadiz, P.O. Box 40, 11510, Cadiz, Puerto Real, Spain.
| | - Gerardo F Barbero
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, IVAGRO, CeiA3, University of Cadiz, P.O. Box 40, 11510, Cadiz, Puerto Real, Spain
| | - José Ángel Álvarez
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO), University of Cadiz, 11510, Cadiz, Puerto Real, Spain
| | | | - Jesús Ayuso
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Institute of Biomolecules (INBIO), University of Cadiz, 11510, Cadiz, Puerto Real, Spain
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9
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Pratt SG, Bell JL. Analytical observational study of nonfatal motor vehicle collisions and incidents in a light-vehicle sales and service fleet. ACCIDENT; ANALYSIS AND PREVENTION 2019; 129:126-135. [PMID: 31150919 PMCID: PMC9237795 DOI: 10.1016/j.aap.2019.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Motor vehicle crashes (MVCs) are a significant cause of lost-workday injuries, and consistently the leading cause of work-related fatalities in the United States for all industries combined. Prevention research has focused mainly on collisions fatal to the drivers of large trucks. This analytical observational study addresses gaps in the literature by: conducting a descriptive analysis of motor vehicle claim events involving light-vehicle drivers in a large health care industry fleet; identifying risk factors for work-related MVCs and injuries based on vehicle miles traveled; and providing details on circumstances of these events. The study examined 8068 motor vehicle events resulting in vehicle damage, property damage, or injury reported by 6680 U.S.-based drivers in a light-vehicle sales and service fleet operated by a health care company over a 4 ½-year period (January 2010 through June 2014). Thirty-three percent (n = 2660) of the events were collisions. Collisions were segmented as recoverable or non-recoverable according to whether the company could recover costs from another party, and mileage-based collision and injury rates were calculated by gender, age, tenure, and vehicle type. Differences in collision and injury rates between groups of interest (for example, tenure and age categories) were assessed with Poisson regression techniques adjusted using generalized estimating equations (GEE) for repeated observations on the same employee over time. Age, gender, and job tenure were significant collision risk factors, and risk patterns for recoverable and non-recoverable collisions were similar to those for total collisions. Collisions per million miles (CPMM) were significantly higher for drivers 21-24.9 years of age compared to drivers age 25-54.9 years (9.58 CPMM vs 4.96 CPMM, p = .025), drivers employed for less than 2 years compared to those employed 2 or more years (6.22 CPMM vs 4.82 CPMM, p < .001), for female drivers compared to male drivers (6.37 CPMM vs 4.16 CPMM, p < .001), and for drivers of passenger cars compared to all other vehicles (5.27 CPMM vs 4.48 CPMM, p < .001). Among collisions between the employee's vehicle and another vehicle in transport, those where the front of one vehicle hit another vehicle at an angle were the most likely to result in injury to the employee driver or another party (26%), followed by rear-end collisions (25%). Special attention should be given to preventing collisions among newly-hired employees, and to preventing angle and rear-end collisions, which were the most common types of collisions and also were most likely to result in injury than all other collisions combined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie G Pratt
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research, 1095 Willowdale Road, Mail Stop H-1808, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA.
| | - Jennifer L Bell
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Division of Safety Research, 1095 Willowdale Road, Mail Stop H-1808, Morgantown, WV, 26505, USA
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10
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Shafi R, Smith PM, Colantonio A. Assault predicts time away from work after claims for work-related mild traumatic brain injury. Occup Environ Med 2019; 76:471-478. [PMID: 31126965 PMCID: PMC6585268 DOI: 10.1136/oemed-2018-105621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 03/13/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Workplace violence carries a substantial economic loss burden. Up to 10% of all traumatic brain injury (TBI) admissions result from physical assault. There remains a paucity of research on assault as a mechanism of injury, taking into account sex, and its association with work re-entry. OBJECTIVES The aim of this study was to characterise, by sex, the sample of workers who had sustained a work-related mild TBI (wr-mTBI) and to assess the independent influence of assault, as a mechanism of injury, on time away from work. METHODS A population-based retrospective cohort of workers' compensation claimants in Australia (n=3129) who had sustained a wr-mTBI was used for this study. A multivariable logistic regression analysis assessed whether workers who had sustained wr-mTBI as a result of assault (wr-mTBI-assault) were more likely to claim time off work compared with workers who had sustained a wr-mTBI due to other mechanisms. RESULTS Among claimants who sustained a wr-mTBI, 9% were as a result of assault. The distribution of demographic and vocational variables differed between the wr-mTBI-assault, and not due to assault, both in the full sample, and separately for men and women. After controlling for potential confounding factors, workers who sustained wr-mTBI-assault, compared with other mechanisms, were more likely to take days off work (OR 2.14, 95% CI 1.53 to 2.99) within a 3-month timeframe. CONCLUSION The results have policy-related implications. Sex-specific and workplace-specific prevention strategies need to be considered and provisions to support return-to-work and well-being within this vulnerable cohort should be examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reema Shafi
- Rehabilitation Sciences Institute, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Peter M Smith
- Institute for Work & Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Angela Colantonio
- Division of Epidemiology, Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Occupational Science and Occupational Therapy, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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11
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Witt WS, Bunn TL, Slavova S. Workers compensation-reported injuries among security and law enforcement personnel in the private versus public sectors. Inj Epidemiol 2018; 5:27. [PMID: 29961925 PMCID: PMC6026584 DOI: 10.1186/s40621-018-0156-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Private and Public security and law enforcement (SLE) sectors perform multiple overlapping job duties. Methods Workers’ compensation (WC) SLE first reports of injury (FROI) data (2005–2015) were analyzed to describe injuries, identify differences in awarded WC benefits, and compare the probability of a FROI resulting in awarded benefits between Public and Private SLE. A Pearson’s chi-square test was utilized and reverse selection logistic regression was performed to estimate the odds ratio that a FROI would result in an awarded benefit for Private vs. Public SLE, while adjusting for relevant covariates. Results Private SLE had higher FROI percentages for younger and for older workers, fall injuries, and back injuries, compared to Public SLE. The adjusted odds that a FROI resulted in an awarded benefit was 1.4 times higher for Private SLE compared to Public SLE; (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.09,1.69). Middle-aged SLE employee adjusted odds of awarded benefits was 3.3 times (95% CI [1.96, 5.39]) higher compared to younger employees. Adjusted odds of awarded benefits was 3.8 times (95% CI [1.34, 10.61]) higher for gunshots and 1.7 times (95% CI [1.22, 2.39]) higher for fractures/dislocations compared to other nature of injuries. Motor vehicle injury, fall/slip, and strain related FROIs had elevated adjusted odds of awarded benefits compared to other injury causes. Conclusions Results highlight the importance of injury prevention education and worker safety training for Private and Public SLE sector workers on fall prevention (especially in Private SLE) and strain prevention (especially in Public SLE), as well as motor vehicle safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- W S Witt
- Kentucky Injury Prevention and Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, University of Kentucky College of Public Health, Lexington, KY, USA
| | - T L Bunn
- Kentucky Injury Prevention and Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA. .,Department of Preventive Medicine and Environmental Health, University of Kentucky College of Public Health, Lexington, KY, USA.
| | - S Slavova
- Kentucky Injury Prevention and Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.,Department of Biostatistics, University of Kentucky College of Public Health, Lexington, KY, USA
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12
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Tiesman HM, Gwilliam M, Konda S, Rojek J, Marsh S. Nonfatal Injuries to Law Enforcement Officers: A Rise in Assaults. Am J Prev Med 2018; 54:503-509. [PMID: 29395571 PMCID: PMC11323285 DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2017.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Limited studies exist that describe nonfatal work-related injuries to law enforcement officers. The aim of this study is to provide national estimates and trends of nonfatal injuries to law enforcement officers from 2003 through 2014. METHODS Nonfatal injuries were obtained from the National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-Occupational Supplement. Data were obtained for injuries treated in U.S. emergency departments from 2003 to 2014. Nonfatal injury rates were calculated using denominators from the Current Population Survey. Negative binomial regression was used to analyze temporal trends. Data were analyzed in 2016-2017. RESULTS Between 2003 and 2014, an estimated 669,100 law enforcement officers were treated in U.S. emergency departments for nonfatal injuries. The overall rate of 635 per 10,000 full-time equivalents was three times higher than all other U.S. workers rate (213 per 10,000 full-time equivalents). The three leading injury events were assaults and violent acts (35%), bodily reactions and exertion (15%), and transportation incidents (14%). Injury rates were highest for the youngest officers, aged 21-24 years. Male and female law enforcement officers had similar nonfatal injury rates. Rates for most injuries remained stable; however, rates for assault-related injuries grew among law enforcement officers between 2003 and 2011. CONCLUSIONS National Electronic Injury Surveillance System-Occupational Supplement data demonstrate a significant upward trend in assault injuries among U.S. law enforcement officers and this warrants further investigation. Police-citizen interactions are dynamic social encounters and evidence-based policing is vital to the health and safety of both police and civilians. The law enforcement community should energize efforts toward the study of how policing tactics impact both officer and citizen injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope M Tiesman
- Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia.
| | - Melody Gwilliam
- Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia
| | - Srinivas Konda
- Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia
| | - Jeff Rojek
- Department of Criminal Justice, University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas
| | - Suzanne Marsh
- Division of Safety Research, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia
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13
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Liu W, Taylor B. Profiles of law enforcement agency body armor policies-A latent class analysis of the LEMAS 2013 data. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2017; 14:873-881. [PMID: 28657501 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2017.1339163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The life-saving benefits of body armor have been well-documented, and law enforcement agency (LEA) body armor wear requirements have been cited by police officers as one of the most important reasons for them to wear body armor. However, research on LEAs' policies and practices regarding body armor is scarce. This study examined whether there are different agency-level profiles of various body armor-related policies, and related these body armor policy profiles to agency characteristics, size, location, etc. U.S. LEAs fell into four distinct profiles based on their body armor policies. Close to half of the LEAs had comprehensive coverage of body armor policies in all aspects. However, nearly one in five LEAs had very weak body armor policies in all aspects. The rest of the LEAs split into two groups, each with different strengths and weaknesses on selection, training, fitting, wearing, and inspection policies. Sheriff's offices and smaller LEAs were found to have weaker policies. In contrast, LEAs with a community policing emphasis and those with body armor grants were found to have stronger body armor polices, especially when it comes to mandatory wearing polices. Findings from the study provide a portrait of the current state of LEA body armor policies, and provide guidance for improving LEAs' body armor policies and practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Liu
- a NORC at the University of Chicago , Bethesda , Maryland
| | - Bruce Taylor
- a NORC at the University of Chicago , Bethesda , Maryland
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14
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Crifasi CK, Pollack KM, Webster DW. Assaults against U.S. law enforcement officers in the line-of-duty: situational context and predictors of lethality. Inj Epidemiol 2016; 3:29. [PMID: 27885587 PMCID: PMC5122525 DOI: 10.1186/s40621-016-0094-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Research on occupational safety of law enforcement officers (LEOs) has primarily focused on fatal assaults. Nonfatal assaults, however, have received little attention. The goal of this study was to describe the situational contexts in which LEOs are assaulted, and compare these contexts and risks between fatal and nonfatal assaults in the U.S. Analyzing both types of assaults provides a more complete understanding of occupational safety and opportunities for intervention. Methods This study includes a descriptive epidemiology of fatal and nonfatal assaults of LEOs in the U.S. and a pooled cross-sectional analysis of risk factors contributing to the odds of lethal assault. Data were collected from the Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted database. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize fatal and nonfatal assaults. Odds ratios were generated to understand the odds that an assault would result in a fatality. Results Between 1998 and 2013, there were 791 fatal assaults and 2,022 nonfatal assaults of LEOs. Nearly 60% of primary wounds in fatal assaults were received to the head, neck, or throat while nearly 50% of primary wounds in nonfatal assaults were received to the arms/hands or below the waist. The odds that an assault resulted in a fatality decreased by 57% (OR 0.43, 95% CI 0.32 to 0.58) when a LEO was wearing body armor. LEOs experiencing an ambush or unprovoked attack had significantly increased odds of an assault resulting in a fatality (OR 3.27, 95% CI 1.83 to 5.85 and OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.44 to 3.47 respectively). LEOs that were disarmed during an encounter with a suspect had more than 2-fold increased odds of an assault resulting in a fatality (OR 2.24, 95% CI 1.48 to 3.38). Conclusions There are specific situational and encounter characteristics that influence the lethality of an assault, which suggest strategies for prevention. Mandatory wear policies for the use of body armor could significantly reduce mortality among assaulted LEOs. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40621-016-0094-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra K Crifasi
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA. .,Johns Hopkins Education and Research Center for Occupational Safety and Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA. .,Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
| | - Keshia M Pollack
- Johns Hopkins Education and Research Center for Occupational Safety and Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.,Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Daniel W Webster
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 624 N. Broadway, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
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15
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Blair JM, Fowler KA, Betz CJ, Baumgardner JL. Occupational Homicides of Law Enforcement Officers, 2003-2013: Data From the National Violent Death Reporting System. Am J Prev Med 2016; 51:S188-S196. [PMID: 27745607 PMCID: PMC6051693 DOI: 10.1016/j.amepre.2016.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the U.S. are at an increased risk for homicide. The purpose of this study is to describe the characteristics of homicides of LEOs in 17 U.S. states participating in the National Violent Death Reporting System. This active surveillance system uses data from death certificates, coroner/medical examiner reports, and law enforcement reports. METHODS This study used quantitative and qualitative methods to analyze National Violent Death Reporting System data for 2003-2013. Deaths of LEOs feloniously killed in the line of duty were selected for analysis. LEO homicides and the circumstances preceding or occurring during the incident were characterized. Analyses were conducted October 2015-June 2016. RESULTS A total of 128 officer homicides from 121 incidents were identified. Most (93.7%) LEO victims were male, 60.9% were aged 30-49 years (average age, 40.9 years). Approximately 21.9% of LEOs were killed during an ambush, and 19.5% were killed during traffic stops or pursuits. Of the 14.1% of LEOs killed responding to domestic disturbances, most disturbances were intimate partner violence related. More than half (57.0%) of homicides were precipitated by another crime, and of these, 71.2% involved crimes in progress. Most suspects were male. Ninety-one percent of homicides of LEOs were committed with a firearm. CONCLUSIONS This information is critical to help describe encounter situations faced by LEOs. The results of this study can be used to help educate and train LEOs on hazards, inform prevention efforts designed to promote LEO safety, and prevent homicide among this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet M Blair
- Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia.
| | - Katherine A Fowler
- Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Carter J Betz
- Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Jason L Baumgardner
- Division of Violence Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia
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16
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Crifasi CK, Pollack KM, Webster DW. Effects of state-level policy changes on homicide and nonfatal shootings of law enforcement officers. Inj Prev 2015; 22:274-8. [PMID: 26718550 DOI: 10.1136/injuryprev-2015-041825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To evaluate the impact of state-level policy changes on assaults on law enforcement officers (LEOs) in the USA. METHODS Pooled time series and cross-sections with negative binomial regression were used to estimate the impact of state-level changes of right-to-carry (RTC), three-strikes and permit-to-purchase (PTP) handgun laws on fatal and non-fatal assaults of LEOs. LEO assaults were stratified by weapon type (all methods, handgun and non-handgun) and whether or not the assault was fatal. Data were collected from the Federal Bureau of Investigation's Law Enforcement Officers Killed and Assaulted database and analysed for the period 1984-2013 for fatal assaults and 1998-2013 for non-fatal assaults. RESULTS RTC laws showed no association with fatal (p>0.4) or non-fatal (p>0.15) assaults on LEOs. Three-strikes laws were associated with a 33% increase in the risk of fatal assaults on LEOs. Connecticut's PTP law was not associated with fatal (p>0.16) or non-fatal (p>0.13) assaults. Missouri's repeal of its PTP legislation was marginally associated with a twofold increased risk of non-fatal handgun assaults (p=0.089). CONCLUSIONS This research indicates that three-strikes laws increase the risk of fatal assaults. RTC laws are not associated with increased risk of assault. Missouri's PTP repeal may increase the risk of non-fatal handgun assaults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra K Crifasi
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA Johns Hopkins Education and Research Center for Occupational Safety and Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Keshia M Pollack
- Johns Hopkins Education and Research Center for Occupational Safety and Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Daniel W Webster
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Policy and Research, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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17
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Swedler DI, Simmons MM, Dominici F, Hemenway D. Firearm Prevalence and Homicides of Law Enforcement Officers in the United States. Am J Public Health 2015; 105:2042-8. [PMID: 26270316 DOI: 10.2105/ajph.2015.302749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In the United States, state firearm ownership has been correlated with homicide rates. More than 90% of homicides of law enforcement officers (LEOs) are committed with firearms. We examined the relationship between state firearm ownership rates and LEO occupational homicide rates. METHODS We obtained the number LEOs killed from 1996 to 2010 from a Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) database. We calculated homicide rates per state as the number of officers killed per number of LEOs per state, obtained from another FBI database. We obtained the mean household firearm ownership for each state from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. RESULTS Using Poisson regression and controlling for factors known to affect homicide rates, we associated firearm ownership with the homicide rates for LEOs (incidence rate ratio = 1.044; P = .005); our results were supported by cross-sectional and longitudinal sensitivity analyses. LEO homicide rates were 3 times higher in states with high firearm ownership compared with states with low firearm ownership. CONCLUSIONS High public gun ownership is a risk for occupational mortality for LEOs in the United States. States could consider methods for reducing firearm ownership as a way to reduce occupational deaths of LEOs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David I Swedler
- At the time of this study, David I. Swedler was with Environmental Health Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, and Center for Injury Epidemiology, Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA. Molly M. Simmons is with the Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD. Francesca Dominici is with the Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health. David Hemenway is with the Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard School of Public Health
| | - Molly M Simmons
- At the time of this study, David I. Swedler was with Environmental Health Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, and Center for Injury Epidemiology, Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA. Molly M. Simmons is with the Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD. Francesca Dominici is with the Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health. David Hemenway is with the Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard School of Public Health
| | - Francesca Dominici
- At the time of this study, David I. Swedler was with Environmental Health Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, and Center for Injury Epidemiology, Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA. Molly M. Simmons is with the Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD. Francesca Dominici is with the Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health. David Hemenway is with the Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard School of Public Health
| | - David Hemenway
- At the time of this study, David I. Swedler was with Environmental Health Sciences, Harvard School of Public Health, Harvard University, Boston, MA, and Center for Injury Epidemiology, Liberty Mutual Research Institute for Safety, Hopkinton, MA. Molly M. Simmons is with the Johns Hopkins Center for Injury Research and Policy, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD. Francesca Dominici is with the Department of Biostatistics, Harvard School of Public Health. David Hemenway is with the Department of Health Policy and Management, Harvard School of Public Health
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Tiesman HM, Heick RJ, Konda S, Hendricks S. Law enforcement officers' risk perceptions toward on-duty motor-vehicle events. POLICING (BRADFORD, ENGLAND) 2015; 38:563-577. [PMID: 26380563 PMCID: PMC4570477 DOI: 10.1108/pijpsm-03-2015-0028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Motor-vehicle-related events (MVEs) are the leading cause of on-duty death for law enforcement officers, yet little is known about how officers view this significant job hazard. The purpose of this paper is to explore officers' motor-vehicle risk perception and examine how prior on-duty MVEs and the death or injury of a fellow officer influences this perception. DESIGN/METHODOLOGY/APPROACH A state-wide random sample of 136 law enforcement agencies was drawn using publically accessible databases, stratified on type and size of agency. In total, 60 agencies agreed to participate and a cross-sectional questionnaire was distributed to 1,466 officers. Using six-point Likert scales, composite scores for motor-vehicle and intentional violence risk perception were derived. A linear regression multivariable model was used to examine factors affecting motor-vehicle risk perception. FINDINGS Motor-vehicle risk perception scores were significantly higher than intentional violence scores. A prior on-duty motor-vehicle crash, prior roadside incident, or knowledge of fellow officer's injury or death from a MVE significantly increased motor-vehicle risk perception scores. After controlling for potential confounders though, only prior on-duty crashes and roadside incidents impacted motor-vehicle risk perception. RESEARCH LIMITATIONS/IMPLICATIONS The study comprised primarily small, rural agencies and generalizability may be limited. Also, although the data were collected anonymously, reporting and response biases may affect these findings. ORIGINALITY/VALUE This study involved a large and diverse cohort of officers and explored motor-vehicle risk perception. A better understanding of officers' risk perceptions will assist in the development and implementation of occupational injury prevention programs, training, and policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hope M Tiesman
- Division of Safety Research - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | | | - Srinivas Konda
- Division of Safety Research - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
| | - Scott Hendricks
- Division of Safety Research - National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia, USA
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Varvarigou V, Farioli A, Korre M, Sato S, Dahabreh IJ, Kales SN. Law enforcement duties and sudden cardiac death among police officers in United States: case distribution study. BMJ 2014; 349:g6534. [PMID: 25406189 PMCID: PMC4240529 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.g6534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the association between risk of sudden cardiac death and stressful law enforcement duties compared with routine/non-emergency duties. DESIGN Case distribution study (case series with survey information on referent exposures). SETTING United States law enforcement. PARTICIPANTS Summaries of deaths of over 4500 US police officers provided by the National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund and the Officer Down Memorial Page from 1984 to 2010. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Observed and expected sudden cardiac death counts and relative risks for sudden cardiac death events during specific strenuous duties versus routine/non-emergency activities. Independent estimates of the proportion of time that police officers spend across various law enforcement duties obtained from surveys of police chiefs and front line officers. Impact of varying exposure assessments, covariates, and missing cases in sensitivity and stability analyses. RESULTS 441 sudden cardiac deaths were observed during the study period. Sudden cardiac death was associated with restraints/altercations (25%, n=108), physical training (20%, n=88), pursuits of suspects (12%, n=53), medical/rescue operations (8%, n=34), routine duties (23%, n=101), and other activities (11%, n=57). Compared with routine/non-emergency activities, the risk of sudden cardiac death was 34-69 times higher during restraints/altercations, 32-51 times higher during pursuits, 20-23 times higher during physical training, and 6-9 times higher during medical/rescue operations. Results were robust to all sensitivity and stability analyses. CONCLUSIONS Stressful law enforcement duties are associated with a risk of sudden cardiac death that is markedly higher than the risk during routine/non-emergency duties. Restraints/altercations and pursuits are associated with the greatest risk. Our findings have public health implications and suggest that primary and secondary cardiovascular prevention efforts are needed among law enforcement officers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileia Varvarigou
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Department of Internal Medicine, St Elizabeth's Medical Center, Tufts Medical School, Brighton, MA, USA
| | - Andrea Farioli
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Occupational Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, DIMEC, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Maria Korre
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Occupational Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Sho Sato
- Occupational Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Issa J Dahabreh
- Center for Evidence-based Medicine, School of Public Health, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA Department of Health Services, Policy and Practice, School of Public Health, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Stefanos N Kales
- Environmental and Occupational Medicine and Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA Occupational Medicine, Cambridge Health Alliance, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Swedler DI, Kercher C, Simmons MM, Pollack KM. Occupational homicide of law enforcement officers in the US, 1996–2010. Inj Prev 2013; 20:35-40. [DOI: 10.1136/injuryprev-2013-040799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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