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Lukova A, Dunmore CJ, Bachmann S, Synek A, Pahr DH, Kivell TL, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture of the distal femur in extant hominids. J Anat 2024; 245:156-180. [PMID: 38381116 PMCID: PMC11161831 DOI: 10.1111/joa.14026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Extant great apes are characterized by a wide range of locomotor, postural and manipulative behaviours that each require the limbs to be used in different ways. In addition to external bone morphology, comparative investigation of trabecular bone, which (re-)models to reflect loads incurred during life, can provide novel insights into bone functional adaptation. Here, we use canonical holistic morphometric analysis (cHMA) to analyse the trabecular morphology in the distal femoral epiphysis of Homo sapiens (n = 26), Gorilla gorilla (n = 14), Pan troglodytes (n = 15) and Pongo sp. (n = 9). We test two predictions: (1) that differing locomotor behaviours will be reflected in differing trabecular architecture of the distal femur across Homo, Pan, Gorilla and Pongo; (2) that trabecular architecture will significantly differ between male and female Gorilla due to their different levels of arboreality but not between male and female Pan or Homo based on previous studies of locomotor behaviours. Results indicate that trabecular architecture differs among extant great apes based on their locomotor repertoires. The relative bone volume and degree of anisotropy patterns found reflect habitual use of extended knee postures during bipedalism in Homo, and habitual use of flexed knee posture during terrestrial and arboreal locomotion in Pan and Gorilla. Trabecular architecture in Pongo is consistent with a highly mobile knee joint that may vary in posture from extension to full flexion. Within Gorilla, trabecular architecture suggests a different loading of knee in extension/flexion between females and males, but no sex differences were found in Pan or Homo, supporting our predictions. Inter- and intra-specific variation in trabecular architecture of distal femur provides a comparative context to interpret knee postures and, in turn, locomotor behaviours in fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Lukova
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Christopher J. Dunmore
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Sebastian Bachmann
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsTU WienWienAustria
| | - Alexander Synek
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsTU WienWienAustria
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsTU WienWienAustria
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Division BiomechanicsKarl Landsteiner University of Health SciencesKremsAustria
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Department of Human OriginsMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Department of Human OriginsMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
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2
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Dunmore CJ, Bachmann S, Synek A, Pahr DH, Skinner MM, Kivell TL. The deep trabecular structure of first metacarpals in extant hominids. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 183:e24695. [PMID: 36790736 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Recent studies have associated subarticular trabecular bone distribution in the extant hominid first metacarpal (Mc1) with observed thumb use, to infer fossil hominin thumb use. Here, we analyze the entire Mc1 to test for interspecific differences in: (1) the absolute volume of trabecular volume fraction, (2) the distribution of the deeper trabecular network, and (3) the distribution of trabeculae in the medullary cavity, especially beneath the Mc1 disto-radial flange. MATERIALS AND METHODS Trabecular bone was imaged using micro-computed tomography in a sample of Homo sapiens (n = 11), Pan paniscus (n = 10), Pan troglodytes (n = 11), Gorilla gorilla (n = 10) and Pongo sp., (n = 7). Using Canonical Holistic Morphometric Analysis (cHMA), we tested for interspecific differences in the trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV) and its relative distribution (rBV/TV) throughout the Mc1, including within the head, medullary cavity, and base. RESULTS P. paniscus had the highest, and H. sapiens the lowest, BV/TV relative to other species. rBV/TV distribution statistically distinguished the radial concentrations and lack of medullary trabecular bone in the H. sapiens Mc1 from all other hominids. H. sapiens and, to a lesser extent, G. gorilla also had a significantly higher trabecular volume beneath the disto-radial flange relative to other hominids. DISCUSSION These results are consistent with differences in observed thumb use in these species and may also reflect systemic differences in bone volume fraction. The trabecular bone extension into the medullary cavity and concentrations beneath the disto-radial flange may represent crucial biomechanical signals that will aid in the inference of fossil hominin thumb use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Dunmore
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Sebastian Bachmann
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexander Synek
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dieter H Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Division Biomechanics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems, Austria
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human Journey, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
- Centre for the Exploration of the Deep Human Journey, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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3
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Cebeiro A, Key A. Captive bonobos (Pan paniscus) apply precision grips when using flaked stone tools. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024; 183:e24759. [PMID: 37218536 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Current evidence suggests that flaked stone tool technologies did not emerge until ~3.3-2.6 million-years-ago (Ma). It is often hypothesized that early hominin (principally Ardipithecus and early Australopithecus) manual anatomy may have prevented an earlier emergence, as the forceful precision grips essential to flake tool-use may have been ineffectively performed by these species. Marzke, Marchant, McGrew, and Reece (2015) observed potentially forceful pad-to-side precision grips being recruited by wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) during feeding behaviors, indicating that Pan-like manual anatomy, and therefore potentially early hominin anatomy, may be capable of effectively securing flake stone tools during their use. MATERIALS AND METHODS Here, we report on the grips recruited by four captive, human-trained, bonobos (Pan paniscus) during the use of stone and organic tools, including flake stone tools during cutting behaviors. RESULTS It is revealed that pad-to-side precision grips are frequently recruited by these bonobos when securing stone flakes during cutting actions. In some instances, high forces could have been resisted and applied by the thumb and fingers. DISCUSSION While our analyzes are preliminary and limited to captive individuals, and Pan is not suggested to secure flakes with the same efficacy as Homo or Australopithecus, it points to early hominins potentially being able to perform the precision grips required to use flake stone tools. In turn, the ability to gain tangible benefits from the effective use of flake tools (i.e., gain energetic returns from processing food resources) may have been - at least anatomically - possible in early Australopithecus and other pre-Early Stone Age hominin species. In turn, hominin manual anatomy may not be a leading restriction on the emergence of the earliest stone tool technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adela Cebeiro
- Department of Anthropology, New York University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Alastair Key
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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4
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Bardo A, Filippo A, Balzeau A. Lateralized behaviors in living humans: Application in the context of hominin brain evolution. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2023; 275:143-164. [PMID: 36841567 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2022.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The left and right hemispheres of our brains differ subtly in structure, and each is dominant in processing specific cognitive tasks. Our species has a unique system of distributing behavior and cognition between each cerebral hemisphere, with a preponderance of pronounced side biases and lateralized functions. This hemisphere-dependent relationship between cognitive, sensory or motor function and a set of brain structures is called hemispheric specialization. Hemispheric specialization has led to the emergence of model systems to link anatomical asymmetries to brain function and behavior. Scientific research on hemispheric specialization and lateralized functions in living humans focuses on three major domains: (1) hand preferences, (2) language, and (3) visuospatial skills and attention. In this chapter we present an overview of this research with a specific focus on living humans and the applications of this research in the context of hominin brain evolution. Our objective is to put into perspective what we know about brain-behavior relationships in living humans and how we can apply the same methods to investigate this relationship in fossil hominin species, and thus improve our understanding of the emergence and development of complex cognitive abilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ameline Bardo
- UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN, Département Homme et Environnement, Musée de l'Homme, Paris, France; Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom.
| | - Andréa Filippo
- UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN, Département Homme et Environnement, Musée de l'Homme, Paris, France
| | - Antoine Balzeau
- UMR 7194, CNRS-MNHN, Département Homme et Environnement, Musée de l'Homme, Paris, France; Department of African Zoology, Royal Museum for Central Africa, Tervuren, Belgium & Laboratory of Histology and Neuropathology, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
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5
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Bachmann S, Dunmore CJ, Skinner MM, Pahr DH, Synek A. A computational framework for canonical holistic morphometric analysis of trabecular bone. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5187. [PMID: 35338187 PMCID: PMC8956643 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09063-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone is a remarkable, living tissue that functionally adapts to external loading. Therefore, bone shape and internal structure carry information relevant to many disciplines, including medicine, forensic science, and anthropology. However, morphometric comparisons of homologous regions across different individuals or groups are still challenging. In this study, two methods were combined to quantify such differences: (1) Holistic morphometric analysis (HMA) was used to quantify morphometric values in each bone, (2) which could then be mapped to a volumetric mesh of a canonical bone created by a statistical free-form deformation model (SDM). Required parameters for this canonical holistic morphometric analysis (cHMA) method were identified and the robustness of the method was evaluated. The robustness studies showed that the SDM converged after one to two iterations, had only a marginal bias towards the chosen starting image, and could handle large shape differences seen in bones of different species. Case studies were performed on metacarpal bones and proximal femora of different primate species to confirm prior study results. The differences between species could be visualised and statistically analysed in both case studies. cHMA provides a framework for performing quantitative comparisons of different morphometric quantities across individuals or groups. These comparisons facilitate investigation of the relationship between spatial morphometric variations and function or pathology, or both.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Bachmann
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Christopher J Dunmore
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- School of Anthropology and Conservation, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dieter H Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Division Biomechanics, Karl Landsteiner University of Health Sciences, Krems, Austria
| | - Alexander Synek
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
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6
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Saers JPP, Gordon AD, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Growth and development of trabecular structure in the calcaneus of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) reflects locomotor behavior, life history, and neuromuscular development. J Anat 2022; 241:67-81. [PMID: 35178713 PMCID: PMC9178394 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Bone structure dynamically adapts to its mechanical environment throughout ontogeny by altering the structure of trabecular bone, the three-dimensional mesh-like structure found underneath joint surfaces. Trabecular structure, then, can provide a record of variation in loading directions and magnitude; and in ontogenetic samples, it can potentially be used to track developmental shifts in limb posture. We aim to broaden the analysis of trabecular bone ontogeny by incorporating interactions between ontogenetic variation in locomotor repertoire, neuromuscular maturation, and life history. We examine the associations between these variables and age-related variation in trabecular structure in the calcaneus of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). We used high-resolution micro-computed tomography scanning to image the calcaneus in a cross-sectional sample of 34 juvenile M. fuscata aged between 0 and 7 years old at the Primate Research Institute, Japan. We calculated whole bone averages of standard trabecular properties and generated whole-bone morphometric maps of bone volume fraction and Young's modulus. Trabecular structure becomes increasingly heterogeneous in older individuals. Bone volume fraction (BV/total volume [TV]) decreases during the first month of life and increases afterward, coinciding with the onset of independent locomotion in M. fuscata. At birth, primary Young's modulus is oriented orthogonal to the ossification center, but after locomotor onset bone structure becomes stiffest in the direction of joint surfaces and muscle attachments. Age-related variation in bone volume fraction is best predicted by an interaction between the estimated percentage of adult brain size, body mass, and locomotor onset. To explain our findings, we propose a model where interactions between age-related increases in body weight and maturation of the neuromuscular system alter the loading environment of the calcaneus, to which the internal trabecular structure dynamically adapts. This model cannot be directly tested based on our cross-sectional data. However, confirmation of the model by longitudinal experiments and in multiple species would show that trabecular structure can be used both to infer behavior from fossil morphology and serve as a valuable proxy for neuromuscular maturation and life history events like locomotor onset and the achievement of an adult-like gait. This approach could significantly expand our knowledge of the biology and behavior of fossil species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaap P P Saers
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam D Gordon
- Department of Anthropology, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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7
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Bird EE, Kivell TL, Skinner MM. Patterns of internal bone structure and functional adaptation in the hominoid scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Emma E. Bird
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Canterbury UK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Canterbury UK
- Department of Human Evolution Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Germany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation University of Kent Canterbury UK
- Department of Human Evolution Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology Leipzig Germany
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8
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Get a Grip: Variation in Human Hand Grip Strength and Implications for Human Evolution. Symmetry (Basel) 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/sym13071142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Although hand grip strength is critical to the daily lives of humans and our arboreal great ape relatives, the human hand has changed in form and function throughout our evolution due to terrestrial bipedalism, tool use, and directional asymmetry (DA) such as handedness. Here we investigate how hand form and function interact in modern humans to gain an insight into our evolutionary past. We measured grip strength in a heterogeneous, cross-sectional sample of human participants (n = 662, 17 to 83 years old) to test the potential effects of age, sex, asymmetry (hand dominance and handedness), hand shape, occupation, and practice of sports and musical instruments that involve the hand(s). We found a significant effect of sex and hand dominance on grip strength, but not of handedness, while hand shape and age had a greater influence on female grip strength. Females were significantly weaker with age, but grip strength in females with large hands was less affected than those with long hands. Frequent engagement in hand sports significantly increased grip strength in the non-dominant hand in both sexes, while only males showed a significant effect of occupation, indicating different patterns of hand dominance asymmetries and hand function. These results improve our understanding of the link between form and function in both hands and offer an insight into the evolution of human laterality and dexterity.
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9
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Bird EE, Kivell TL, Skinner MM. Cortical and trabecular bone structure of the hominoid capitate. J Anat 2021; 239:351-373. [PMID: 33942895 PMCID: PMC8273598 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Morphological variation in the hominoid capitate has been linked to differences in habitual locomotor activity due to its importance in movement and load transfer at the midcarpal joint proximally and carpometacarpal joints distally. Although the shape of bones and their articulations are linked to joint mobility, the internal structure of bones has been shown experimentally to reflect, at least in part, the loading direction and magnitude experienced by the bone. To date, it is uncertain whether locomotor differences among hominoids are reflected in the bone microarchitecture of the capitate. Here, we apply a whole‐bone methodology to quantify the cortical and trabecular architecture (separately and combined) of the capitate across bipedal (modern Homo sapiens), knuckle‐walking (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla sp.), and suspensory (Pongo sp.) hominoids (n = 69). It is hypothesized that variation in bone microarchitecture will differentiate these locomotor groups, reflecting differences in habitual postures and presumed loading force and direction. Additionally, it is hypothesized that trabecular and cortical architecture in the proximal and distal regions, as a result of being part of mechanically divergent joints proximally and distally, will differ across these portions of the capitate. Results indicate that the capitate of knuckle‐walking and suspensory hominoids is differentiated from bipedal Homo primarily by significantly thicker distal cortical bone. Knuckle‐walking taxa are further differentiated from suspensory and bipedal taxa by more isotropic trabeculae in the proximal capitate. An allometric analysis indicates that size is not a significant determinate of bone variation across hominoids, although sexual dimorphism may influence some parameters within Gorilla. Results suggest that internal trabecular and cortical bone is subjected to different forces and functional adaptation responses across the capitate (and possibly other short bones). Additionally, while separating trabecular and cortical bone is normal protocol of current whole‐bone methodologies, this study shows that when applied to carpals, removing or studying the cortical bone separately potentially obfuscates functionally relevant signals in bone structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma E Bird
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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10
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Saers JPP, DeMars LJ, Stephens NB, Jashashvili T, Carlson KJ, Gordon AD, Shaw CN, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Combinations of trabecular and cortical bone properties distinguish various loading modalities between athletes and controls. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:434-450. [PMID: 33244746 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Revised: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Variation in trabecular and cortical bone properties is often used to infer habitual behavior in the past. However, the structures of both types of bone are rarely considered together and may even contradict each other in functional interpretations. We examine trabecular and cortical bone properties in various athletes and sedentary controls to clarify the associations between combinations of cortical and trabecular bone properties and various loading modalities. MATERIALS AND METHODS We compare trabecular and cortical bone properties using peripheral quantitative computed tomography scans of the tibia between groups of 83 male athletes (running, hockey, swimming, cricket) and sedentary controls using Bayesian multilevel models. We quantify midshaft cortical bone rigidity and area (J, CA), midshaft shape index (Imax/Imin), and mean trabecular bone mineral density (BMD) in the distal tibia. RESULTS All groups show unique combinations of biomechanical properties. Cortical bone rigidity is high in sports that involve impact loading (cricket, running, hockey) and low in nonimpact loaded swimmers and controls. Runners have more anteroposteriorly elliptical midshafts compared to other groups. Interestingly, all athletes have greater trabecular BMD compared to controls, but do not differ credibly among each other. DISCUSSION Results suggest that cortical midshaft hypertrophy is associated with impact loading while trabecular BMD is positively associated with both impact and nonimpact loading. Midshaft shape is associated with directionality of loading. Individuals from the different categories overlap substantially, but group means differ credibly, suggesting that nuanced group-level inferences of habitual behavior are possible when combinations of trabecular and cortical bone are analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaap P P Saers
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland
| | - Lily J DeMars
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tea Jashashvili
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Department of Geology and Paleontology, Georgian National Museum, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Kristian J Carlson
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Adam D Gordon
- Department of Anthropology, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | | | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
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11
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Saers JPP, DeMars LJ, Stephens NB, Jashashvili T, Carlson KJ, Gordon AD, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Automated resolution independent method for comparing in vivo and dry trabecular bone. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 174:822-831. [PMID: 33244765 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Variation in human trabecular bone morphology can be linked to habitual behavior, but it is difficult to investigate in vivo due to the radiation required at high resolution. Consequently, functional interpretations of trabecular morphology remain inferential. Here we introduce a method to link low- and high-resolution CT data from dry and fresh bone, enabling bone functional adaptation to be studied in vivo and results compared to the fossil and archaeological record. MATERIALS AND METHODS We examine 51 human dry bone distal tibiae from Nile Valley and UK and two pig tibiae containing soft tissues. We compare low-resolution peripheral quantitative computed tomography (pQCT) parameters and high-resolution micro CT (μCT) in homologous single slices at 4% bone length and compare results to our novel Bone Ratio Predictor (BRP) method. RESULTS Regression slopes between linear attenuation coefficients of low-resolution pQCT images and bone area/total area (BA/TA) of high-resolution μCT scans differ substantially between geographical subsamples, presumably due to diagenesis. BRP accurately predicts BA/TA (R2 = .97) and eliminates the geographic clustering. BRP accurately estimates BA/TA in pigs containing soft tissues (R2 = 0.98) without requiring knowledge of true density or phantom calibration of the scans. DISCUSSION BRP allows automated comparison of image data from different image modalities (pQCT, μCT) using different energy settings, in archeological bone and wet specimens. The method enables low-resolution data generated in vivo to be compared with the fossil and archaeological record. Such experimental approaches would substantially improve behavioral inferences based on trabecular bone microstructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaap P P Saers
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Lily J DeMars
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Tea Jashashvili
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Department of Geology and Paleontology, Georgian National Museum, Tbilisi, Georgia
| | - Kristian J Carlson
- Department of Integrative Anatomical Sciences, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Evolutionary Studies Institute, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Adam D Gordon
- Department of Anthropology, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Canada
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12
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DeMars LJD, Stephens NB, Saers JPP, Gordon A, Stock JT, Ryan TM. Using point clouds to investigate the relationship between trabecular bone phenotype and behavior: An example utilizing the human calcaneus. Am J Hum Biol 2020; 33:e23468. [PMID: 32790125 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.23468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The objective of this study is to demonstrate a new method for analyzing trabecular bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy in three dimensions. METHODS We use a combination of automatic mesh registration, point-cloud correspondence registration, and P-value corrected univariate statistical tests to compare bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy on a point by point basis across the entire calcaneus of two human groups with different subsistence strategies. RESULTS We found that the patterns of high and low bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy distribution between the Black Earth (hunter-gatherers) and Norris Farms (mixed-strategy agriculturalists) are very similar, but differ in magnitude. The hunter-gatherers exhibit higher levels of bone volume fraction and less anisotropic trabecular bone organization. Additionally, patterns of bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy in the calcaneus correspond well with biomechanical expectations of relative forces experienced during walking and running. CONCLUSIONS We conclude that comparing site-specific, localized differences in trabecular bone variables such as bone volume fraction and degree of anisotropy in three-dimensions is a powerful analytical tool. This method makes it possible to determine where similarities and differences between groups are located within the whole skeletal element of interest. The visualization of multiple variables also provides a way for researchers to see how the trabecular bone variables interact within the morphology, and allows for a more nuanced understanding of how they relate to one another and the broader mechanical environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lily J D DeMars
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Jaap P P Saers
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK
| | - Adam Gordon
- Department of Anthropology, University at Albany, SUNY, Albany, New York, USA
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, Cambridge University, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada
| | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA
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13
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Dunmore CJ, Bardo A, Skinner MM, Kivell TL. Trabecular variation in the first metacarpal and manipulation in hominids. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 171:219-241. [PMID: 31762017 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 10/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The dexterity of fossil hominins is often inferred by assessing the comparative manual anatomy and behaviors of extant hominids, with a focus on the thumb. The aim of this study is to test whether trabecular structure is consistent with what is currently known about habitually loaded thumb postures across extant hominids. MATERIALS AND METHODS We analyze first metacarpal (Mc1) subarticular trabecular architecture in humans (Homo sapiens, n = 10), bonobos (Pan paniscus, n = 10), chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes, n = 11), as well as for the first time, gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla, n = 10) and orangutans (Pongo sp., n = 1, Pongo abelii, n = 3 and Pongo pygmaeus, n = 5). Using a combination of subarticular and whole-epiphysis approaches, we test for significant differences in relative trabecular bone volume (RBV/TV) and degree of anisotropy (DA) between species. RESULTS Humans have significantly greater RBV/TV on the radiopalmar aspects of both the proximal and distal Mc1 subarticular surfaces and greater DA throughout the Mc1 head than other hominids. Nonhuman great apes have greatest RBV/TV on the ulnar aspect of the Mc1 head and the palmar aspect of the Mc1 base. Gorillas possessed significantly lower DA in the Mc1 head than any other taxon in our sample. DISCUSSION These results are consistent with abduction of the thumb during forceful "pad-to-pad" precision grips in humans and, in nonhuman great apes, a habitually adducted thumb that is typically used in precision and power grips. This comparative context will help infer habitual manipulative and locomotor grips in fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Dunmore
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Ameline Bardo
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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14
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Saers JP, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Trabecular bone structure scales allometrically in the foot of four human groups. J Hum Evol 2019; 135:102654. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.102654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2018] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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15
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Dunmore CJ, Kivell TL, Bardo A, Skinner MM. Metacarpal trabecular bone varies with distinct hand-positions used in hominid locomotion. J Anat 2019; 235:45-66. [PMID: 31099419 PMCID: PMC6580057 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Trabecular bone remodels during life in response to loading and thus should, at least in part, reflect potential variation in the magnitude, frequency and direction of joint loading across different hominid species. Here we analyse the trabecular structure across all non-pollical metacarpal distal heads (Mc2-5) in extant great apes, expanding on previous volume of interest and whole-epiphysis analyses that have largely focused on only the first or third metacarpal. Specifically, we employ both a univariate statistical mapping and a multivariate approach to test for both inter-ray and interspecific differences in relative trabecular bone volume fraction (RBV/TV) and degree of anisotropy (DA) in Mc2-5 subchondral trabecular bone. Results demonstrate that whereas DA values only separate Pongo from African apes (Pan troglodytes, Pan paniscus, Gorilla gorilla), RBV/TV distribution varies with the predicted loading of the metacarpophalangeal (McP) joints during locomotor behaviours in each species. Gorilla exhibits a relatively dorsal distribution of RBV/TV consistent with habitual hyper-extension of the McP joints during knuckle-walking, whereas Pongo has a palmar distribution consistent with flexed McP joints used to grasp arboreal substrates. Both Pan species possess a disto-dorsal distribution of RBV/TV, compatible with multiple hand postures associated with a more varied locomotor regime. Further inter-ray comparisons reveal RBV/TV patterns consistent with varied knuckle-walking postures in Pan species in contrast to higher RBV/TV values toward the midline of the hand in Mc2 and Mc5 of Gorilla, consistent with habitual palm-back knuckle-walking. These patterns of trabecular bone distribution and structure reflect different behavioural signals that could be useful for determining the behaviours of fossil hominins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J. Dunmore
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Ameline Bardo
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
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16
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Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Buck LT, Skinner MM. Trabecular architecture of the great ape and human femoral head. J Anat 2019; 234:679-693. [PMID: 30793309 PMCID: PMC6481414 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12957] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of femoral trabecular structure have shown that the orientation and volume of bone are associated with variation in loading and could be informative about individual joint positioning during locomotion. In this study, we analyse for the first time trabecular bone patterns throughout the femoral head using a whole-epiphysis approach to investigate how potential trabecular variation in humans and great apes relates to differences in locomotor modes. Trabecular architecture was analysed using microCT scans of Pan troglodytes (n = 20), Gorilla gorilla (n = 14), Pongo sp. (n = 5) and Homo sapiens (n = 12) in medtool 4.1. Our results revealed differences in bone volume fraction (BV/TV) distribution patterns, as well as overall trabecular parameters of the femoral head between great apes and humans. Pan and Gorilla showed two regions of high BV/TV in the femoral head, consistent with hip posture and loading during two discrete locomotor modes: knuckle-walking and climbing. Most Pongo specimens also displayed two regions of high BV/TV, but these regions were less discrete and there was more variability across the sample. In contrast, Homo showed only one main region of high BV/TV in the femoral head and had the lowest BV/TV, as well as the most anisotropic trabeculae. The Homo trabecular structure is consistent with stereotypical loading with a more extended hip compared with great apes, which is characteristic of modern human bipedalism. Our results suggest that holistic evaluations of femoral head trabecular architecture can reveal previously undetected patterns linked to locomotor behaviour in extant apes and can provide further insight into hip joint loading in fossil hominins and other primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoni Georgiou
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsVienna University of TechnologyViennaAustria
- Department of Anatomy and BiomechanicsKarl Landsteiner Private University of Health SciencesKrems an der DonauAustria
| | - Laura T. Buck
- Department of AnthropologyUniversity of CaliforniaDavisCAUSA
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
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17
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Colombo A, Stephens NB, Tsegai ZJ, Bettuzzi M, Morigi MP, Belcastro MG, Hublin JJ. Trabecular Analysis of the Distal Radial Metaphysis during the Acquisition of Crawling and Bipedal Walking in Childhood: A Preliminary Study. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.3166/bmsap-2018-0041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In modern day populations, children following a normal pattern of development acquire independent bipedal locomotion between the ages of 9 and 18 months. Variability in the timing of this psychomotor developmental milestone depends on various factors, including cultural influences. It is well known that trabecular bone adapts to changes in biomechanical loading and that this can be influenced by alternative locomotor modes, such as crawling, which may be adopted before the acquisition of bipedal locomotion. With the onset of crawling, increased loading of the distal metaphysis of the radius, a component of the wrist, may lead to changes in trabecular bone architecture. To test this hypothesis, eight distal metaphyses of the radius of nonpathological children aged 0 to 3 years from the Bologna collection of identified skeletons were μCT-scanned at a resolution of 10.7 μm. The microarchitectural parameters of the trabecular bone (trabecular bone volume fraction, trabecular thickness, trabecular spacing, and trabecular ellipsoid factor) were quantified for the entire metaphysis and 3D morphometric maps of the distribution of the bone volume fraction were generated. Analysis of these microarchitectural parameters and the 3D morphometric maps show changes in the trabecular bone structure between 6 and 15 months, the period during which both crawling and bipedalism are acquired. This preliminary study analyzed the trabecular structure of the growing radius in three dimensions for the first time, and suggests that ontogenetic changes in the trabecular structure of the radial metaphysis may be related to changes in the biomechanical loading of the wrist during early locomotor transitions, i.e. the onset of crawling. Moreover, microarchitectural analysis could supply important information on the developmental timing of locomotor transitions, which would facilitate interpretations of locomotor development in past populations.
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18
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Macintosh AA, Stock JT. Intensive terrestrial or marine locomotor strategies are associated with inter- and intra-limb bone functional adaptation in living female athletes. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2019; 168:566-581. [PMID: 30613942 PMCID: PMC6519197 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23773] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To systematically characterize intra-limb patterns of skeletal plasticity to loading among living women, in order to better understand regional complexity in structural adaptation within the lower limb and more accurately infer behavior in the past. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used peripheral quantitative computed tomography imaging of the femur, tibia, first and second metatarsals to quantify bone morphology among female controls and athletes representative of either terrestrial or marine mobility, grouped by loading category (odd-impact, repetitive low-impact, and high-magnitude). Parameters included midshaft bone density, areas, rigidity, and shape, epiphyseal bone densities and areas. We assessed between-group differences and the influence of training history on significant variation among the loading groups. RESULTS Terrestrial mobility strategies were best distinguished by significant midshaft periosteal hypertrophy across the lower limb/foot relative to controls, and by particularly high midshaft femoral and tibial cortical bone areas relative to rowers. Enhanced midshaft bone area was typically paired with decreased bone density among athlete groups. Sport-specific variation in training duration/timing was significantly correlated with multiple midshaft parameters. DISCUSSION Results demonstrate characteristic patterns of intra-limb adaptation to terrestrial and marine mobility strategies among active women relative to controls, and highlight components of these patterns that may be shaped in part by differences in loading duration/timing. Additionally, our findings support constraints on skeletal variation in the distal tibia and foot relative to more proximal locations about the knee among living women. For example, metatarsal variation was constrained, but where present reflected sport-specific variation in force distribution in the foot.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A Macintosh
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.,Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jay T Stock
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom.,Department of Anthropology, Western University, London, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany
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19
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Sukhdeo S, Parsons J, Niu XM, Ryan TM. Trabecular Bone Structure in the Distal Femur of Humans, Apes, and Baboons. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 303:129-149. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.24050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Sukhdeo
- Department of AnthropologyPennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania
| | - Jacob Parsons
- Department of StatisticsPennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania
| | - Xiaoyue Maggie Niu
- Department of StatisticsPennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania
| | - Timothy M. Ryan
- Department of AnthropologyPennsylvania State University University Park Pennsylvania
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20
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Saers JPP, Ryan TM, Stock JT. Trabecular bone functional adaptation and sexual dimorphism in the human foot. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168:154-169. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaap P. P. Saers
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research Cambridge United Kingdom
| | - Timothy M. Ryan
- Department of Anthropology Pennsylvania State University State College Pennsylvania
| | - Jay T. Stock
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research Cambridge United Kingdom
- Department of Anthropology University of Western Ontario London Ontario Canada
- Department of Archaeology Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History Jena Germany
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21
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Bishop PJ, Hocknull SA, Clemente CJ, Hutchinson JR, Farke AA, Beck BR, Barrett RS, Lloyd DG. Cancellous bone and theropod dinosaur locomotion. Part I-an examination of cancellous bone architecture in the hindlimb bones of theropods. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5778. [PMID: 30402347 PMCID: PMC6215452 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper is the first of a three-part series that investigates the architecture of cancellous ('spongy') bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs, and uses cancellous bone architectural patterns to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct non-avian species. Cancellous bone is widely known to be highly sensitive to its mechanical environment, and has previously been used to infer locomotor biomechanics in extinct tetrapod vertebrates, especially primates. Despite great promise, cancellous bone architecture has remained little utilized for investigating locomotion in many other extinct vertebrate groups, such as dinosaurs. Documentation and quantification of architectural patterns across a whole bone, and across multiple bones, can provide much information on cancellous bone architectural patterns and variation across species. Additionally, this also lends itself to analysis of the musculoskeletal biomechanical factors involved in a direct, mechanistic fashion. On this premise, computed tomographic and image analysis techniques were used to describe and analyse the three-dimensional architecture of cancellous bone in the main hindlimb bones of theropod dinosaurs for the first time. A comprehensive survey across many extant and extinct species is produced, identifying several patterns of similarity and contrast between groups. For instance, more stemward non-avian theropods (e.g. ceratosaurs and tyrannosaurids) exhibit cancellous bone architectures more comparable to that present in humans, whereas species more closely related to birds (e.g. paravians) exhibit architectural patterns bearing greater similarity to those of extant birds. Many of the observed patterns may be linked to particular aspects of locomotor biomechanics, such as the degree of hip or knee flexion during stance and gait. A further important observation is the abundance of markedly oblique trabeculae in the diaphyses of the femur and tibia of birds, which in large species produces spiralling patterns along the endosteal surface. Not only do these observations provide new insight into theropod anatomy and behaviour, they also provide the foundation for mechanistic testing of locomotor hypotheses via musculoskeletal biomechanical modelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Bishop
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Current affiliation: Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Scott A. Hocknull
- Geosciences Program, Queensland Museum, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- School of Biosciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Christofer J. Clemente
- School of Science and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - John R. Hutchinson
- Structure and Motion Laboratory, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
| | - Andrew A. Farke
- Raymond M. Alf Museum of Paleontology at The Webb Schools, Claremont, CA, USA
| | - Belinda R. Beck
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Exercise and Human Performance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - Rod S. Barrett
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
| | - David G. Lloyd
- School of Allied Health Sciences, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
- Gold Coast Orthopaedic Research, Engineering and Education Alliance, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
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22
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Lu SC, Vereecke EE, Synek A, Pahr DH, Kivell TL. A novel experimental design for the measurement of metacarpal bone loading and deformation and fingertip force. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5480. [PMID: 30221084 PMCID: PMC6138040 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2018] [Accepted: 07/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Musculoskeletal and finite element modelling are often used to predict joint loading and bone strength within the human hand, but there is a lack of in vitro evidence of the force and strain experienced by hand bones. Methods This study presents a novel experimental setup that allows the positioning of a cadaveric digit in a variety of postures with the measurement of force and strain experienced by the third metacarpal. The setup allows for the measurement of fingertip force as well. We tested this experimental setup using three cadaveric human third digits in which the flexor tendons were loaded in two tendon pathways: (1) parallel to the metacarpal bone shaft, with bowstringing; (2) a semi-physiological condition in which the tendons were positioned closer to the bone shaft. Results There is substantial variation in metacarpal net force, metacarpal strain and fingertip force between the two tendon pathways. The net force acting on the metacarpal bone is oriented palmarly in the parallel tendon condition, causing tension along the dorsum of the metacarpal shaft, while the force increases and is oriented dorsally in the semi-physiological condition, causing compression of the dorsal metacarpal shaft. Fingertip force is also greater in the semi-physiological condition, implying a more efficient grip function. Inter-individual variation is observed in the radioulnar orientation of the force experienced by the metacarpal bone, the fingertip force, and the strain patterns on the metacarpal shaft. Conclusion This study demonstrates a new method for measuring force and strain experienced by the metacarpal, and fingertip force in cadaveric digits that can, in turn, inform computation models. Inter-individual variation in loads experienced by the third digit suggest that there are differences in joint contact and/or internal bone structure across individuals that are important to consider in clinical and evolutionary contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Szu-Ching Lu
- Animal Postcranial Evolution Lab, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
| | - Evie E Vereecke
- Department of Development and Regeneration, University of Leuven, Kortrijk, Belgium
| | - Alexander Synek
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dieter H Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria.,Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Karl Landsteiner Private University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Animal Postcranial Evolution Lab, Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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23
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Tsegai ZJ, Skinner MM, Pahr DH, Hublin JJ, Kivell TL. Ontogeny and variability of trabecular bone in the chimpanzee humerus, femur and tibia. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 167:713-736. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23696] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Revised: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Center; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent; Canterbury United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics; Vienna University of Technology; Wien Austria
| | - Jean-Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Center; School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent; Canterbury United Kingdom
- Department of Human Evolution; Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Leipzig Germany
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24
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Stephens NB, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Hublin JJ, Skinner MM. Trabecular bone patterning across the human hand. J Hum Evol 2018; 123:1-23. [PMID: 30072187 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hand bone morphology is regularly used to link particular hominin species with behaviors relevant to cognitive/technological progress. Debates about the functional significance of differing hominin hand bone morphologies tend to rely on establishing phylogenetic relationships and/or inferring behavior from epigenetic variation arising from mechanical loading and adaptive bone modeling. Most research focuses on variation in cortical bone structure, but additional information about hand function may be provided through the analysis of internal trabecular structure. While primate hand bone trabecular structure is known to vary in ways that are consistent with expected joint loading differences during manipulation and locomotion, no study exists that has documented this variation across the numerous bones of the hand. We quantify the trabecular structure in 22 bones of the human hand (early/extant modern Homo sapiens) and compare structural variation between two groups associated with post-agricultural/industrial (post-Neolithic) and foraging/hunter-gatherer (forager) subsistence strategies. We (1) establish trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV), modulus (E), degree of anisotropy (DA), mean trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) and spacing (Tb.Sp); (2) visualize the average distribution of site-specific BV/TV for each bone; and (3) examine if the variation in trabecular structure is consistent with expected joint loading differences among the regions of the hand and between the groups. Results indicate similar distributions of trabecular bone in both groups, with those of the forager sample presenting higher BV/TV, E, and lower DA, suggesting greater and more variable loading during manipulation. We find indications of higher loading along the ulnar side of the forager sample hand, with high site-specific BV/TV distributions among the carpals that are suggestive of high loading while the wrist moves through the 'dart-thrower's' motion. These results support the use of trabecular structure to infer behavior and have direct implications for refining our understanding of human hand evolution and fossil hominin hand use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas B Stephens
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Tracy L Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NZ, United Kingdom; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dieter H Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Getreidemarkt 9, A-1060 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jean-Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Matthew M Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NZ, United Kingdom; Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Platz 6, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
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Georgiou L, Kivell TL, Pahr DH, Skinner MM. Trabecular bone patterning in the hominoid distal femur. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5156. [PMID: 30002981 PMCID: PMC6035864 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In addition to external bone shape and cortical bone thickness and distribution, the distribution and orientation of internal trabecular bone across individuals and species has yielded important functional information on how bone adapts in response to load. In particular, trabecular bone analysis has played a key role in studies of human and nonhuman primate locomotion and has shown that species with different locomotor repertoires display distinct trabecular architecture in various regions of the skeleton. In this study, we analyse trabecular structure throughout the distal femur of extant hominoids and test for differences due to locomotor loading regime. METHODS Micro-computed tomography scans of Homo sapiens (n = 11), Pan troglodytes (n = 18), Gorilla gorilla (n = 14) and Pongo sp. (n = 7) were used to investigate trabecular structure throughout the distal epiphysis of the femur. We predicted that bone volume fraction (BV/TV) in the medial and lateral condyles in Homo would be distally concentrated and more anisotropic due to a habitual extended knee posture at the point of peak ground reaction force during bipedal locomotion, whereas great apes would show more posteriorly concentrated BV/TV and greater isotropy due to a flexed knee posture and more variable hindlimb use during locomotion. RESULTS Results indicate some significant differences between taxa, with the most prominent being higher BV/TV in the posterosuperior region of the condyles in Pan and higher BV/TV and anisotropy in the posteroinferior region in Homo. Furthermore, trabecular number, spacing and thickness differ significantly, mainly separating Gorilla from the other apes. DISCUSSION The trabecular architecture of the distal femur holds a functional signal linked to habitual behaviour; however, there was more similarity across taxa and greater intraspecific variability than expected. Specifically, there was a large degree of overlap in trabecular structure across the sample, and Homo was not as distinct as predicted. Nonetheless, this study offers a comparative sample of trabecular structure in the hominoid distal femur and can contribute to future studies of locomotion in extinct taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leoni Georgiou
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute for Lightweight Design and Structural Biomechanics, Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Anatomy and Biomechanics, Karl Landsteiner Private University of Health Sciences, Krems an der Donau, Austria
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Skeletal Biology Research Centre, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent at Canterbury, Canterbury, Kent, UK
- Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Tsegai ZJ, Skinner MM, Pahr DH, Hublin J, Kivell TL. Systemic patterns of trabecular bone across the human and chimpanzee skeleton. J Anat 2018; 232:641-656. [PMID: 29344941 PMCID: PMC5835784 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspects of trabecular bone architecture are thought to reflect regional loading of the skeleton, and thus differ between primate taxa with different locomotor and postural modes. However, there are several systemic factors that affect bone structure that could contribute to, or be the primary factor determining, interspecific differences in bone structure. These systemic factors include differences in genetic regulation, sensitivity to loading, hormone levels, diet, and activity levels. Improved understanding of inter-/intraspecific variability, and variability across the skeleton of an individual, is required to interpret properly potential functional signals present within trabecular structure. Using a whole-region method of analysis, we investigated trabecular structure throughout the skeleton of humans and chimpanzees. Trabecular bone volume fraction (BV/TV), degree of anisotropy (DA) and trabecular thickness (Tb.Th) were quantified from high resolution micro-computed tomographic scans of the humeral and femoral head, third metacarpal and third metatarsal head, distal tibia, talus and first thoracic vertebra. We found that BV/TV is, in most anatomical sites, significantly higher in chimpanzees than in humans, suggesting a systemic difference in trabecular structure unrelated to local loading regime. Differences in BV/TV between the forelimb and hindlimb did not clearly reflect differences in locomotor loading in the study taxa. There were no clear systemic differences between the taxa in DA and, as such, this parameter might reflect function and relate to differences in joint loading. This systemic approach reveals both the pattern of variability across the skeleton and between taxa, and helps identify those features of trabecular structure that may relate to joint function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zewdi J. Tsegai
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Matthew M. Skinner
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
| | - Dieter H. Pahr
- Institute of Lightweight Design and Structural BiomechanicsVienna University of TechnologyViennaAustria
| | - Jean‐Jacques Hublin
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
| | - Tracy L. Kivell
- Department of Human EvolutionMax Planck Institute for Evolutionary AnthropologyLeipzigGermany
- Skeletal Biology Research CentreSchool of Anthropology and ConservationUniversity of KentCanterburyUK
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Perchalski B, Placke A, Sukhdeo SM, Shaw CN, Gosman JH, Raichlen DA, Ryan TM. Asymmetry in the Cortical and Trabecular Bone of the Human Humerus During Development. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2018; 301:1012-1025. [PMID: 29055969 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Revised: 04/11/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Many studies have noted that the bones of the human upper limb display bilateral asymmetry, commonly linking this asymmetry in external and internal morphology to handedness and lateralization. Few studies, however, have attempted to track asymmetry throughout ontogeny. This study assesses the ontogenetic development of cortical and trabecular bone asymmetry in the humerus. We predict that directional asymmetry in structural properties will emerge in concert with hand preference and increased activity levels during the juvenile period. Paired humeri from 57 individuals from the Norris Farms #36 archaeological skeletal collection ranging in age from neonate to adult were used in the current study. Cortical bone cross-sectional properties and three-dimensional trabecular bone structure were quantified from microcomputed tomography data. The results indicate significant absolute asymmetry in all measured cortical and trabecular bone variables across all ages. Trabecular bone displays significantly higher absolute asymmetry than cortical bone. Contrary to expectations, however, this study found very little evidence for significant directional asymmetry in humeral length and cortical or trabecular bone variables, except in adults. The presence of significant absolute asymmetry in all age groups, and the lack of significant directional asymmetry in almost all variables at all ages, suggests that structural differences due to higher levels of habitual loading in the dominant arm are overlain on a template of potentially significant existing asymmetry. Anat Rec, 301:1012-1025, 2018. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernadette Perchalski
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Arielle Placke
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Simone M Sukhdeo
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
| | - Colin N Shaw
- Phenotypic Adaptability, Variation and Evolution Research Group, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - James H Gosman
- Department of Anthropology, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio
| | | | - Timothy M Ryan
- Department of Anthropology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania.,Center for Quantitative Imaging, EMS Energy Institute, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania
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Best A, Holt B, Troy K, Hamill J. Trabecular bone in the calcaneus of runners. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0188200. [PMID: 29141022 PMCID: PMC5687755 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0188200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trabecular bone of the human calcaneus is subjected to extreme repetitive forces during endurance running and should adapt in response to this strain. To assess possible bone functional adaptation in the posterior region of the calcaneus, we recruited forefoot-striking runners (n = 6), rearfoot-striking runners (n = 6), and non-runners (n = 6), all males aged 20-41 for this institutionally approved study. Foot strike pattern was confirmed for each runner using a motion capture system. We obtained high resolution peripheral computed tomography scans of the posterior calcaneus for both runners and non-runners. No statistically significant differences were found between runners and nonrunners or forefoot strikers and rearfoot strikers. Mean trabecular thickness and mineral density were greatest in forefoot runners with strong effect sizes (<0.80). Trabecular thickness was positively correlated with weekly running distance (r2 = 0.417, p<0.05) and years running (r2 = 0.339, p<0.05) and negatively correlated with age at onset of running (r2 = 0.515, p<0.01) Trabecular thickness, mineral density and bone volume ratio of nonrunners were highly correlated with body mass (r2 = 0.824, p<0.05) and nonrunners were significantly heavier than runners (p<0.05). Adjusting for body mass revealed significantly thicker trabeculae in the posterior calcaneus of forefoot strikers, likely an artifact of greater running volume and earlier onset of running in this subgroup; thus, individuals with the greatest summative loading stimulus had, after body mass adjustment, the thickest trabeculae. Further study with larger sample sizes is necessary to elucidate the role of footstrike on calcaneal trabecular structure. To our knowledge, intraspecific body mass correlations with measures of trabecular robusticity have not been reported elsewhere. We hypothesize that early adoption of running and years of sustained moderate volume running stimulate bone modeling in trabeculae of the posterior calcaneus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Best
- Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Brigitte Holt
- Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Karen Troy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Joseph Hamill
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
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Reina N, Cavaignac E, Trousdale WH, Laffosse JM, Braga J. Laterality and grip strength influence hand bone micro-architecture in modern humans, an HRpQCT study. J Anat 2017; 230:796-804. [PMID: 28421607 DOI: 10.1111/joa.12608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
It is widely hypothesized that mechanical loading, specifically repetitive low-intensity tasks, influences the inner structure of cancellous bone. As such, there is likely a relationship between handedness and bone morphology. The aim of this study is to determine patterns in trabecular bone between dominant and non-dominant hands in modern humans. Seventeen healthy patients between 22 and 32 years old were included in the study. Radial carpal bones (lunate, capitate, scaphoid, trapezium, trapezoid, 1st, 2nd and 3rd metacarpals) were analyzed with high-resolution micro-computed tomography. Additionally, crush and pinch grip were recorded. Factorial analysis indicated that bone volume ratio, trabeculae number (Tb.N), bone surface to volume ratio (BS.BV), body weight, stature and crush grip were all positively correlated with principal components 1 and 2 explaining 78.7% of the variance. Volumetric and trabecular endostructural parameters (BV/TV, BS/BV or Tb.Th, Tb.N) explain the observed inter-individual variability better than anthropometric or clinical parameters. Factors analysis regressions showed correlations between these parameters and the dominant side for crush strength for the lunate (r2 = 0.640, P < 0.0001), trapezium (r2 = 0.836, P < 0.0001) and third metacarpal (r2 = 0.763). However, despite a significant lateralization in grip strength for all patients, the endostructural variability between dominant and non-dominant sides was limited in perspective to inter-individual differences. In conclusion, handedness is unlikely to generate trabecular patterns of asymmetry. It appears, however, that crush strength can be considered for endostructural analysis in the modern human wrist.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Reina
- Orthopedic and Trauma Surgery Department, Hôpital Pierre Paul Riquet, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Laboratoire d'Anthropobiologie AMIS, UMR 5288 CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | - Etienne Cavaignac
- Orthopedic and Trauma Surgery Department, Hôpital Pierre Paul Riquet, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Laboratoire d'Anthropobiologie AMIS, UMR 5288 CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Jean-Michel Laffosse
- Orthopedic and Trauma Surgery Department, Hôpital Pierre Paul Riquet, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.,Biomechanics Laboratory, IMFT UMR 5502, University of Toulouse, Toulouse, France
| | - José Braga
- Laboratoire d'Anthropobiologie AMIS, UMR 5288 CNRS, Université Paul Sabatier, Toulouse, France
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