Halogenated Phenazines that Potently Eradicate Biofilms, MRSA Persister Cells in Non-Biofilm Cultures, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis

Intestinal biofilms: pathophysiological relevance, host defense, and therapeutic opportunities

SUMMARYThe human intestinal tract harbors a profound variety of microorganisms that live in symbiosis with the host and each other. It is a complex and highly dynamic environment whose homeostasis directly relates to human health. Dysbiosis of the gut microbiota and polymicrobial biofilms have been associated with gastrointestinal diseases, including irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel diseases, and colorectal cancers. This review covers the molecular composition and organization of intestinal biofilms, mechanistic aspects of biofilm signaling networks for bacterial communication and behavior, and synergistic effects in polymicrobial biofilms. It further describes the clinical relevance and diseases associated with gut biofilms, the role of biofilms in antimicrobial resistance, and the intestinal host defense system and therapeutic strategies counteracting biofilms. Taken together, this review summarizes the latest knowledge and research on intestinal biofilms and their role in gut disorders and provides directions toward the development of biofilm-specific treatments.

Design, synthesis and evaluation of halogenated phenazine antibacterial prodrugs targeting nitroreductase enzymes for activation

It is of great importance to develop new strategies to combat antibiotic resistance. Our lab has discovered halogenated phenazine (HP) analogues that are highly active against multidrug-resistant bacterial pathogens. Here, we report the design, synthesis, and study of a new series of nitroarene-based HP prodrugs that leverage intracellular nitroreductase (NTR) enzymes for activation and subsequent release of active HP agents. Our goals of developing HP prodrugs are to (1) mitigate off-target metal chelation (potential toxicity), (2) possess motifs to facilitate intracellular, bacterial-specific HP release, (3) improve water solubility, and (4) prevent undesirable metabolism (e.g., glucuronidation of HP's phenol). Following the synthesis of HP-nitroarene prodrugs bearing a sulfonate ester linker, NTR-promoted release experiments demonstrated prodrug HP-1-N released 70.1% of parent HP-1 after 16 hours (with only 6.8% HP-1 release without NTR). In analogous in vitro experiments, no HP release was observed for control sulfonate ester compounds lacking the critical nitro group. When compared to parent HP compounds, nitroarene prodrugs evaluated during these studies demonstrate similar antibacterial activities in MIC and zone of inhibition assays (against lab strains and clinical isolates). In conclusion, HP-nitroarene prodrugs could provide a future avenue to develop potent agents that target antibiotic resistant bacteria.

Combating Antimicrobial Resistance in the Post-Genomic Era: Rapid Antibiotic Discovery

Constantly evolving drug-resistant "superbugs" have caused an urgent demand for novel antimicrobial agents. Natural products and their analogs have been a prolific source of antimicrobial agents, even though a high rediscovery rate and less targeted research has made the field challenging in the pre-genomic era. With recent advancements in technology, natural product research is gaining new life. Genome mining has allowed for more targeted excavation of biosynthetic potential from natural sources that was previously overlooked. Researchers use bioinformatic algorithms to rapidly identify and predict antimicrobial candidates by studying the genome before even entering the lab. In addition, synthetic biology and advanced analytical instruments enable the accelerated identification of novel antibiotics with distinct structures. Here, we reviewed the literature for noteworthy examples of novel antimicrobial agents discovered through various methodologies, highlighting the candidates with potent effectiveness against antimicrobial-resistant pathogens.

Design, Synthesis, and Evaluation of Carbonate-Linked Halogenated Phenazine-Quinone Prodrugs with Improved Water-Solubility and Potent Antibacterial Profiles

Pathogenic bacteria have devastating impacts on human health as a result of acquired antibiotic resistance and innate tolerance. Every class of our current antibiotic arsenal was initially discovered as growth-inhibiting agents that target actively replicating (individual, free-floating) planktonic bacteria. Bacteria are notorious for utilizing a diversity of resistance mechanisms to overcome the action of conventional antibiotic therapies and forming surface-attached biofilm communities enriched in (non-replicating) persister cells. To address problems associated with pathogenic bacteria, our group is developing halogenated phenazine (HP) molecules that demonstrate potent antibacterial and biofilm-eradicating activities through a unique iron starvation mode of action. In this study, we designed, synthesized, and investigated a focused collection of carbonate-linked HP prodrugs bearing a quinone trigger to target the reductive cytoplasm of bacteria for bioactivation and subsequent HP release. The quinone moiety also contains a polyethylene glycol group, which dramatically enhances the water-solubility properties of the HP-quinone prodrugs reported herein. We found carbonate-linked HP-quinone prodrugs 11, 21-23 to demonstrate good linker stability, rapid release of the active HP warhead following dithiothreitol (reductive) treatment, and potent antibacterial activities against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus epidermidis, and Enterococcus faecalis. In addition, HP-quinone prodrug 21 induced rapid iron starvation in MRSA and S. epidermidis biofilms, illustrating prodrug action within these surface-attached communities. Overall, we are highly encouraged by these findings and believe that HP prodrugs have the potential to address antibiotic resistant and tolerant bacterial infections.

Transcript Profiling of Nitroxoline-Treated Biofilms Shows Rapid Up-regulation of Iron Acquisition Gene Clusters

Bacterial biofilms are surface-attached communities of slow- or non-replicating cells embedded within a protective matrix of biomolecules. Unlike free-floating planktonic bacteria, biofilms are innately tolerant to conventional antibiotics and are prevalent in recurring and chronic infections. Nitroxoline, a broad-spectrum biofilm-eradicating agent, was used to probe biofilm viability. Transcript profiling (RNA-seq) showed that 452 of 2594 genes (17.4%) in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) biofilms were differentially expressed after a 2 h treatment of nitroxoline. WoPPER analysis and time-course validation (RT-qPCR) revealed that gene clusters involved in iron acquisition (sbn, isd, MW2101, MW0695, fhu, and feo) were rapidly up-regulated following nitroxoline treatment, which is indicative of iron starvation in MRSA biofilms. In addition, genes related to oligopeptide transporters and riboflavin biosynthesis were found to be up-regulated, while genes related to carotenoid biosynthesis and nitrate assimilation were down-regulated. RT-qPCR experiments revealed that iron uptake transcripts were also up-regulated in established Staphylococcus epidermidis and Acinetobacter baumannii biofilms following nitroxoline treatment. Overall, we show RNA-seq to be an ideal platform to define cellular pathways critical for biofilm survival, in addition to demonstrating the need these bacterial communities have for iron.

Modular Synthetic Routes to Fluorine-Containing Halogenated Phenazine and Acridine Agents That Induce Rapid Iron Starvation in Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms

During infection, bacteria use an arsenal of resistance mechanisms to negate antibiotic therapies. In addition, pathogenic bacteria form surface-attached biofilms bearing enriched populations of metabolically dormant persister cells. Bacteria develop resistance in response to antibiotic insults; however, nonreplicating biofilms are innately tolerant to all classes of antibiotics. As such, molecules that can eradicate antibiotic-resistant and antibiotic-tolerant bacteria are of importance. Here, we report modular synthetic routes to fluorine-containing halogenated phenazine (HP) and halogenated acridine (HA) agents with potent antibacterial and biofilm-killing activities. Nine fluorinated phenazines were rapidly accessed through a synthetic strategy involving (1) oxidation of fluorinated anilines to azobenzene intermediates, (2) S_NAr with 2-methoxyaniline, and (3) cyclization to phenazines upon treatment with trifluoroacetic acid. Five structurally related acridine heterocycles were synthesized using S_NAr and Buchwald-Hartwig approaches. From this focused collection, phenazines 5g, 5h, 5i, and acridine 9c demonstrated potent antibacterial activities against Gram-positive pathogens (MIC = 0.04-0.78 μM). Additionally, 5g and 9c eradicated Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Enterococcus faecalis biofilms with excellent potency (5g, MBEC = 4.69-6.25 μM; 9c, MBEC = 4.69-50 μM). Using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR), 5g, 5h, 5i, and 9c rapidly induce the transcription of iron uptake biomarkers isdB and sbnC in methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) biofilms, and we conclude that these agents operate through iron starvation. Overall, fluorinated phenazine and acridine agents could lead to ground-breaking advances in the treatment of challenging bacterial infections.

Pyrazine and Phenazine Heterocycles: Platforms for Total Synthesis and Drug Discovery

There are numerous pyrazine and phenazine compounds that demonstrate biological activities relevant to the treatment of disease. In this review, we discuss pyrazine and phenazine agents that have shown potential therapeutic value, including several clinically used agents. In addition, we cover some basic science related to pyrazine and phenazine heterocycles, which possess interesting reactivity profiles that have been on display in numerous cases of innovative total synthesis approaches, synthetic methodologies, drug discovery efforts, and medicinal chemistry programs. The majority of this review is focused on presenting instructive total synthesis and medicinal chemistry efforts of select pyrazine and phenazine compounds, and we believe these incredible heterocycles offer promise in medicine.

Biosynthesis, regulation, and engineering of natural products from Lysobacter

Covering: up to August 2021Lysobacter is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria that was classified in 1987. Several Lysobacter species are emerging as new biocontrol agents for crop protection in agriculture. Lysobacter are prolific producers of new bioactive natural products that are largely underexplored. So far, several classes of structurally interesting and biologically active natural products have been isolated from Lysobacter. This article reviews the progress in Lysobacter natural product research over the past ten years, including molecular mechanisms for biosynthesis, regulation and mode of action, genome mining of cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters, and metabolic engineering using synthetic biology tools.

Antimicrobial, Antibiofilm, and Anti-persister Activities of Penfluridol Against Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus has increasingly attracted global attention as a major opportunistic human pathogen owing to the emergence of biofilms (BFs) and persisters that are known to increase its antibiotic resistance. However, there are still no effective antimicrobial agents in clinical settings. This study investigated the antimicrobial activity of penfluridol (PF), a long-acting antipsychotic drug, against S. aureus and its clinical isolates via drug repurposing. PF exhibited strong bactericidal activity against S. aureus, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) of 4–8 and 16–32 μg/ml, respectively. PF could significantly inhibit biofilm formation and eradicate 24 h preformed biofilms of S. aureus in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, PF could effectively kill methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) persister cells and demonstrated considerable efficacy in a mouse model of subcutaneous abscess, skin wound infection, and acute peritonitis caused by MRSA. Notably, PF exerted almost no hemolysis activity on human erythrocytes, with limited cytotoxicity and low tendency to cause resistance. Additionally, PF induced bacterial membrane permeability and ATP release and further caused membrane disruption, which may be the underlying antibacterial mechanism of PF. In summary, our findings suggest that PF has the potential to serve as a novel antimicrobial agent against S. aureus biofilm- or persister-related infections.

An ether-linked halogenated phenazine-quinone prodrug model for antibacterial applications

Antibiotic-resistant infections present significant challenges to patients. As a result, there is considerable need for new antibacterial therapies that eradicate pathogenic bacteria through non-conventional mechanisms. Our group has identified a series of halogenated phenazine (HP) agents that induce rapid iron starvation that leads to potent killing of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus biofilms. Here, we report the design, chemical synthesis and microbiological assessment of a HP-quinone ether prodrug model aimed to (1) eliminate general (off-target) iron chelation, and (2) release an active HP agent through the bioreduction of a quinone trigger. Here, we demonstrate prodrug analogue HP-29-Q to have a stable ether linkage that enables HP release and moderate to good antibacterial activities against lab strains and multi-drug resistant clinical isolates.

Strategies and Approaches for Discovery of Small Molecule Disruptors of Biofilm Physiology

Biofilms, the predominant growth mode of microorganisms, pose a significant risk to human health. The protective biofilm matrix, typically composed of exopolysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, combined with biofilm-grown bacteria’s heterogenous physiology, leads to enhanced fitness and tolerance to traditional methods for treatment. There is a need to identify biofilm inhibitors using diverse approaches and targeting different stages of biofilm formation. This review discusses discovery strategies that successfully identified a wide range of inhibitors and the processes used to characterize their inhibition mechanism and further improvement. Additionally, we examine the structure–activity relationship (SAR) for some of these inhibitors to optimize inhibitor activity.

Antimicrobial Peptides Derived From Insects Offer a Novel Therapeutic Option to Combat Biofilm: A Review

Biofilms form a complex layer with defined structures, that attach on biotic or abiotic surfaces, are tough to eradicate and tend to cause some resistance against most antibiotics. Several studies confirmed that biofilm-producing bacteria exhibit higher resistance compared to the planktonic form of the same species. Antibiotic resistance factors are well understood in planktonic bacteria which is not so in case of biofilm producing forms. This may be due to the lack of available drugs with known resistance mechanisms for biofilms. Existing antibiotics cannot eradicate most biofilms, especially of ESKAPE pathogens (Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Enterobacter species). Insects produce complex and diverse set of chemicals for survival and defense. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), produced by most insects, generally have a broad spectrum of activity and the potential to bypass the resistance mechanisms of classical antibiotics. Besides, AMPs may well act synergistically with classical antibiotics for a double-pronged attack on infections. Thus, AMPs could be promising alternatives to overcome medically important biofilms, decrease the possibility of acquired resistance and treatment of multidrug-resistant pathogens including ESKAPE. The present review focuses on insect-derived AMPs with special reference to anti-biofilm-based strategies. It covers the AMP composition, pathways and mechanisms of action, the formation of biofilms, impact of biofilms on human diseases, current strategies as well as therapeutic options to combat biofilm with antimicrobial peptides from insects. In addition, the review also illustrates the importance of bioinformatics tools and molecular docking studies to boost the importance of select bioactive peptides those can be developed as drugs, as well as suggestions for further basic and clinical research.

Starving Bacteria of Iron: A Potential Strategy to Disperse Bacterial Biofilms

Halogenated phenazines (HPs) are potent antimicrobial agents. A newly developed halogenated phenazine, HP-29, displays remarkable minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.08 μM against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, MRSA. HP-29 eradicates preformed biofilm via iron starvation, is nontoxic to mammalian cell lines and is efficacious in wound infection models.

Novel treatment dynamics for biofilm-related infections

Introduction: As a result of progress in medical care, a huge number of medical devices are used in the treatment of human diseases. In turn, biofilm-related infection has become a growing threat due to the tolerance of biofilms to antimicrobials, a problem magnified by the development of antimicrobial resistance worldwide. As a result, successful treatment of biofilm-disease using only antimicrobials is problematic.Areas covered: We summarize some alternative approaches to classic antimicrobials for the treatment of biofilm disease. This review is not intended to be exhaustive but to give a clinical picture of alternatives to antimicrobial agents to manage biofilm disease. We highlight those strategies that may be closer to application in clinical practice.Expert opinion: There are a number of outstanding challenges in the development of novel antibiofilm therapies. Screening for effective antibiofilm compounds requires models relevant to all clinical scenarios. Although in vitro research of anti-biofilm strategies has progressed significantly over the past decade, there is a lack of in vivo research. In addition, the complexity of biofilm biology makes it difficult to develop a compound that is likely to provide the single 'magic bullet'. The multifaceted nature of biofilms imposes the need for multi-targeted or combinatorial therapies.

A Modular Synthetic Route Involving N-Aryl-2-nitrosoaniline Intermediates Leads to a New Series of 3-Substituted Halogenated Phenazine Antibacterial Agents

Pathogenic bacteria demonstrate incredible abilities to evade conventional antibiotics through the development of resistance and formation of dormant, surface-attached biofilms. Therefore, agents that target and eradicate planktonic and biofilm bacteria are of significant interest. We explored a new series of halogenated phenazines (HP) through the use of N-aryl-2-nitrosoaniline synthetic intermediates that enabled functionalization of the 3-position of this scaffold. Several HPs demonstrated potent antibacterial and biofilm-killing activities (e.g., HP 29, against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: MIC = 0.075 μM; MBEC = 2.35 μM), and transcriptional analysis revealed that HPs 3, 28, and 29 induce rapid iron starvation in MRSA biofilms. Several HPs demonstrated excellent activities against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (HP 34, MIC = 0.80 μM against CDC1551). This work established new SAR insights, and HP 29 demonstrated efficacy in dorsal wound infection models in mice. Encouraged by these findings, we believe that HPs could lead to significant advances in the treatment of challenging infections.

New prodrugs and analogs of the phenazine 5,10-dioxide natural products iodinin and myxin promote selective cytotoxicity towards human acute myeloid leukemia cells

Novel chemotherapeutic strategies for acute myeloid leukemia (AML) treatment are called for. We have recently demonstrated that the phenazine 5,10-dioxide natural products iodinin (3) and myxin (4) exhibit potent and hypoxia-selective cell death on MOLM-13 human AML cells, and that the N-oxide functionalities are pivotal for the cytotoxic activity. Very few structure-activity relationship studies dedicated to phenazine 5,10-dioxides exist on mammalian cell lines and the present work describes our efforts regarding in vitro lead optimizations of the natural compounds iodinin (3) and myxin (4). Prodrug strategies reveal carbamate side chains to be the optimal phenol-attached group. Derivatives with no oxygen-based substituent (-OH or -OCH3) in the 6th position of the phenazine skeleton upheld potency if alkyl or carbamate side chains were attached to the phenol in position 1. 7,8-Dihalogenated- and 7,8-dimethylated analogs of 1-hydroxyphenazine 5,10-dioxide (21) displayed increased cytotoxic potency in MOLM-13 cells compared to all the other compounds studied. On the other hand, dihalogenated compounds displayed high toxicity towards the cardiomyoblast H9c2 cell line, while MOLM-13 selectivity of the 7,8-dimethylated analogs were less affected. Further, a parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) demonstrated the majority of the synthesized compounds to penetrate cell membranes efficiently, which corresponded to their cytotoxic potency. This work enhances the understanding of the structural characteristics essential for the activity of phenazine 5,10-dioxides, rendering them promising chemotherapeutic agents.

Methicillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Pyruvate kinase (PK) inhibitors and Their Antimicrobial Activities

Resistance to antibiotics has been widely existed in the health care and community setting, thus developing a novel aspect of new antibiotics is urgently necessary. Methicillin-resistance Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Pyruvate kinase (PK) is crucial to the survive of bacterial, making it a novel antimicrobial target. In the past decade, most reported PK inhibitors including indole, flavonoid, phenazine derivative from natural product small molecules or their analogues, or virtual screening from small molecule compound library. This review covers the PK inhibitors and their antimicrobial activities reported from the beginning of 2011 through the middle of 2020. The Structure Activity Relationships (SARs) was discussed briefly as well.

Evolution of Resistance to Phenazine Antibiotics in Staphylococcus aureus and Its Role During Coinfection with Pseudomonas aeruginosa

In the niches that Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa coinhabit, the later pathogen produces phenazine antibiotics to inhibit the growth of S. aureus. Recently, a group of halogenated phenazines (HPs) has been shown to have potent antimicrobial activities against Staphylococci; however, no HP-resistant mutant has been reported. Here, we demonstrate that S. aureus develops HP-resistance via single amino acid change (Arg116Cys) in a transcriptional repressor TetR21. RNA-seq analysis showed that the TetR21^R116C variation caused drastic up-regulation of an adjacent gene hprS (halogenated phenazine resistance protein of S. aureus). Deletion of the hprS in the TetR21^R116C background restored bacterial susceptibility to HP, while hprS overexpression in S. aureus conferred HP-resistance. The expression of HprS is under tight transcriptional control of the TetR21 via direct binding to the promoter region of hprS. The R116C mutation in TetR21 significantly reduced its DNA binding affinity. Moreover, natural phenazine antibiotics (phenazine-1-carboxylic acid and pyocyanin) and a HP analog (HP-22) are ligands for the TetR21, regulating its repressor activity. Combining homology analysis and LC-MS/MS assay we demonstrated that HprS is a phenazine efflux pump. To the best of our knowledge, we provide the first report of phenazine efflux pump in S. aureus. Interestingly, the TetR21^R116C variation has been found in some clinical S. aureus isolates, and a laboratory strain of S. aureus with TetR21^R116C variation showed enhanced growth competitiveness toward P. aeruginosa and promoted coinfection with P. aeruginosa in the host environment, demonstrating significance of the mutation in host infections.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of a halogenated phenazine-erythromycin conjugate prodrug for antibacterial applications

There is a significant need for new antibacterial agents as pathogenic bacteria continue to threaten human health through the acquisition of resistance and tolerance towards existing antibiotics. Over the last several years, our group has been developing a novel series of halogenated phenazines that demonstrate potent antibacterial and biofilm eradication activities against critical Gram-positive pathogens, including: Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Enterococcus faecium. Here, we report the design, chemical synthesis and initial biological assessment of a halogenated phenazine-erythromycin conjugate prodrug 5 aimed at enhancing the translational potential for halogenated phenazines as a treatment of bacterial infections.

Therapeutic Strategies To Counteract Antibiotic Resistance in MRSA Biofilm-Associated Infections

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) has emerged as one of the leading causes of persistent human infections. This pathogen is widespread and is able to colonize asymptomatically about a third of the population, causing moderate to severe infections. It is currently considered the most common cause of nosocomial infections and one of the main causes of death in hospitalized patients. Due to its high morbidity and mortality rate and its ability to resist most antibiotics on the market, it has been termed a "superbug". Its ability to form biofilms on biotic and abiotic surfaces seems to be the primarily means of MRSA antibiotic resistance and pervasiveness. Importantly, more than 80 % of bacterial infections are biofilm-mediated. Biofilm formation on indwelling catheters, prosthetic devices and implants is recognized as the cause of serious chronic infections in hospital environments. In this review we discuss the most relevant literature of the last five years concerning the development of synthetic small molecules able to inhibit biofilm formation or to eradicate or disperse pre-formed biofilms in the fight against MRSA diseases. The aim is to provide guidelines for the development of new anti-virulence strategies based on the knowledge so far acquired, and, to identify the main flaws of this research field, which have hindered the generation of new market-approved anti-MRSA drugs that are able to act against biofilm-associated infections.

Natural products as inspiration for the development of bacterial antibiofilm agents

Natural products have historically been a rich source of diverse chemical matter with numerous biological activities, and have played an important role in drug discovery in many areas including infectious disease. Synthetic and medicinal chemistry have been, and continue to be, important tools to realize the potential of natural products as therapeutics and as chemical probes. The formation of biofilms by bacteria in an infection setting is a significant factor in the recalcitrance of many bacterial infections, conferring increased tolerance to many antibiotics and to the host immune response, and as yet there are no approved therapeutics for combatting biofilm-based bacterial infections. Small molecules that interfere with the ability of bacteria to form and maintain biofilms can overcome antibiotic tolerance conferred by the biofilm phenotype, and have the potential to form combination therapies with conventional antibiotics. Many natural products with anti-biofilm activity have been identified from plants, microbes, and marine life, including: elligic acid glycosides, hamamelitannin, carolacton, skyllamycins, promysalin, phenazines, bromoageliferin, flustramine C, meridianin D, and brominated furanones. Total synthesis and medicinal chemistry programs have facilitated structure confirmation, identification of critical structural motifs, better understanding of mechanistic pathways, and the development of more potent, more accessible, or more pharmacologically favorable derivatives of anti-biofilm natural products.

Synthesis and Cytotoxic Evaluation of N-Alkyl-2-halophenazin-1-ones

In this study, the synthesis of N-alkyl-2-halophenazin-1-ones has been established. Six N-alkyl-2-halophenazin-1-ones, including WS-9659 B and marinocyanins A and B, were synthesized by the direct oxidative condensation of 4-halo-1,2,3-benzenetriol with the corresponding N-alkylbenzene-1,2-diamines. One of the most significant features of the present method is that it can be successfully applied to the synthesis of N-alkyl-2-chlorophenazin-1-ones. The traditional chlorination of N-alkyl-phenazin-1-ones with N-chlorosuccinimide selectively occurs at the 4-position to afford the undesired N-alkyl-4-chlorophenazin-1-ones. Our synthetic route successfully circumvents this problem, culminating in the first chemical synthesis of WS-9659 B. The cytotoxicity of six N-alkyl-2-halophenazin-1-ones and three N-alkylphenazin-1-ones against human promyelocytic leukemia HL-60, human lung cancer A549, and normal MRC-5 cells was evaluated. Among the compounds tested in this study, 2-chloropyocyanin possesses significant selectivity toward A549 cells. The cytotoxic evaluation provides structural insights into the potency and selectivity of these compounds for cancer cells.

Progress towards a stable cephalosporin-halogenated phenazine conjugate for antibacterial prodrug applications

Resistant bacteria successfully evade the action of conventional antibiotic therapies during infection, often leading to significant illness and death. Our lab has discovered halogenated phenazine (HP) analogues which demonstrate potent antibacterial activities through a unique iron-starving mechanism. Herein, we describe synthetic efforts towards a stable cephalosporin-HP conjugate prodrug with the aim of translating HPs into useful clinical agents. Cephalosporin-antibiotic conjugates offer multiple advantages for antibacterial design, including the release of active agents through the targeting of intracellular cephalosporinase following selective ring-opening of the beta-lactam warhead. During these studies, carbonate-linked cephalosporin-HP conjugate 16 was synthesized; however, we were unable to successfully remove the ester group required for cephalosporinase processing. Cephalosporin-HP 16 was then utilized as a probe to investigate the stability of the carbonate linker in antibacterial assays and, as predicted, this compound proved to be inactive against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC > 100 µM). The lack of 16's antibacterial activity can be attributed to the carbonate linker remaining intact throughout the MIC assay, thus not liberating the active HP moiety. These efforts have led to a more stable cephalosporin-HP conjugate joined through a carbonate linker compared to a highly unstable ether linked analogue we previously reported.

A Quantitative Survey of Bacterial Persistence in the Presence of Antibiotics: Towards Antipersister Antimicrobial Discovery

Background: Bacterial persistence to antibiotics relates to the phenotypic ability to survive lethal concentrations of otherwise bactericidal antibiotics. The quantitative nature of the time-kill assay, which is the sector's standard for the study of antibiotic bacterial persistence, is an invaluable asset for global, unbiased, and cross-species analyses. Methods: We compiled the results of antibiotic persistence from antibiotic-sensitive bacteria during planktonic growth. The data were extracted from a sample of 187 publications over the last 50 years. The antibiotics used in this compilation were also compared in terms of structural similarity to fluorescent molecules known to accumulate in Escherichia coli. Results: We reviewed in detail data from 54 antibiotics and 36 bacterial species. Persistence varies widely as a function of the type of antibiotic (membrane-active antibiotics admit the fewest), the nature of the growth phase and medium (persistence is less common in exponential phase and rich media), and the Gram staining of the target organism (persistence is more common in Gram positives). Some antibiotics bear strong structural similarity to fluorophores known to be taken up by E. coli, potentially allowing competitive assays. Some antibiotics also, paradoxically, seem to allow more persisters at higher antibiotic concentrations. Conclusions: We consolidated an actionable knowledge base to support a rational development of antipersister antimicrobials. Persistence is seen as a step on the pathway to antimicrobial resistance, and we found no organisms that failed to exhibit it. Novel antibiotics need to have antipersister activity. Discovery strategies should include persister-specific approaches that could find antibiotics that preferably target the membrane structure and permeability of slow-growing cells.

When antibiotics fail: a clinical and microbiological perspective on antibiotic tolerance and persistence of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is a major human pathogen causing a vast array of infections with significant mortality. Its versatile physiology enables it to adapt to various environments. Specific physiological changes are thought to underlie the frequent failure of antimicrobial therapy despite susceptibility in standard microbiological assays. Bacteria capable of surviving high antibiotic concentrations despite having a genetically susceptible background are described as 'antibiotic tolerant'. In this review, we put current knowledge on environmental triggers and molecular mechanisms of increased antibiotic survival of S. aureus into its clinical context. We discuss animal and clinical evidence of its significance and outline strategies to overcome infections with antibiotic-tolerant S. aureus.

Instructive Advances in Chemical Microbiology Inspired by Nature's Diverse Inventory of Molecules

Natural product antibiotics have played an essential role in the treatment of bacterial infection in addition to serving as useful tools to explore the intricate biology of bacteria. Our current arsenal of antibiotics operate through the inhibition of well-defined bacterial targets critical for replication and growth. Pathogenic bacteria effectively utilize a diversity of mechanisms that lead to acquired resistance and/or innate tolerance toward antibiotic therapies, which can result in devastating consequences to human life. Several research groups have established innovative programs that work at the chemistry-biology interface to develop new molecules that aim to define and address concerns related to antibiotic resistance and tolerance. In this Review, we present recent progress by select research groups that highlight a diversity of integrated chemical biology and medicinal chemistry approaches aimed at the development and utilization of chemical tools that have led to promising new microbiological insights that may lead to significant clinical advances regarding the treatment of pathogenic bacteria.

Meridianin D analogues possess antibiofilm activity against Mycobacterium smegmatis

The formation of bacterial biofilms significantly decreases the efficacy of antibiotic treatments. Herein, we've investigated the antibiofilm properties of the natural product meridianin D and a library of analogues against Mycobacterium smegmatis. As a result, we discovered several analogues that both inhibit and disperse M. smegmatis biofilms.

Phenazine Antibiotic-Inspired Discovery of Bacterial Biofilm-Eradicating Agents

Bacterial biofilms are surface-attached communities of slow-growing and non-replicating persister cells that demonstrate high levels of antibiotic tolerance. Biofilms occur in nearly 80 % of infections and present unique challenges to our current arsenal of antibiotic therapies, all of which were initially discovered for their abilities to target rapidly dividing, free-floating planktonic bacteria. Bacterial biofilms are credited as the underlying cause of chronic and recurring bacterial infections. Innovative approaches are required to identify new small molecules that operate through bacterial growth-independent mechanisms to effectively eradicate biofilms. One source of inspiration comes from within the lungs of young cystic fibrosis (CF) patients, who often endure persistent Staphylococcus aureus infections. As these CF patients age, Pseudomonas aeruginosa co-infects the lungs and utilizes phenazine antibiotics to eradicate the established S. aureus infection. Our group has taken a special interest in this microbial competition strategy and we are investigating the potential of phenazine antibiotic-inspired compounds and synthetic analogues thereof to eradicate persistent bacterial biofilms. To discover new biofilm-eradicating agents, we have established an interdisciplinary research program involving synthetic medicinal chemistry, microbiology and molecular biology. From these efforts, we have identified a series of halogenated phenazines (HPs) that potently eradicate bacterial biofilms, and future work aims to translate these preliminary findings into ground-breaking clinical advances for the treatment of persistent biofilm infections.

Bacterial Biofilm Eradication Agents: A Current Review

Most free-living bacteria can attach to surfaces and aggregate to grow into multicellular communities encased in extracellular polymeric substances called biofilms. Biofilms are recalcitrant to antibiotic therapy and a major cause of persistent and recurrent infections by clinically important pathogens worldwide (e.g., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia coli, and Staphylococcus aureus). Currently, most biofilm remediation strategies involve the development of biofilm-inhibition agents, aimed at preventing the early stages of biofilm formation, or biofilm-dispersal agents, aimed at disrupting the biofilm cell community. While both strategies offer some clinical promise, neither represents a direct treatment and eradication strategy for established biofilms. Consequently, the discovery and development of biofilm eradication agents as comprehensive, stand-alone biofilm treatment options has become a fundamental area of research. Here we review our current understanding of biofilm antibiotic tolerance mechanisms and provide an overview of biofilm remediation strategies, focusing primarily on the most promising biofilm eradication agents and approaches. Many of these offer exciting prospects for the future of biofilm therapeutics for a large number of infections that are currently refractory to conventional antibiotics.

Antimicrobial Activity of Naturally Occurring Phenols and Derivatives Against Biofilm and Planktonic Bacteria

Biofilm-forming bacteria present formidable challenges across diverse settings, and there is a need for new antimicrobial agents that are both environmentally acceptable and relatively potent against microorganisms in the biofilm state. The antimicrobial activity of three naturally occurring, low molecular weight, phenols, and their derivatives were evaluated against planktonic and biofilm Staphylococcus epidermidis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The structure activity relationships of eugenol, thymol, carvacrol, and their corresponding 2- and 4-allyl, 2-methallyl, and 2- and 4-n-propyl derivatives were evaluated. Allyl derivatives showed a consistent increased potency with both killing and inhibiting planktonic cells but they exhibited a decrease in potency against biofilms. This result underscores the importance of using biofilm assays to develop structure-activity relationships when the end target is biofilm.

One-Step Synthesis of Epoxy Group-Terminated Organosilica Nanodots: A Versatile Nanoplatform for Imaging and Eliminating Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria and Their Biofilms

Multidrug-resistant bacteria (MRB) and their biofilms, both of which develop high levels of drug tolerance, cause severe threats to global health. This study demonstrates that biocompatible fluorescent silicon-containing nanodots can be a multifunctional platform for simultaneously imaging and eliminating MRB and their biofilms. Ultrasmall epoxy group (oxirane)-functionalized organosilica nanodots (OSiNDs) with a high photoluminescence quantum yield of ≈31% are synthesized via a simple one-step hydrothermal treatment of an epoxy group-containing silane molecule, 3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane, and an organic dye, rose bengal. The resultant OSiNDs can be employed as a universal imaging reagent for visualizing various bacteria/biofilms, including MRB and their biofilms. Moreover, the epoxy group-terminated OSiNDs can be conjugated with amine-containing reagents only via the simple stirring of the mixtures at an elevated temperature (e.g., 60 °C) for several hours (e.g., 3 h) without the addition of activating reagents. The amine-containing antibiotic vancomycin (Van) can thus be easily conjugated with the OSiNDs, and the obtained OSiNDs-Van can successfully inhibit the growth of MRB and even eliminate their biofilms. Collectively, the present work may give new impetus to the development of novel antibacterial and anti-biofilm agents for overcoming the drug resistance of bacteria.

In Silico Prediction of Hemolytic Toxicity on the Human Erythrocytes for Small Molecules by Machine-Learning and Genetic Algorithm

Hemolytic toxicity of small molecules, as one of the important ADMET end points, can cause the lysis of erythrocytes membrane and leaking of hemoglobin into the blood plasma, which leads to various side effects. Thus, it is very crucial to assess the hemolytic potential of small molecules during the early stage of drug development process. However, so far there is no computational model to predict the human hemolytic toxicity of small molecules. To this end, we manually curate the hemolytic toxicity data set for the small molecules experimentally evaluated on the human erythrocytes, develop the first machine-learning (ML) based models to predict the human hemolytic toxicity of small molecules, harness the genetic algorithm (GA) and ML based model to optimize human hemolytic toxicity based on the molecular fingerprint to derive "optimal virtual fingerprints (OVFs)" with the desired hemolytic/nonhemolytic property, and finally implement a free software for the users to predict/optimize the human hemolytic toxicity with ML and GA in the automatic manner.

Recent Progress in Natural-Product-Inspired Programs Aimed To Address Antibiotic Resistance and Tolerance

Bacteria utilize multiple mechanisms that enable them to gain or acquire resistance to antibiotic therapies during the treatment of infections. In addition, bacteria form biofilms which are surface-attached communities of enriched populations containing persister cells encased within a protective extracellular matrix of biomolecules, leading to chronic and recurring antibiotic-tolerant infections. Antibiotic resistance and tolerance are major global problems that require innovative therapeutic strategies to address the challenges associated with pathogenic bacteria. Historically, natural products have played a critical role in bringing new therapies to the clinic to treat life-threatening bacterial infections. This Perspective provides an overview of antibiotic resistance and tolerance and highlights recent advances (chemistry, biology, drug discovery, and development) from various research programs involved in the discovery of new antibacterial agents inspired by a diverse series of natural product antibiotics.

Discovery of meta-Amido Bromophenols as New Antitubercular Agents

A series of meta-amido bromophenol derivatives were designed and synthesized. The compounds were found to potently inhibit the growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Ra. They also exhibited moderate inhibitory activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and multidrug-resistant strains. The compounds did not show inhibitory activity against normal Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Moderate cytotoxicities and good metabolic stability were observed for the selected compounds. The results demonstrated meta-amido bromophenols as a new class of antitubercular agents with good potentials.

The Path to New Halogenated Quinolines With Enhanced Activities Against Staphylococcus epidermidis

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and surface-attached bacterial biofilms play a significant role in human disease. Conventional antibiotics target actively replicating free-floating, planktonic cells. Unfortunately, biofilm communities are endowed with nonreplicating persister cells that are tolerant to antibiotics. Innovative approaches are necessary to identify new molecules able to eradicate resistant and tolerant bacterial cells. Our group has discovered that select halogenated quinolines (HQs) can eradicate drug-resistant, gram-positive bacterial pathogens and their corresponding biofilms. Interestingly, the HQ scaffold is synthetically tunable and we have discovered unique antibacterial profiles through extensive analogue synthesis and microbiologic studies. We recently reported the synthesis of 14 new HQs to investigate the impact of ClogP values on antibacterial and biofilm eradication activities. We conducted diverse synthetic modifications at the 2-position of the HQ scaffold in an attempt to enhance water solubility and found new compounds that display enhanced activities against Staphylococcus epidermidis. In particular, HQ 2 (ClogP = 3.44) demonstrated more potent antibacterial activities against methicillin-resistant S epidermidis (MRSE) 35984 planktonic cells (minimum inhibitory concentration = 0.59 µM) compared with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus isolates while demonstrating potent MRSE biofilm eradication activities (minimum biofilm eradication concentration = 2.35 µM). We believe that HQ could play a critical role in the development of next-generation antibacterial therapeutics.

Transcript Profiling of MRSA Biofilms Treated with a Halogenated Phenazine Eradicating Agent: A Platform for Defining Cellular Targets and Pathways Critical to Biofilm Survival

Bacterial biofilms are surface-attached communities of non-replicating bacteria innately tolerant to antibiotics. Biofilms display differential gene expression profiles and physiologies as compared to their planktonic counterparts; however, their biology remains largely unknown. In this study, we used a halogenated phenazine (HP) biofilm eradicator in transcript profiling experiments (RNA-seq) to define cellular targets and pathways critical to biofilm viability. WoPPER analysis with time-course validation (RT-qPCR) revealed that HP-14 induces rapid iron starvation in MRSA biofilms, as evident by the activation of iron-acquisition gene clusters in 1 hour. Serine proteases and oligopeptide transporters were also found to be up-regulated, whereas glycolysis, arginine deiminase, and urease gene clusters were down-regulated. KEGG analysis revealed that HP-14 impacts metabolic and ABC transporter functional pathways. These findings suggest that MRSA biofilm viability relies on iron homeostasis.

Thinking Outside the Box-Novel Antibacterials To Tackle the Resistance Crisis

The public view on antibiotics as reliable medicines changed when reports about "resistant superbugs" appeared in the news. While reasons for this resistance development are easily spotted, solutions for re-establishing effective antibiotics are still in their infancy. This Review encompasses several aspects of the antibiotic development pipeline from very early strategies to mature drugs. An interdisciplinary overview is given of methods suitable for mining novel antibiotics and strategies discussed to unravel their modes of action. Select examples of antibiotics recently identified by using these platforms not only illustrate the efficiency of these measures, but also highlight promising clinical candidates with therapeutic potential. Furthermore, the concept of molecules that disarm pathogens by addressing gatekeepers of virulence will be covered. The Review concludes with an evaluation of antibacterials currently in clinical development. Overall, this Review aims to connect select innovative antimicrobial approaches to stimulate interdisciplinary partnerships between chemists from academia and industry.

Halogenated quinolines bearing polar functionality at the 2-position: Identification of new antibacterial agents with enhanced activity against Staphylococcus epidermidis

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria and surface-attached biofilms continue to play a significant role in human health and disease. Innovative strategies are needed to identify new therapeutic leads to tackle infections of drug-resistant and tolerant bacteria. We synthesized a focused library of 14 new halogenated quinolines to investigate the impact of ClogP values on antibacterial and biofilm-eradication activities. During these investigations, we found select polar appendages at the 2-position of the HQ scaffold were more well-tolerated than others. We were delighted to see multiple compounds display enhanced activities against the major human pathogen S. epidermidis. In particular, HQ 2 (ClogP = 3.44) demonstrated enhanced activities against MRSE 35984 planktonic cells (MIC = 0.59 μM) compared to MRSA and VRE strains in addition to potent MRSE biofilm eradication activities (MBEC = 2.35 μM). Several of the halogenated quinolines identified here reported low cytotoxicity against HeLa cells with minimal hemolytic activity against red blood cells. We believe that halogenated quinoline small molecules could play an important role in the development of next-generation antibacterial therapeutics capable of targeting and eradicating biofilm-associated infections.

An Efficient Buchwald-Hartwig/Reductive Cyclization for the Scaffold Diversification of Halogenated Phenazines: Potent Antibacterial Targeting, Biofilm Eradication, and Prodrug Exploration

Bacterial biofilms are surface-attached communities comprised of nonreplicating persister cells housed within a protective extracellular matrix. Biofilms display tolerance toward conventional antibiotics, occur in ∼80% of infections, and lead to >500000 deaths annually. We recently identified halogenated phenazine (HP) analogues which demonstrate biofilm-eradicating activities against priority pathogens; however, the synthesis of phenazines presents limitations. Herein, we report a refined HP synthesis which expedited the identification of improved biofilm-eradicating agents. 1-Methoxyphenazine scaffolds were generated through a Buchwald-Hartwig cross-coupling (70% average yield) and subsequent reductive cyclization (68% average yield), expediting the discovery of potent biofilm-eradicating HPs (e.g., 61: MRSA BAA-1707 MBEC = 4.69 μM). We also developed bacterial-selective prodrugs (reductively activated quinone-alkyloxycarbonyloxymethyl moiety) to afford HP 87, which demonstrated excellent antibacterial and biofilm eradication activities against MRSA BAA-1707 (MIC = 0.15 μM, MBEC = 12.5 μM). Furthermore, active HPs herein exhibit negligible cytotoxic or hemolytic effects, highlighting their potential to target biofilms.

Antimicrobial peptide-inspired NH125 analogues: bacterial and fungal biofilm-eradicating agents and rapid killers of MRSA persisters

During microbial infection, antimicrobial peptides are utilized by the immune response to rapidly eradicate microbial pathogens through the destruction of cellular membranes. Inspired by antimicrobial peptides, quaternary ammonium cationic (QAC) compounds have emerged as agents capable of destroying bacterial membranes leading to rapid bacterial death, including the eradication of persistent, surface-attached bacterial biofilms. NH125, an imidazolium cation with a sixteen membered fatty tail, was recently reported to eradicate persister cells and was our starting point for the development of novel antimicrobial agents. Here, we describe the design, chemical synthesis and biological investigations of a collection of 30 diverse NH125 analogues which provided critical insights into structural features that are important for antimicrobial activities in this class. From these studies, multiple NH125 analogues were identified to possess potent antibacterial and antifungal activities, eradicate both bacterial and fungal biofilms and rapidly eradicate MRSA persister cells in stationary phase. NH125 analogues also demonstrated more rapid persister cell killing activities against MRSA when tested alongside a panel of diverse membrane-active agents, including BAC-16 and daptomycin. NH125 analogues could have a significant impact on persister- and biofilm-related problems in numerous biomedical applications.

New Perspectives in Biofilm Eradication

Microbial biofilms, which are elaborate and highly resistant microbial aggregates formed on surfaces or medical devices, cause two-thirds of infections and constitute a serious threat to public health. Immunocompromised patients, individuals who require implanted devices, artificial limbs, organ transplants, or external life support and those with major injuries or burns, are particularly prone to become infected. Antibiotics, the mainstay treatments of bacterial infections, have often proven ineffective in the fight against microbes when growing as biofilms, and to date, no antibiotic has been developed for use against biofilm infections. Antibiotic resistance is rising, but biofilm-mediated multidrug resistance transcends this in being adaptive and broad spectrum and dependent on the biofilm growth state of organisms. Therefore, the treatment of biofilms requires drug developers to start thinking outside the constricted "antibiotics" box and to find alternative ways to target biofilm infections. Here, we highlight recent approaches for combating biofilms focusing on the eradication of preformed biofilms, including electrochemical methods, promising antibiofilm compounds and the recent progress in drug delivery strategies to enhance the bioavailability and potency of antibiofilm agents.