1
|
Gidziela A, Ahmadzadeh YI, Michelini G, Allegrini AG, Agnew-Blais J, Lau LY, Duret M, Procopio F, Daly E, Ronald A, Rimfeld K, Malanchini M. A meta-analysis of genetic effects associated with neurodevelopmental disorders and co-occurring conditions. Nat Hum Behav 2023; 7:642-656. [PMID: 36806400 PMCID: PMC10129867 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-023-01530-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Abstract
A systematic understanding of the aetiology of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) and their co-occurrence with other conditions during childhood and adolescence remains incomplete. In the current meta-analysis, we synthesized the literature on (1) the contribution of genetic and environmental factors to NDDs, (2) the genetic and environmental overlap between different NDDs, and (3) the co-occurrence between NDDs and disruptive, impulse control and conduct disorders (DICCs). Searches were conducted across three platforms: Web of Science, Ovid Medline and Ovid Embase. Studies were included only if 75% or more of the sample consisted of children and/or adolescents and the studies had measured the aetiology of NDDs and DICCs using single-generation family designs or genomic methods. Studies that had selected participants on the basis of unrelated diagnoses or injuries were excluded. We performed multilevel, random-effects meta-analyses on 296 independent studies, including over four million (partly overlapping) individuals. We further explored developmental trajectories and the moderating roles of gender, measurement, geography and ancestry. We found all NDDs to be substantially heritable (family-based heritability, 0.66 (s.e. = 0.03); SNP heritability, 0.19 (s.e. = 0.03)). Meta-analytic genetic correlations between NDDs were moderate (grand family-based genetic correlation, 0.36 (s.e. = 0.12); grand SNP-based genetic correlation, 0.39 (s.e. = 0.19)) but differed substantially between pairs of disorders. The genetic overlap between NDDs and DICCs was strong (grand family-based genetic correlation, 0.62 (s.e. = 0.20)). While our work provides evidence to inform and potentially guide clinical and educational diagnostic procedures and practice, it also highlights the imbalance in the research effort that has characterized developmental genetics research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Gidziela
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK.
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK.
| | - Yasmin I Ahmadzadeh
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Giorgia Michelini
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
- UCLA Semel Institute for Neuroscience, Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Andrea G Allegrini
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
- Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, University College London, London, UK
| | - Jessica Agnew-Blais
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Lok Yan Lau
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Megan Duret
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Francesca Procopio
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Emily Daly
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Angelica Ronald
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Birkbeck University of London, London, UK
| | - Kaili Rimfeld
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK
- Department of Psychology, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, UK
| | - Margherita Malanchini
- School of Biological and Behavioural Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK.
- Social, Genetic and Developmental Psychiatry Centre, King's College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Alho J, Khan S, Mamashli F, Perrachione TK, Losh A, McGuiggan NM, Graham S, Nayal Z, Joseph RM, Hämäläinen MS, Bharadwaj H, Kenet T. Atypical cortical processing of bottom-up speech binding cues in children with autism spectrum disorders. Neuroimage Clin 2023; 37:103336. [PMID: 36724734 PMCID: PMC9898310 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2023.103336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly display speech processing abnormalities. Binding of acoustic features of speech distributed across different frequencies into coherent speech objects is fundamental in speech perception. Here, we tested the hypothesis that the cortical processing of bottom-up acoustic cues for speech binding may be anomalous in ASD. We recorded magnetoencephalography while ASD children (ages 7-17) and typically developing peers heard sentences of sine-wave speech (SWS) and modulated SWS (MSS) where binding cues were restored through increased temporal coherence of the acoustic components and the introduction of harmonicity. The ASD group showed increased long-range feedforward functional connectivity from left auditory to parietal cortex with concurrent decreased local functional connectivity within the parietal region during MSS relative to SWS. As the parietal region has been implicated in auditory object binding, our findings support our hypothesis of atypical bottom-up speech binding in ASD. Furthermore, the long-range functional connectivity correlated with behaviorally measured auditory processing abnormalities, confirming the relevance of these atypical cortical signatures to the ASD phenotype. Lastly, the group difference in the local functional connectivity was driven by the youngest participants, suggesting that impaired speech binding in ASD might be ameliorated upon entering adolescence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jussi Alho
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA.
| | - Sheraz Khan
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Fahimeh Mamashli
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Tyler K Perrachione
- Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, Boston University, 635 Commonwealth Ave, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ainsley Losh
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Nicole M McGuiggan
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Steven Graham
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Zein Nayal
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Robert M Joseph
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Boston University School of Medicine, 72 East Concord St, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Matti S Hämäläinen
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Hari Bharadwaj
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Department of Speech, Language, and Hearing Sciences, and Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, 715 Clinic Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
| | - Tal Kenet
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA; Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 149 13th St, Boston, MA 02129, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Vogindroukas I, Stankova M, Chelas EN, Proedrou A. Language and Speech Characteristics in Autism. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat 2022; 18:2367-2377. [PMID: 36268264 PMCID: PMC9578461 DOI: 10.2147/ndt.s331987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this paper is to provide information regarding diversity in speech and language profiles of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) and try to classify these profiles according to the combination of the communication difficulties. Research findings confirm the existence of heterogeneity of communication challenges in ASD across the lifespan. A lot of children with ASD experience communication challenges and strengths across all language sub-systems including pragmatics, grammar, semantics, syntax, phonology, and morphology in both oral and written language, while some children with autism demonstrate exceptional language abilities incl. linguistic creativity. Communication issues vary on a continuum of severity so that some children may be verbal, whereas others remain non-verbal or minimally-verbal. The diversity of profiles in speech and language development stem from either the presence of comorbid factors, as a core symptom of autistic behavior without comorbidity or both, with the development of complex clinical symptoms. Difficulties with the semantic aspect of language affect the individual's skills in abstract thinking, multiple meanings of words, concept categorization, and so on. Finally, the coexistence of ASD with other communication difficulties such as a Language Disorder, Apraxia of Speech, Speech Sound Disorders or/and other neurodevelopmental disorders raises the need for examining more carefully the emergence of new clinical profiles and clinical markers useful in performing differential diagnosis and different intervention.
Collapse
|
4
|
Mamokhina U, Pereverzeva D, Salimova K, Shvedovskiy E, Davydov D, Davydova E. Modern Foreign Approaches to the Assessment of Different Linguistic Levels in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. СОВРЕМЕННАЯ ЗАРУБЕЖНАЯ ПСИХОЛОГИЯ 2022. [DOI: 10.17759/jmfp.2022110408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
<p>The article presents an overview of studies on the problem of speech evaluation in childhood. We analyzed the material based on the model that describes 4 levels of language: phonetics and phonology, morphosyntax, semantics and pragmatics. The article contains the analysis of studies describing each level of language as well as existing approaches to its assessment, and reviews studies on language impairments in children with autism spectrum disorders. Additionally, the article contains a detailed analysis of existing foreign and Russian standardized methods for assessing speech development, showing which level of language organization (among each of the mentioned above methods) allows us to assess. It also describes the assessment procedures and evaluation. The review systematizes the available data on the approaches to atypical speech development in children with autism spectrum disorders.</p>
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - D.V. Davydov
- Moscow State University of Psychology & Education (MSUPE)
| | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
McCracken JT, Anagnostou E, Arango C, Dawson G, Farchione T, Mantua V, McPartland J, Murphy D, Pandina G, Veenstra-VanderWeele J. Drug development for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Progress, challenges, and future directions. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2021; 48:3-31. [PMID: 34158222 PMCID: PMC10062405 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In 2017, facing lack of progress and failures encountered in targeted drug development for Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and related neurodevelopmental disorders, the ISCTM with the ECNP created the ASD Working Group charged to identify barriers to progress and recommending research strategies for the field to gain traction. Working Group international academic, regulatory and industry representatives held multiple in-person meetings, teleconferences, and subgroup communications to gather a wide range of perspectives on lessons learned from extant studies, current challenges, and paths for fundamental advances in ASD therapeutics. This overview delineates the barriers identified, and outlines major goals for next generation biomedical intervention development in ASD. Current challenges for ASD research are many: heterogeneity, lack of validated biomarkers, need for improved endpoints, prioritizing molecular targets, comorbidities, and more. The Working Group emphasized cautious but unwavering optimism for therapeutic progress for ASD core features given advances in the basic neuroscience of ASD and related disorders. Leveraging genetic data, intermediate phenotypes, digital phenotyping, big database discovery, refined endpoints, and earlier intervention, the prospects for breakthrough treatments are substantial. Recommendations include new priorities for expanded research funding to overcome challenges in translational clinical ASD therapeutic research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- James T McCracken
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA 90024, United States.
| | | | - Celso Arango
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Institute of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital General Univesitario Gregorio Maranon, and School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, CIBERSAM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Geraldine Dawson
- Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States
| | - Tiffany Farchione
- Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States
| | - Valentina Mantua
- Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States
| | | | - Declan Murphy
- Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College De Crespigny Park, Denmark Hill, London SE5 8AF, United Kingdom
| | - Gahan Pandina
- Neuroscience Therapeutic Area, Janssen Research & Development, Pennington, New Jersey, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Sharda M, Foster NEV, Tryfon A, Doyle-Thomas KAR, Ouimet T, Anagnostou E, Evans AC, Zwaigenbaum L, Lerch JP, Lewis JD, Hyde KL. Language Ability Predicts Cortical Structure and Covariance in Boys with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Cereb Cortex 2017; 27:1849-1862. [PMID: 26891985 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhw024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
There is significant clinical heterogeneity in language and communication abilities of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). However, no consistent pathology regarding the relationship of these abilities to brain structure has emerged. Recent developments in anatomical correlation-based approaches to map structural covariance networks (SCNs), combined with detailed behavioral characterization, offer an alternative for studying these relationships. In this study, such an approach was used to study the integrity of SCNs of cortical thickness and surface area associated with language and communication, in 46 high-functioning, school-age children with ASD compared with 50 matched, typically developing controls (all males) with IQ > 75. Findings showed that there was alteration of cortical structure and disruption of fronto-temporal cortical covariance in ASD compared with controls. Furthermore, in an analysis of a subset of ASD participants, alterations in both cortical structure and covariance were modulated by structural language ability of the participants, but not communicative function. These findings indicate that structural language abilities are related to altered fronto-temporal cortical covariance in ASD, much more than symptom severity or cognitive ability. They also support the importance of better characterizing ASD samples while studying brain structure and for better understanding individual differences in language and communication abilities in ASD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Megha Sharda
- International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, CanadaH2V 2J2
| | - Nicholas E V Foster
- International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, CanadaH2V 2J2
| | - Ana Tryfon
- International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada H2V 2J2.,Montreal Neurological Institute, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2B4
| | | | - Tia Ouimet
- International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, CanadaH2V 2J2
| | | | - Alan C Evans
- Montreal Neurological Institute, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3A 2B4
| | | | - Jason P Lerch
- The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, CanadaM5T 3H7
| | - John D Lewis
- Montreal Neurological Institute, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, CanadaH3A 2B4
| | - Krista L Hyde
- International Laboratory for Brain Music and Sound Research (BRAMS), Université de Montréal, Montréal, Quebec, Canada H2V 2J2.,Montreal Neurological Institute, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada H3A 2B4
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Polyak A, Kubina RM, Girirajan S. Comorbidity of intellectual disability confounds ascertainment of autism: implications for genetic diagnosis. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2015. [PMID: 26198689 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
While recent studies suggest a converging role for genetic factors towards risk for nosologically distinct disorders including autism, intellectual disability (ID), and epilepsy, current estimates of autism prevalence fail to take into account the impact of comorbidity of these disorders on autism diagnosis. We aimed to assess the effect of comorbidity on the diagnosis and prevalence of autism by analyzing 11 years (2000-2010) of special education enrollment data on approximately 6.2 million children per year. We found a 331% increase in the prevalence of autism from 2000 to 2010 within special education, potentially due to a diagnostic recategorization from frequently comorbid features such as ID. The decrease in ID prevalence equaled an average of 64.2% of the increase of autism prevalence for children aged 3-18 years. The proportion of ID cases potentially undergoing recategorization to autism was higher (P = 0.007) among older children (75%) than younger children (48%). Some US states showed significant negative correlations between the prevalence of autism compared to that of ID while others did not, suggesting state-specific health policy to be a major factor in categorizing autism. Further, a high frequency of autistic features was observed when individuals with classically defined genetic syndromes were evaluated for autism using standardized instruments. Our results suggest that current ascertainment practices are based on a single facet of autism-specific clinical features and do not consider associated comorbidities that may confound diagnosis. Longitudinal studies with detailed phenotyping and deep molecular genetic analyses are necessary to completely understand the cause of this complex disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Polyak
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802
| | - Richard M Kubina
- Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling, and Special Education, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802
| | - Santhosh Girirajan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802.,Department of Anthropology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Commentary on “Autism, oxytocin and interoception”: Alexithymia, not Autism Spectrum Disorders, is the consequence of interoceptive failure. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2015; 56:348-53. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2015] [Revised: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 07/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
|
9
|
Ryan NP, Catroppa C, Beare R, Coleman L, Ditchfield M, Crossley L, Beauchamp MH, Anderson VA. Predictors of longitudinal outcome and recovery of pragmatic language and its relation to externalizing behaviour after pediatric traumatic brain injury. BRAIN AND LANGUAGE 2015; 142:86-95. [PMID: 25677376 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandl.2015.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Revised: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/05/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate the contribution of age-at-insult and brain pathology on longitudinal outcome and recovery of pragmatic language in a sample of children and adolescents with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Children and adolescents with mild to severe TBI (n=112) were categorized according to timing of brain insult: (i) Middle Childhood (5-9 years; n=41); (ii) Late Childhood (10-11 years; n=39); and (iii) Adolescence (12-15 years; n=32) and group-matched for age, gender and socio-economic status (SES) to a typically developing (TD) control group (n=43). Participants underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) including a susceptibility weighted imaging (SWI) sequence 2-8 weeks after injury and were assessed on measures of pragmatic language and behavioural functioning at 6- and 24-months after injury. Children and adolescents with TBI of all severity levels demonstrated impairments in these domains at 6-months injury before returning to age-expected levels at 2-years post-TBI. However, while adolescent TBI was associated with post-acute disruption to skills that preceded recovery to age-expected levels by 2-years post injury, the middle childhood TBI group demonstrated impairments at 6-months post-injury that were maintained at 2-year follow up. Reduced pragmatic communication was associated with frontal, temporal and corpus callosum lesions, as well as more frequent externalizing behaviour at 24-months post injury. Findings show that persisting pragmatic language impairment after pediatric TBI is related to younger age at brain insult, as well as microhemorrhagic pathology in brain regions that contribute to the anatomically distributed social brain network. Relationships between reduced pragmatic communication and more frequent externalizing behavior underscore the need for context-sensitive rehabilitation programs that aim to increase interpersonal effectiveness and reduce risk for maladaptive behavior trajectories into the long-term post injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas P Ryan
- Australian Centre for Child Neuropsychological Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Cathy Catroppa
- Australian Centre for Child Neuropsychological Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Psychology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Richard Beare
- Developmental Imaging, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Lee Coleman
- Department of Radiology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Michael Ditchfield
- Australian Centre for Child Neuropsychological Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Louise Crossley
- Australian Centre for Child Neuropsychological Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Miriam H Beauchamp
- Department of Psychology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada; Ste-Justine Research Center, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Vicki A Anderson
- Australian Centre for Child Neuropsychological Studies, Murdoch Childrens Research Institute, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Psychology, Royal Children's Hospital, Melbourne, Australia; Melbourne School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia; Department of Pediatrics, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|