Supramolecular nanotherapeutics based on cucurbiturils

Polymeric biomaterials have important applications in aiding clinical disease treatment, including drug delivery, bioimaging, and tissue engineering. Currently, conventional tumor chemotherapy faces obstacles such as poor solubility/stability, inability to target, and uncontrolled drug release in clinical trials, for which the emergence of supramolecular material therapeutics combining non-covalent interactions with conventional therapies is a very promising candidate. Due to their molecular recognition abilities with a range of biomolecules, cucurbit[n]uril (CB[n]), a type of macrocyclic receptors with robust backbones, hydrophobic cavities, and carbonyl-binding channels, have garnered a lot of attention. Therefore, this paper reviews recent advances in CB[n] material-based supramolecular therapeutics for clinical treatments, including targeted delivery applications and related imaging and sensing systems. This study also covers the distinctive benefits of CB materials for biological applications, as well as the trends and prospects of this interdisciplinary subject, based on numerous state-of-the-art research findings.

Heavy Atom at Bay of Perylene Significantly Improves Intersystem Crossing

We studied the photophysical properties of substituted perylenes using time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) with Tamm-Dancoff Approximation (TDA). The TDA-TDDFT method allowed us to examine how luminescence activity alters by substituting halogens at different positions (bay, ortho, and peri) of perylenes. Substituting larger halogens like chlorine and bromine at the bay position significantly affects the planarity of the π-system in perylenes. Interestingly, bay-bromoperylene (P-bBr) showed pronounced spin-orbit coupling (SOC) between singlet and triplet excited states. The heavy atom effect (HAE) functioned efficiently with a distorted π-system and substantially enhanced the SOC in P-bBr. Therefore, a rapid intersystem crossing (ISC) is responsible for turning off the fluorescence of P-bBr. In contrast, bromine substitution other than the bay position (i.e., ortho- and peri-bromoperylenes (P-oBr and P-pBr), which maintained planarity), or substituting lighter elements like a methyl group (similar in size to Br) at the bay position of perylene did not substantially improve the SOC. Thus, the ISC is insufficient to quench the fluorescence in these systems. Additionally, substituting multiple bromines in perylene with at least one in the bay position (i.e., P-boBr2, P-bpBr2, and P-bopBr3) further improved the SOC, leading to much faster ISC (1011 s-1) in P-bopBr3. While multiple bromine substitutions other than the bay position (i.e., P-opBr2) exhibited low ISC due to the planar π-system. So, the heavy bromine at the bay position of perylene causes significant enhancement of the ISC.

Ring Fusion Elevates the Electronic Mobility of Azabenzannulated Perylene Diimide

The backwardness of n-type organic semiconductors still exists compared with the p-type counterparts. Thus, the development of high-performance n-type organic semiconductors is of great importance for organic electronic devices and their integrated circuits. In recent years, azabenzannulated perylene diimide (PDI), as one of immense bay-region-annulated PDI derivatives, has drawn considerable attentions. However, the electronic mobilities of azabenzannulated PDI derivatives are barely satisfactory. In this contribution, the peripheral benzene ring in azabenzannulated PDI 2 was fused to the ortho position by intramolecular C-H arylation cyclization. This endows the resultant azabenzannulated PDI 4 a planar configuration as well as electron deficient pentagonal ring. As a result, the electronic mobility of 4 is almost two orders of magnitude higher than that of the nonfused azabenzannulated PDI 2. This work shall pave a new avenue in elevating the performance of azabenzannulated PDI in organic electronics.

A π-extended β-diketiminate ligand via a templated Scholl approach

We report a templated Scholl oxidation strategy for the preparation of the first β-diketiminate (BDI) ligands embedded within a 24-electron π-system backbone. The resulting benzo[f,g]tetracene BDI ligand was coordinated to a zinc centre and electrochemical studies showed the redox active nature of the ligand.

Modulation of the Excited States of Ruthenium(II)-perylene Dyad to Access Near-IR Luminescence, Long-Lived Perylene Triplet State and Singlet Oxygen Photosensitization

Herein, we present a novel ruthenium(II)-perylene dyad (RuPDI-Py) that combines the photophysical properties of pyrrolidine-substituted perylene diimide (PDI-Py) and the ruthenium(II) polypyridine complex [Ru(phen)3]2+. A comprehensive study of excited-state dynamics was carried out using time-resolved and steady-state methods in a dimethyl sulfoxide solution. The RuPDI-Py dyad demonstrated excitation wavelength-dependent photophysical behavior. Upon photoexcitation above 600 nm, the dyad exclusively exhibits the near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence of the 1PDI-Py state at 785 nm (τfl = 1.50 ns). In contrast, upon photoexcitation between 350 and 450 nm, the dyad also exhibits a photoinduced electron transfer from the {[Ru(phen)3]2+} moiety to PDI-Py, generating the charge-separated intermediate state {Ru(III)-(PDI-Py)•-} (4 μs). This state subsequently decays to the long-lived triplet excited state 3PDI-Py (36 μs), which is able to sensitize singlet oxygen (1O2). Overall, tuning 1O2 photoactivation or NIR fluorescence makes RuPDI-Py a promising candidate for using absorbed light energy to perform the desired functions in theranostic applications.

Molecularly Engineered Room-Temperature Phosphorescence for Biomedical Application: From the Visible toward Second Near-Infrared Window

Phosphorescence, characterized by luminescent lifetimes significantly longer than that of biological autofluorescence under ambient environment, is of great value for biomedical applications. Academic evidence of fluorescence imaging indicates that virtually all imaging metrics (sensitivity, resolution, and penetration depths) are improved when progressing into longer wavelength regions, especially the recently reported second near-infrared (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) window. Although the emission wavelength of probes does matter, it is not clear whether the guideline of "the longer the wavelength, the better the imaging effect" is still suitable for developing phosphorescent probes. For tissue-specific bioimaging, long-lived probes, even if they emit visible phosphorescence, enable accurate visualization of large deep tissues. For studies dealing with bioimaging of tiny biological architectures or dynamic physiopathological activities, the prerequisite is rigorous planning of long-wavelength phosphorescence, being aware of the cooperative contribution of long wavelengths and long lifetimes for improving the spatiotemporal resolution, penetration depth, and sensitivity of bioimaging. In this Review, emerging molecular engineering methods of room-temperature phosphorescence are discussed through the lens of photophysical mechanisms. We highlight the roles of phosphorescence with emission from visible to NIR-II windows toward bioapplications. To appreciate such advances, challenges and prospects in rapidly growing studies of room-temperature phosphorescence are described.

Unveiling the intersystem crossing dynamics in N-annulated perylene bisimides

The efficient population of the triplet excited states in heavy metal-free organic chromophores has been one of the long-standing research problems to molecular photochemists. The negligible spin-orbit coupling matrix elements in the purely organic chromophores and the large singlet-triplet energy gap (ΔES-T) pose a hurdle for ultrafast intersystem crossing (ISC). Herein we report the unprecedented population of triplet manifold in a series of nitrogen-annulated perylene bisimide chromophores (NPBI and Br-NPBI). NPBI is found to have a moderate fluorescence quantum yield (Φf = 68 ± 5%), whereas Br-NPBI showcased a low fluorescence quantum yield (Φf = 2.0 ± 0.6%) in toluene. The femtosecond transient absorption measurements of Br-NPBI revealed ultrafast ISC (kISC = 1.97 × 1010 s-1) from the initially populated singlet excited state to the long-lived triplet excited states. The triplet quantum yields (ΦT = 95.2 ± 4.6% for Br-NPBI, ΦT = 18.7 ± 2.3% for NPBI) calculated from nanosecond transient absorption spectroscopy measurements showed the enhancement in triplet population upon bromine substitution. The quantum chemical calculations revealed the explicit role of nitrogen annulation in tuning the excited state energy levels to favor the ISC. The near degeneracy between the singlet and triplet excited states observed in NPBI and Br-NPBI (ΔES-T = -0.01 eV for NPBI, ΔES-T = 0.03 eV for Br-NPBI) facilitates the spin flipping in the molecules. Nitrogen annulation emerges as a design strategy to open up the ISC pathway and the rate of which can be further enhanced by the substitution of a heavier element.

Recent Advances in Applications of Fluorescent Perylenediimide and Perylenemonoimide Dyes in Bioimaging, Photothermal and Photodynamic Therapy

The emblematic perylenediimide (PDI) motif which was initially used as a simple dye has undergone incredible development in recent decades. The increasing power of synthetic organic chemistry has allowed it to decorate PDIs to achieve highly functional dyes. As these PDI derivatives combine thermal, chemical and photostability, with an additional high absorption coefficient and near-unity fluorescence quantum yield, they have been widely studied for applications in materials science, particularly in photovoltaics. Although PDIs have always been in the spotlight, their asymmetric counterparts, perylenemonoimide (PMI) analogues, are now experiencing a resurgence of interest with new efforts to create architectures with equally exciting properties. Namely, their exceptional fluorescence properties have recently been used to develop novel systems for applications in bioimaging, biosensing and photodynamic therapy. This review covers the state of the art in the synthesis, photophysical characterizations and recently reported applications demonstrating the versatility of these two sister PDI and PMI compounds. The objective is to show that after well-known applications in materials science, the emerging trends in the use of PDI- and PMI-based derivatives concern very specific biomedicinal applications including drug delivery, diagnostics and theranostics.

Phototheranostic Agents Based on Nonionic Heptamethine Cyanine for Realizing Synergistic Cancer Phototherapy

Asymmetrical heptamethine cyanine with near-infrared (NIR) absorption is used for photothermal therapy (PTT) of cancer. Aiming to overcome the drawbacks caused by the high temperature of PTT, the development of asymmetrical heptamethine cyanine with photothermal and photodynamic properties is still an attractive strategy. Different from the traditional method of the heavy atom effect, in this work, the carboxyl or sulfonic groups are introduced into the indole ring or branch chain of asymmetrical heptamethine cyanine to afford a series of new phototherapy agents. After being encapsulated by DSPE-PEG₂₀₀₀ , BSS-Et NPs exhibit robust photostability, efficient reactive oxygen species generation (49%), and excellent photothermal conversion efficiency of about 37.6% under 808 nm laser irradiation. BSS-Et NPs possess passive tumor-targeting properties in vivo to not only visualize the tumor by NIR fluorescence imaging but also eliminate the tumor without any recurrence by photodynamic therapy and PTT synergistic therapy under laser irradiation. In addition, benefitting from the characteristics of organic small molecules, they can be metabolized quickly through the liver without inducing toxicity in the whole body. In general, this study provides a new direction for the development of multifunctional phototherapy agents for cancer treatment.

Activating Organic Phosphorescence via Heavy Metal-π Interaction Induced Intersystem Crossing

Heavy-atom-containing clusters, nanocrystals, and other semiconductors can sensitize the triplet states of their surface-bonded chromophores, but the energy loss, such as nonradiative deactivation, often prevents the synergistic light emission in their solid-state coassemblies. Cocrystallization allows new combinations of molecules with complementary properties for achieving functionalities not available in single components. Here, the cocrystal formation that employs platinum(II) acetylacetonate (Pt(acac)₂ ) as a triplet sensitizer and electron-deficient 1,4,5,8-naphthalene diimides (NDIs) as organic phosphors is reported. The hybrid cocrystals exhibit room-temperature phosphorescence confined in the low-lying, long-lived triplet state of NDIs with photoluminescence (PL) quantum yield (Φ_PL ) exceeding 25% and a phosphorescence lifetime (τ_Ph ) of 156 µs. This remarkable PL property benefits from the noncovalent electronic and spin-orbital coupling between the constituents.

Iridium and Ruthenium Complexes Bearing Perylene Ligands

The present review summarizes the work carried out mostly in the last decade on iridium and ruthenium complexes bearing various perylene ligands, of particular interest for bioimaging, photodynamic therapy, and solar energy conversion. In these complexes, the absorption spectra and the electrochemical properties are those of the perylene subunit plus those of the metal moiety. In contrast, the emissions are completely changed with respect to perylenes considered alone. Thus, fully organic perylenes are characterized by a strong fluorescence in the visible region, lifetimes of a few nanoseconds, and luminescence quantum yields approaching 100%, whereas perylene Ir and Ru complexes usually do not emit; however, in few cases, weak phosphorescent emissions, with lifetimes in the range of microseconds and relatively low quantum yields, are reported. This is due to a strong interaction between the perylene core and the heavy metal center, taking place after the excitation. Nevertheless, an important advantage deriving from the presence of the heavy metal center is represented by the ability to generate large amounts of singlet oxygen, which plays a key role in photodynamic therapy.

Core-Twist Reduces the Triplet Formation Efficiency in Brominated Perylene Diimides

Bromination is a recent approach to achieve intersystem crossing (ISC) in perylene diimides (PDIs). Herein, we explore the triplet formation dynamics in two tetrabrominated PDI (PDI-Br₄) positional isomers with planar (P-PDI) and twisted (T-PDI) π-conjugated frameworks. In contrast to the known effect where the planar geometry favors fluorescence, T-PDI shows higher fluorescence (ϕ_f = 0.64) than the planar counterpart P-PDI (ϕ_f = 0.42). P-PDI possesses near-degenerate S₁ and T₃/T₄ states and a larger spin-orbit coupling (SOC). Core-twisting has a pronounced effect on the absorption spectra due to symmetry breaking and would open up multiple ISC pathways, albeit with a lower SOC. Low-energy singlet-triplet state crossings within the Franck-Condon region would facilitate ultrafast triplet generation via the S₁-T₃/T₄ ISC pathway in P-PDI. In comparison, such crossings occur at relatively higher energy, reducing the triplet formation efficiency in T-PDI.

The mechanism of intramolecular halogen bonding enhanced the quantum efficiency of ultralong organic phosphorescence in the aggregated state

Ultralong organic phosphorescence (UOP) has broad application prospects in many fields, but realizing its high quantum efficiency is still full of challenges. One of the main reasons is that the internal luminescence mechanism is unclear and theoretical investigations to reveal the inner structure-property relationship are highly desired. Herein, the internal mechanism of halogen bonding enhancing the quantum efficiency of UOP is studied through the combination of quantum mechanics and molecular mechanics methods coupled with the thermal vibration correlation function (TVCF) method. Geometric and electronic data are obtained by density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) calculations. Transition properties, energy gaps, intermolecular interactions, excited state dynamics as well as Huang-Rhys factors and reorganization energies are analyzed in detail. The results show that the high phosphorescence quantum efficiency benefits from the fast intersystem crossing (ISC) process and the slow non-radiative decay process. The halogen bonding, which cooperates with the effects of aromatic carbonyl and heavy atoms, not only accelerates the ISC rate by increasing the spin-orbit coupling effect, but also restricts the molecular motion and reduces the non-radiative energy consumption. Furthermore, through wise molecular design, an efficient UOP molecule with fast ISC and slow non-radiative decay rates is proposed. This work provides an insight into realizing efficient UOP emission via intramolecular halogen bonding.

Redox-Switchable Complexes Based on Nanographene-NHCs

A series of rhodium and iridium complexes with a N-heterocyclic carbene (NHC) ligand decorated with a perylene-diimide-pyrene moiety are described. Electrochemical studies reveal that the complexes can undergo two successive one-electron reduction events, associated to the reduction of the PDI moiety attached to the NHC ligand. The reduction of the ligand produces a significant increase on its electron-donating character, as observed from the infrared spectroelectrochemical studies. The rhodium complex was tested in the [3+2] cycloaddition of diphenylcyclopropenone and methylphenylacetylene, where it displayed a redox-switchable behavior. The neutral complex showed moderate activity, which was suppressed when the catalyst was reduced.

Near-Infrared Phosphorescent Switch of Diarylethene Phenylpyridinium Derivative and Cucurbit[8]uril for Cell Imaging

Near-infrared (NIR) pure organic room-temperature phosphorescence (RTP) materials have received growing research interest due to their wide application in the fields of high-resolution bioimaging and luminescent materials. In this work, the authors report a macrocycle-confined pure organic RTP supramolecular assembly, which is constructed by diarylethene phenylpyridinium derivative (DTE-TP) and cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]). Compared with CB[6] and CB[7], the larger cavity of CB[8] induces molecular folding and enhances the intramolecular charge transfer interactions, which leads to the obtained assembly emitting efficient NIR phosphorescence at 700 nm. Due to the photochromism of the diarylethene core, the NIR phosphorescence is reversibly regulated by light irradiation at wavelengths of 365 and >600 nm. Furthermore, cell-based experiments show that this supramolecular assembly is located in the lysosomes and displays a NIR phosphorescence at 650-750 nm. In addition, by means of phosphorescence resonance energy transfer, the obtained assembly exhibits a red-shifted NIR emission at 817 nm. This supramolecular phosphorescent switch provides a convenient path for the modular design of water-soluble pure organic room-temperature NIR phosphorescent materials.

Enantiopure Cyclometalated Rh(III) and Ir(III) Complexes Displaying Rigid Configuration at Metal Center: Design, Structures, Chiroptical Properties and Role of the Iodide Ligand

Enantiopure N-heterocyclic carbene half-sandwich metal complexes of the general formula [Cp*M(C^C:)I] (M = Rh, Ir; C^C: = NI-NHC; NI-H = Naphthalimide; NHC = N-heterocyclic carbene) are reported. The rhodium compound was obtained as a single isomer displaying six membered metallacycle and was resolved on chiral column chromatography to the corresponding enantiomers (S)-[Cp*Rh(C^C:)I] (S)-2 and (R)-[Cp*Rh(C^C:)I] (R)-2. The iridium congener, however, furnishes a pair of regioisomers, which were resolved into (S)-[Cp*Ir(C^C:)I] (S)-3 and (R)-[Cp*Ir(C^C:)I] (R)-3 and (S)-[Cp*Ir(C^C:)I] (S)-4 and (R)-[Cp*Ir(C^C:)I] (R)-4. These regioisomers differ from each other, only by the size of the metallacycle; five-membered for 3 and six-membered for 4. The molecular structures of (S)-2 and (S)-4 are reported. Moreover, the chiroptical properties of these compounds are presented and discussed. These compounds display exceptional stable configurations at the metal center in solution with enantiomerization barrier ΔG≠ up to 124 kJ/mol. This is because the nature of the naphthalimide-NHC clamp ligand and the iodide ligand contribute to their configuration’s robustness. In contrast to related complexes reported in the literature, which are often labile in solution.

Recent Advances in Heterocyclic Nanographenes and Other Polycyclic Heteroaromatic Compounds

This review surveys recent progress in the chemistry of polycyclic heteroaromatic molecules with a focus on structural diversity and synthetic methodology. The article covers literature published during the period of 2016-2020, providing an update to our first review of this topic (Chem. Rev. 2017, 117 (4), 3479-3716).

Merging of a Perylene Moiety Enables a RuII Photosensitizer with Long-Lived Excited States and the Efficient Production of Singlet Oxygen

Multichromophoric systems based on a RuII polypyridine moiety containing an additional organic chromophore are of increasing interest with respect to different light-driven applications. Here, we present the synthesis and detailed characterization of a novel RuII photosensitizer, namely [(tbbpy)2 Ru((2-(perylen-3-yl)-1H-imidazo[4,5-f][1,10]-phenanthrolline))](PF6 )2 RuipPer, that includes a merged perylene dye in the back of the ip ligand. This complex features two emissive excited states as well as a long-lived (8 μs) dark state in acetonitrile solution. Compared to prototype [(bpy)3 Ru]2+ -like complexes, a strongly altered absorption (ϵ=50.3×103  M-1  cm-1 at 467 nm) and emission behavior caused by the introduction of the perylene unit is found. A combination of spectro-electrochemistry and time-resolved spectroscopy was used to elucidate the nature of the excited states. Finally, this photosensitizer was successfully used for the efficient formation of reactive singlet oxygen.

Excited states and spin–orbit coupling in chalcogen substituted perylene diimides and their radical anions

A novel series of chalcogen bay-substituted perylene diimides show increasing SOC, which was investigated in detail via (time-resolved) optical spectroscopy, (spectro)electrochemistry, EPR spectroscopy and TD-DFT calculations.

Introducing Distinct Structural and Optical Properties into Organotin Sulfide Clusters by the Attachment of Perylenyl and Corannulenyl Groups

We report the introduction of distinct optical properties into organotin sulfide clusters by the attachment of extended polycyclic aromatic organic molecules. This was realized by the reactions of [(R^NSn)₄S₆] (R^N = CMe₂CH₂CMeNNH₂) with 3-perylenecarbaldehyde and corannulenecarbaldehyde, respectively. The reaction with the first reactant leads to the formation of two products [(R^perylSn)₃S₄][SnCl₃] [1a; R^peryl = CMe₂CH₂CMeNNCH(C₂₀H₁₁)] and [(R^perylSn)₃S₄Cl] (1b). Structural differences between these two compounds are reflected in their different optical absorption and luminescence behavior, yet in both cases, the main emission is red-shifted relative to 3-perylenecarbaldehyde. The second organic molecule affords the compound [(R^corSn)₄Sn₂S₁₀] [2; R^cor = CMe₂CH₂CMeNNCH(C₂₀H₉)] with intriguing optical properties, including a broad emission with essentially no shift in λ_max compared to corannulenecarbaldehyde. All compounds were obtained as single crystals, and their structures were determined by means of single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The optical properties of the highly luminescent compounds were investigated by means of emission and time-resolved photoluminescence spectroscopy measurements.

A facile design of thio-perylenediimides with controllable fluorescent, photodynamic and photothermal effects towards cancer theranostics

A series of thionated perylenediimides with modulating phototheranostic modalities have been synthesized by a one-pot method for multiple anti-cancer applications. Compared to the initial and 4-tert-butyl phenol-substituted fluorescent perylenediimide, the obtained monothionated perylenediimide became photodynamic. With the increase of thionation degree, tetrathionated perylenediimide changed into an optimal photothermal agent.

Recent Approaches towards the Development of Ru(II) Polypyridyl Complexes for Anticancer Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a remarkable alternative or complementary technique to chemotherapy, radiotherapy or immunotherapy to treat certain forms of cancer. The synergistic effect of light, photosensitizer (PS) and oxygen allows for the treatment of tumours with an extremely high spatio-tumoral control, therefore minimizing the severe side effects usually observed in chemotherapy. The currently employed PDT PSs based on porphyrins have, in some cases, some limitations, which include a low absorbance in the therapeutic window, a low body clearance, photobleaching, among others. In this context, Ru(ii) polypyridyl complexes are interesting alternatives. They have low lying excited energy states and the presence of a heavy metal increases the possibility of spin-orbit coupling. Moreover, their photophysical properties are relatively easy to tune and they have very low photobleaching rates. All of these make them attractive candidates for further development as therapeutically suitable PDT PSs. In this review, after having presented this field of research, we discuss the developments made by our group in this field of research since 2017. We notably describe how we tuned the photophysical properties of our complexes from the visible region to the therapeutically suitable red region. This was accompanied by the preparation of PSs with enhanced phototoxicity and high phototoxicity index. We also discuss the use of two-photon excitation to eradicate tumours in nude mice. Furthermore, we describe our approach for the selective delivery of our complexes using targeting agents. Lastly, we report on our very recent synergistic approach to treat cancer using bimetallic Ru(ii)-Pt(iv) prodrug candidates.

A Near-Infrared-II Emissive Chromium(III) Complex

The combination of π-donating amido with π-accepting pyridine coordination units in a tridentate chelate ligand causes a strong nephelauxetic effect in a homoleptic CrIII complex, which shifts its luminescence to the NIR-II spectral range. Previously explored CrIII polypyridine complexes typically emit between 727 and 778 nm (in the red to NIR-I spectral region), and ligand design strategies have so far concentrated on optimizing the ligand field strength. The present work takes a fundamentally different approach and focusses on increasing metal-ligand bond covalence to shift the ruby-like 2 E emission of CrIII to 1067 nm at 77 K.

Lowering Electrocatalytic CO2 Reduction Overpotential Using N-Annulated Perylene Diimide Rhenium Bipyridine Dyads with Variable Tether Length

We report the design, synthesis, and characterization of four N-annulated perylene diimide (NPDI) functionalized rhenium bipyridine [Re(bpy)] supramolecular dyads. The Re(bpy) scaffold was connected to the NPDI chromophore either directly [Re(py-C0-NPDI)] or via an ethyl [Re(bpy-C2-NPDI)], butyl [Re(bpy-C4-NPDI)], or hexyl [Re(bpy-C6-NPDI)] alkyl-chain spacer. Upon electrochemical reduction in the presence of CO₂ and a proton source, Re(bpy-C2/4/6-NPDI) all exhibited significant current enhancement effects, while Re(py-C0-NPDI) did not. During controlled potential electrolysis (CPE) experiments at E_appl = -1.8 V vs Fc^+/0, Re(bpy-C2/4/6-NPDI) all achieved comparable activity (TON_co ∼ 25) and Faradaic efficiency (FE_co ∼ 94%). Under identical CPE conditions, the standard catalyst Re(dmbpy) was inactive for electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction; only at E_appl = -2.1 V vs Fc^+/0 could Re(dmbpy) achieve the same catalytic performance, representing a 300 mV lowering in overpotential for Re(bpy-C2/4/6-NPDI). At higher overpotentials, Re(bpy-C4/6-NPDI) both outperformed Re(bpy-C2-NPDI), indicating the possibility of coinciding electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction mechanisms that are dictated by tether-length and overpotential. Using UV-vis-nearIR spectroelectrochemistry (SEC), FTIR SEC, and chemical reduction experiments, it was shown that the NPDI-moiety served as an electron-reservoir for Re(bpy), thereby allowing catalytic activity at lower overpotentials. Density functional theory studies probing the optimized geometries and frontier molecular orbitals of various catalytic intermediates revealed that the geometric configuration of NPDI relative to the Re(bpy)-moiety plays a critical role in accessing electrons from the electron-reservoir. The improved performance of Re(bpy-C2/4/6-NPDI)dyads at lower overpotentials, relative to Re(dmbpy), highlights the utility of chromophore electron-reservoirs as a method for lowering the overpotential for CO₂ conversion.

Intersystem Crossing and Triplet-State Property of Anthryl- and Carbazole-[1,12]fused Perylenebisimide Derivatives with a Twisted π-Conjugation Framework

Heavy atom-free triplet photosensitizers (PSs) are particularly of interest concerning both fundamental photochemistry study and practical applications. However, achieving efficient intersystem crossing (ISC) in planar heavy atom-free aromatic organic compounds is challenging. Herein, we demonstrate that two perylenebisimide (PBI) derivatives with anthryl and carbazole moieties fused at the bay position, showing twisted π-conjugation frameworks and red-shifted UV-vis absorption as compared to the native PBI chromophore (by 75-1610 cm^-1), possess efficient ISC (singlet oxygen quantum yield: Φ_Δ = 85%) and a long-lived triplet excited state (τ_T = 382 μs in fluid solution and τ_T = 4.28 ms in solid polymer film). Femtosecond transient absorption revealed ultrafast intramolecular charge-transfer (ICT) process in the twisted PBI derivatives (0.9 ps), and the ISC takes 3.7 ns. Pulsed laser excited time-resolved electron paramagnetic resonance (TREPR) spectra indicate that the triplet-state wave function of the twisted PBIs is mainly confined on the PBI core, demonstrated by the zero-field-splitting D parameter. Accordingly, the twisted derivatives have higher T₁ energy (E_T1 = 1.48-1.56 eV) as compared to the native PBI chromophore (1.20 eV), which is an advantage for the application of the derivatives as triplet PSs. Theoretical computation of the Franck-Condon density of states, based on excited-state dynamics methods, shows that the efficient ISC in the twisted PBI derivatives is due to the increased spin-orbit coupling matrix elements for the S₁-T₁ and S₁-T₂ states [spin-orbit coupling matrix element (SOCME): 0.11-0.44 cm^-1. SOCME is zero for native PBI], as well as the Herzberg-Teller vibronic coupling. For the planar benzoPBI, the moderate ISC is due to S₁ → T₂ transition (SOCME: 0.03 cm^-1. The two states share a similar energy, ca. 2.5 eV).

Evaluating the mechanisms of action and subcellular localization of ruthenium(II)-based photosensitizers

The identification of ruthenium(II) polypyridyl complexes as photosensitizers in photodynamic therapy (PDT) for the treatment of cancer is progressing rapidly. Due to their favorable photophysical and photochemical properties, Ru(II)-based photosensitizers have absorption in the visible spectrum, can be irradiated via one- and two-photon excitation within the PDT window, and yield potent oxygen-dependent and/or oxygen-independent photobiological activities. Herein, we present a current overview of the mechanisms of action and subcellular localization of Ru(II)-based photosensitizers in the treatment of cancer. These photosensitizers are highlighted from a medicinal chemistry and chemical biology perspective. However, although this field is burgeoning, challenges and limitations remain in the photosensitization strategies and clinical translation.

Fluorescein-bridged Perylene Bisimide Dimer for Use as Liquid Crystal: Studies on Mesomorphic and Fluorescence Properties

A novel fluorescein-bridged perylene bisimide (PBI) dimer for liquid crystal (LC) with geometrically symmetric structure was developed. The mesomorphic results indicated that the energetically stable and unstable conformers of fluorescein fragments could lead to the transformation of mesophases from a hexagonal columnar mesophase to an uncertain phase at 136.9 °C in heating, whilst a stable hexagonal columnar mesophase maintained between 175.6 °C and 58.6 °C in cooling. The selectively excited fluorescence characters in THF solution demonstrated that the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) effect between fluorescein fragments and PBI unites could provide a means to effectively impose strong fluorescence of the dimeric PBIs modified with suitable chromophore at the N-imide position, which alternatively serves as a platform for the further study of multi-functional PBI-based LCs.

Enantioenriched Ruthenium-Tris-Bipyridine Complexes Bearing One Helical Bipyridine Ligand: Access to Fused Multihelicenic Systems and Chiroptical Redox Switches

The synthesis and photophysical and chiroptical properties of novel aza[n]helicenes (6a-d, 10a,b, n = 4-7) substituted with one or two 2-pyridyl groups are described. The preparation was performed via an adapted Mallory reaction using aromatic imines as precursors. The obtained novel class of helical 2,2'-bipyridine ligands was then coordinated to Ru(bipy)₂²⁺ units, thus affording the first diastereomerically and enantiomerically pure [RuL(bipy)₂]²⁺ (11a,c, L = 6a,c) or [Ru₂L'(bipy)₄]⁴⁺ (12, L' = 10b) complexes. The topology and stereochemistry of these novel metal-based helical architectures were studied in detail, notably using X-ray crystallography. Interestingly, the coordination to ruthenium(II) enabled the preparation of fused multihelical systems incorporating aza- and ruthena-helicenes within the same scaffold. The photophysical, chiroptical, and redox properties of these complexes were examined in detail, and efficient redox-triggered chiroptical switching activity was evidenced.

Heavy-Atom-Free Bay-Substituted Perylene Diimide Donor-Acceptor Photosensitizers

Perylene diimide (PDI) dyes are extensively investigated because of their favorable photophysical characteristics for a wide range of organic material applications. Fine-tuning of the optoelectronic properties is readily achieved by functionalization of the electron-deficient PDI scaffold. Here, we present four new donor-acceptor type dyads, wherein the electron donor units - benzo[1,2-b : 4,5-b']dithiophene, 9,9-dimethyl-9,10-dihydroacridine, dithieno[3,2-b : 2',3'-d]pyrrole, and triphenylamine-are attached to the bay-positions of the PDI acceptor. Intersystem crossing occurs for these systems upon photoexcitation, without the aid of heavy atoms, resulting in singlet oxygen quantum yields up to 80 % in toluene solution. Furthermore, this feature is retained when the system is directly irradiated with energy corresponding to the intramolecular charge-transfer absorption band (at 639 nm). Geometrical optimization and (time-dependent) density functional theory calculations afford more insights into the requirements for intersystem crossing such as spin-orbit coupling, dihedral angles, the involvement of charge-transfer states, and energy level alignment.

Boosting Wide-Range Tunable Long-Afterglow in 1D Metal-Organic Halide Micro/Nanocrystals for Space/Time-Resolved Information Photonics

Molecular afterglow materials with ultralong-lived excited states have attracted considerable interest owing to their promise for light-emitting devices, optical imaging, and anti-counterfeiting applications. However, the realization of ultralong afterglow emission in low-dimensional micro/nanostructures has remained an open challenge, limiting progress toward new-generation photonic applications. In this work, new types of mono/binuclear metal-organic halide micro/nanocrystals with tunable afterglow properties, made possibly by the rational control over both ultralong-lived room-temperature phosphorescence and thermally activated delayed fluorescence, are developed. Interestingly, the mono/binuclear coordination complexes present excitation-dependent luminescence across a wide range (wavelength > 150 nm) with broad emission color differences from blue to yellow owing to the multiple long-lived excited states. The 1D binuclear metal-organic microrods further exhibit excitation-dependent optical waveguide and space/time dual-resolved afterglow emission properties, endowing them with great potential in wavelength-division multiplexing information photonics and logic gates. Therefore, this work not only communicates the first example of wide-range tunable ultralong afterglow of low-dimensional metal-organic micro/nanocrystals under ambient conditions but also provides a new route to achieve optical communications and photonic logic compilation at the micro/nanoscale.

Electron Storage Capability and Singlet Oxygen Productivity of a RuII Photosensitizer Containing a Fused Naphthaloylenebenzene Moiety at the 1,10-Phenanthroline Ligand

As a novel rylene type dye a diimine ligand with a fully rigid and extended π-system in its backbone was prepared by directly fusing a 1,10-phenanthroline building block with 1,8-naphthalimide. The corresponding heteroleptic ruthenium photosensitizer bearing one biipo and two tbbpy ligands was synthesized and extensively analyzed by a combination of NMR, single crystal X-ray diffraction, steady-state absorption and emission, time-resolved spectroscopy and different electrochemical measurements supported by time-dependent density functional theory calculations. The cyclic and differential pulse voltammograms revealed, that the naphthaloylenebenzene moiety enables an additional second reduction of the ligand. Moreover, this ligand possesses a very broad absorption in the visible region. In the RuII complex this causes an overlap of ligand-centered and metal-to-ligand charge transfer transitions. The emission of the complex is clearly redshifted compared to the ligand emission with very long-lived excited states lifetimes of 1.7 and 24.7 μs in oxygen-free acetonitrile solution. This behavior is accompanied by a surprisingly high oxygen sensitivity. Finally, this photosensitizer was successfully applied for the effective evolution of singlet oxygen challenging some of the common RuII prototype complexes.

Diels-Alder Cycloaddition to the Bay Region of Perylene and Its Derivatives as an Attractive Strategy for PAH Core Expansion: Theoretical and Practical Aspects

PAHs (polycyclic aromatics hydrocarbons), the compound group that contains perylene and its derivatives, including functionalized ones, have attracted a great deal of interest in many fields of science and modern technology. This review presents all of the research devoted to modifications of PAHs that are realized via the Diels–Alder (DA) cycloaddition of various dienophiles to the bay regions of PAHs, leading to the π-extension of the starting molecule. This type of annulative π-extension (APEX) strategy has emerged as a powerful and efficient synthetic method for the construction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their functionalized derivatives, nanographenes, and π-extended fused heteroarenes. Then, [4 + 2] cycloadditions of ethylenic dienophiles, -N=N-, i.e., diazo-dienophiles and acetylenic dienophiles, are presented. This subject is discussed from the organic synthesis point of view but supported by theoretical calculations. The possible applications of DA cycloaddition to PAH bay regions in various science and technology areas, and the prospects for the development of this synthetic method, are also discussed.

Fluorescent perylenylpyridine complexes: an experimental and theoretical study

The perylene derivative 2-(3-perylenyl)-4-methylpyridine (HPerPy) was prepared and used to synthesize [Ag(HPerPy)(PPh3)(OClO3)], with the perylene ligand bonded to the metal centre only by the pyridine nitrogen. The treatment of HPerPy with [Pd(OAc)2] in methanol or acetic acid led to acetate bridged dimers (μ-OOCCH3)2[Pd(PerPy)]2, six-membered or five-membered cycled at the perylenyl fragment. Substitution reactions afforded mononuclear compounds [Pd(PerPy)(acac)] (six-member or five-member cycled) and [Pd(PerPy)(S2COMe)] (six-member or five-member cycled). The reaction of HPerPy with a platinum(ii) fragment led to a five-membered cyclometallated Pt(ii) complex [Pt(PerPy)(acac)]. The oxidative addition with MeI gave the corresponding cyclometallated Pt(iv) compound [Pt(PerPy)(acac)MeI]. X-ray single crystal studies of compounds [Ag(HPerPy)(PPh3)(OClO3)], (μ-OOCCH3)2[Pd(PerPy)]2-five-membered, [Pd(PerPy)(acac)]-six-membered, [Pd(PerPy)(S2COMe)]-five-membered, [Pt(PerPy)(acac)]-five-membered, and [Pt(PerPy)(acac)MeI]-five-membered confirmed the proposed structures. The UV-Vis spectra show one intense absorption with vibronic coupling in the visible region with maxima in the range of 448-519 nm. DFT calculations were carried out for the absorption spectra of the HPerPy molecule and representative complexes [M(PerPy)(acac)] (M: Pd, Pt; five and six-membered isomers) and [Pt(PerPy)(acac)MeI], showing that the lowest energy most intense transition in the complexes corresponds to the HOMO → LUMO transition in the perylene moiety, although affected by the metallacycle size and the metal nature. All the compounds are fluorescent in solution, due to the perylene fragment. The emission spectra display maxima in the range of 468-549 nm, with quantum yields from 1.1 to 82%. The attenuation of the intensity of fluorescence by the presence of heavy atoms and the formation of metallacycles has been experimentally determined and sequenced.

Clickable azide-functionalized bromoarylaldehydes - synthesis and photophysical characterization

Herein, we present a facile synthesis of three azide-functionalized fluorophores and their covalent attachment as triazoles in Huisgen-type cycloadditions with model alkynes. Besides two ortho- and para-bromo-substituted benzaldehydes, the azide functionalization of a fluorene-based structure will be presented. The copper(I)-catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC) of the so-synthesized azide-functionalized bromocarbaldehydes with terminal alkynes, exhibiting different degrees of steric demand, was performed in high efficiency. Finally, we investigated the photophysical properties of the azide-functionalized arenes and their covalently linked triazole derivatives to gain deeper insight towards the effect of these covalent linkers on the emission behavior.

Molecular Design of Conjugated Small Molecule Nanoparticles for Synergistically Enhanced PTT/PDT

Simultaneous photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT) is beneficial for enhanced cancer therapy due to the synergistic effect. Conventional materials developed for synergistic PTT/PDT are generally multicomponent agents that need complicated preparation procedures and be activated by multiple laser sources. The emerging monocomponent diketopyrrolopyrrole (DPP)-based conjugated small molecular agents enable dual PTT/PDT under a single laser irradiation, but suffer from low singlet oxygen quantum yield, which severely restricts the therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we report acceptor-oriented molecular design of a donor-acceptor-donor (D-A-D) conjugated small molecule (IID-ThTPA)-based phototheranostic agent, with isoindigo (IID) as selective acceptor and triphenylamine (TPA) as donor. The strong D-A strength and narrow singlet-triplet energy gap endow IID-ThTPA nanoparticles (IID-ThTPA NPs) high mass extinction coefficient (18.2 L g^-1 cm^-1), competitive photothermal conversion efficiency (35.4%), and a dramatically enhanced singlet oxygen quantum yield (84.0%) comparing with previously reported monocomponent PTT/PDT agents. Such a high PTT/PDT performance of IID-ThTPA NPs achieved superior tumor cooperative eradicating capability in vitro and in vivo.

Designing a highly stable coordination-driven metallacycle for imaging-guided photodynamic cancer theranostics

Coordination-driven self-assembly features good predictability and directionality in the construction of discrete metallacycles and metallacages with well-defined sizes and shapes, but their medicinal application has been limited by their low stability and solubility. Herein, we have designed and synthesized a highly stable coordination-driven metallacycle with desired functionality derived from a perylene-diimide ligand via a spontaneous deprotonation self-assembly process. Brilliant chemical stability and singlet oxygen production ability of this emissive octanuclear organopalladium macrocycle make it a good candidate toward biological studies. After cellular uptake by endocytosis, the metallacycle exhibits potent fluorescence cell imaging properties and cancer photodynamic therapeutic ability through enhancing ROS production, with high biocompatibility and safety. This study not only provides a rational design strategy for highly stable luminescent organopalladium metallacycles, but also sheds light on their application in imaging-guided photodynamic cancer therapy.

A highly-luminescent metallacycle with chemical stability and singlet oxygen production ability were obtained by a spontaneous deprotonation self-assembly process, which exhibits application potential in imaging-guided photodynamic cancer therapy.

A Vanadium(III) Complex with Blue and NIR-II Spin-Flip Luminescence in Solution

Luminescence from Earth-abundant metal ions in solution at room temperature is a very challenging objective due to the intrinsically weak ligand field splitting of first-row transition metal ions, which leads to efficient nonradiative deactivation via metal-centered states. Only a handful of 3dⁿ metal complexes (n ≠ 10) show sizable luminescence at room temperature. Luminescence in the near-infrared spectral region is even more difficult to achieve as further nonradiative pathways come into play. No Earth-abundant first-row transition metal complexes have displayed emission >1000 nm at room temperature in solution up to now. Here, we report the vanadium(III) complex mer-[V(ddpd)₂][PF₆]₃ yielding phosphorescence around 1100 nm in valeronitrile glass at 77 K as well as at room temperature in acetonitrile with 1.8 × 10^-4% quantum yield (ddpd = N,N'-dimethyl-N,N'-dipyridine-2-ylpyridine-2,6-diamine). In addition, mer-[V(ddpd)₂][PF₆]₃ shows very strong blue fluorescence with 2% quantum yield in acetonitrile at room temperature. Our comprehensive study demonstrates that vanadium(III) complexes with d² electron configuration constitute a new class of blue and NIR-II luminophores, which complement the classical established complexes of expensive precious metals and rare-earth elements.

Nitro-Perylenediimide: An Emerging Building Block for the Synthesis of Functional Organic Materials

Perylenediimide (PDI) is one of the most important classes of dyes and is intensively explored in the field of functional organic materials. The functionalization of this electron-deficient aromatic core is well-known to tune the outstanding optoelectronic properties of PDI derivatives. In this respect, the functionalization has been mostly addressed in bay-positions to halogenated derivatives through nucleophilic substitutions or metal-catalyzed coupling reactions. Being aware of the synthetic difficulties of obtaining the key intermediate 1-bromoPDI, we will present as an alternative in this review the potential of 1-nitroPDI: a powerful building block to access a large variety of PDI-based materials.

A facile way to obtain near-infrared room-temperature phosphorescent soft materials based on Bodipy dyes

Research on pure organic room-temperature phosphorescent (RTP) materials has made great advances but near-infrared (NIR) RTP emitting materials are still rare. Novel amorphous acrylamide copolymers containing iodine substituted borondipyrromethene (Bodipy) were prepared to obtain strong absorption in the visible region and moderate RTP in the NIR region with much larger Stokes shift than the fluorescence emission of traditional Bodipy dyes. Expensive metals and crystallization were left out to avoid biotoxicity and strict preparation conditions. Monoiodo and diiodo-Bodipy derivatives were both designed to study the substitution effect of iodine atoms. Photophysical properties, phosphorescence quantum yield and lifetime were characterized. Gels with NIR RTP emission were facilely prepared with the incorporation of ureidopyrimidone (UPy) and N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA). The mechanical properties of the gels were measured using a rheometer and the results showed that the gels displayed fast self-healing ability due to the strong quadruple hydrogen bonding between UPy moieties.

Crystallization-induced room-temperature phosphorescence in fumaramides

Novel fumaramides exhibit room-temperature phosphorescence in the solid state once molecular design and positioning of the carbonyl and bromine atoms allow for the formation of strong intermolecular halogen bonding interactions.

Red-Emitting Delayed Fluorescence and Room Temperature Phosphorescence from Core-Substituted Naphthalene Diimides

Unprecedented ambient triplet-mediated emission in core-substituted naphthalene diimide (cNDI) derivatives is unveiled via delayed fluorescence and room temperature phosphorescence. Carbazole core-substituted cNDIs, with a donor-acceptor design, showed deep-red triplet emission in solution processable films with high quantum yield. This study, with detailed theoretical calculations and time-resolved emission experiments, enables new design insights into the triplet harvesting of cNDIs; an important family of molecules which has been, otherwise, extensively been investigated for its n-type electronic character and tunable singlet fluorescence.