SLIM: A Short-Linked, Highly Redox-Stable Trityl Label for High-Sensitivity In-Cell EPR Distance Measurements

Protein-Protein Interaction and Conformational Change in the Alpha-Helical Membrane Transporter BtuCD-F in the Native Cellular Envelope

Alpha-helical membrane proteins perform numerous critical functions essential for the survival of living organisms. Traditionally, these proteins are extracted from membranes using detergent solubilization and reconstitution into liposomes or nanodiscs. However, these processes often obscure the effects of nanoconfinement and the native environment on the structure and conformational heterogeneity of the target protein. We demonstrate that pulsed dipolar electron spin resonance spectroscopy, combined with the Gd3+-nitroxide spin pair, enables the selective observation of the vitamin B12 importer BtuCD-F in its native cellular envelope. Despite the high levels of non-specific labeling in the envelope, this orthogonal approach combined with the long phase-memory time for the Gd3+ spin enables the observation of the target protein complex at a few micromolar concentrations with high resolution. In the native envelope, vitamin B12 induces a distinct conformational shift at the BtuCD-BtuF interface, which is not observed in the micelles. This approach offers a general strategy for investigating protein-protein and protein-ligand/drug interactions and conformational changes of the alpha-helical membrane proteins in their native envelope context.

Simultaneous Quantitation of Persulfides, Biothiols, and Hydrogen Sulfide through Sulfur Exchange Reaction with Trityl Spin Probes

Reactive sulfur species (RSS) including persulfides (RSSHs), biothiols, and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are key regulators in various physiological processes. To better understand the symbiotic relationship and interconversion of these RSS, it is highly desirable but challenging to develop analytical techniques that are capable of detecting and quantifying them. Herein, we report the rational design and synthesis of novel trityl-radical-based electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) probes dubbed CT02-TNB and OX-TNB. CT02-TNB underwent fast sulfur exchange reactions with two reactive RSSHs (PS1 and PS2) which were released from their corresponding donors PSD1 and PSD2 to afford the specific conjugates. The resulting conjugates exhibit characteristic EPR spectra, thus enabling discriminative detection and quantitation of the two RSSHs. Moreover, CT02-TNB showed good response toward other RSS including glutathione (GSH), cysteine (Cys), H2S, and sulfite as well. Importantly, based on the updated EPR spectral simulation program, simultaneous quantitation of multiple RSS (e.g., PS1/GSH/Cys or PS1/GSH/H2S) by CT02-TNB was also achieved. Finally, the levels of released PS1 from PSD1 and endogenous GSH in isolated mouse livers were measured by the hydrophilic OX-TNB. This work represents the first study achieving discriminative and quantitative detection of different persulfides and other RSS by a spectroscopic method.

Tracking Disordered Extracellular Domains of Membrane Proteins in the Cell with Cu(II)-Based Spin Labels

In-cell electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy experiments provide high-resolution data about conformational changes of proteins within the cell. However, one of the limitations of EPR is the requisite of stable paramagnetic centers in a reducing environment. We recently showed that histidine-rich sites in proteins hold a high affinity to Cu(II) ions complexed with a chelator. Using a chelator prevents the reduction of Cu(II) ions. Moreover, this spin-labeling methodology can be performed within the native cellular environment on any overexpressed protein without protein purification and delivery to the cell. Herein, we use this novel methodology to gain spatial information on the extracellular domain of the human copper transporter, hCtr1. Limited structural information on the transmembrane domain of the human Ctr1 (hCtr1) was obtained using X-ray crystallography and cryo-EM. However, these structures are missing information on the disordered extracellular domains of hCtr1. Extracellular domains are sensing or interacting with the environment outside of the cell and therefore play an essential role in any transmembrane protein. Especially in hCtr1, the extracellular domain functions as a gating mechanism for copper ions. Here, we performed EPR experiments revealing structural information about the extracellular N-terminal domain of the full-length hCtr1 in vitro and in situ in insect cells and cell membrane fragments. The comparison revealed that the extracellular domains of the in situ and native membrane hCtr1 are further apart than the structure of the purified protein. These method-related differences highlight the significance of studying membrane proteins in their native environment.

Redox Transformations of the OX063 Radical in Biological Media: Oxidative Decay of Initial Trityl with Further Formation of Structurally-Modified TAM

Being a low-toxic and hydrophilic representative of TAM, OX063 has shown its suitability for in-vivo and in-cell EPR experiments and design of spin labels. Using 13C labeling, we investigated the course of oxidative degradation of OX063 into quinone-methide (QM) under the influence of superoxide as well as further thiol-promoted reduction of QM into TAM radical, which formally corresponds to substitution of a carboxyl function by a hydroxyl group. We found these transformations being quantitative in model reactions mimicking specific features of biological media and confirmed the presence of these reactions in the blood and liver homogenate of mice in vitro. The emergence of the trityl with the hydroxyl group can be masked by an initial TAM in EPR spectra and may introduce distortions into EPR-derived oximetry data if they have been obtained for objects under hypoxia. 13C labeling allows one to detect its presence, considering its different hyperfine splitting constant on 13C1 (2.04 mT) as compared to OX063 (2.30 mT). The potential involvement of these reactions should be considered when using TAM in spin-labeling of biopolymers intended for subsequent EPR experiments, as well as in the successful application of TAM in experiments in vivo and in cell.

In Situ Generation and High Bioresistance of Trityl-based Semiquinone Methide Radicals Under Anaerobic Conditions in Cellular Systems

Bioreduction of spin labels and polarizing agents (generally stable radicals) has been an obstacle limiting the in-cell applications of pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP). In this work, we have demonstrated that two semiquinone methide radicals (OXQM⋅ and CTQM⋅) can be easily produced from the trityl-based quinone methides (OXQM and CTQM) via reduction by various reducing agents including biothiols and ascorbate under anaerobic conditions. Both radicals have relatively low pKa's and exhibit EPR single line signals at physiological pH. Moreover, the bioreduction of OXQM in three cell lysates enables quantitative generation of OXQM⋅ which was most likely mediated by flavoenzymes. Importantly, the resulting OXQM⋅ exhibited extremely high stability in the E.coli lysate under anaerobic conditions with 76- and 14.3-fold slower decay kinetics as compared to the trityl OX063 and a gem-diethyl pyrrolidine nitroxide, respectively. Intracellular delivery of OXQM into HeLa cells was also achieved by covalent conjugation with a cell-permeable peptide as evidenced by the stable intracellular EPR signal from the OXQM⋅ moiety. Owing to extremely high resistance of OXQM⋅ towards bioreduction, OXQM and its derivatives show great application potential in in-cell EPR and in-cell DNP studies for various cells which can endure short-term anoxic treatments.

A systematic study on the effect of protonation and deuteration on electron spin Tm/T2 in a cellular context

In recent years, DEER experiments in pulsed EPR have garnered interest for their precise distance distribution insights in cellular and buffer setups. These measurements linked to electron spin Tm/T2 values of the labelled sample are impacted by the cellular environment being fully protonated or deuterated, as demonstrated in the present study.

Synthesis and dark state EPR properties of PDI-trityl dyads and triads

Covalently-linked chromophore-radical systems with their unique optical and magnetic properties are useful for applications in, e. g., quantum information science. To expand the catalog of molecular systems, we synthesized and characterized six novel chromophore-radical and radical-chromophore-radical systems employing derivatives of perylene diimide (PDI) as the chromophore and trityl as the radical. The EPR properties of these compounds were evaluated in solution at cryogenic and room temperatures. In addition, the electron spin-spin coupling in the two bistrityl systems was investigated using DQC measurements. The presented results serve as a basis for further spectroscopic investigations under photoexcitation of the PDI core.

Pulse Dipolar Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Distance Measurements at Low Nanomolar Concentrations: The CuII-Trityl Case

Recent sensitivity enhancements in pulse dipolar electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (PDS) have afforded distance measurements at submicromolar spin concentrations. This development opens the path for new science as more biomolecular systems can be investigated at their respective physiological concentrations. Here, we demonstrate that the combination of orthogonal spin-labeling using CuII ions and trityl yields a >3-fold increase in sensitivity compared to that of the established CuII-nitroxide labeling strategy. Application of the recently developed variable-time relaxation-induced dipolar modulation enhancement (RIDME) method yields a further ∼2.5-fold increase compared to the commonly used constant-time RIDME. This overall increase in sensitivity of almost an order of magnitude makes distance measurements in the range of 3 nm with protein concentrations as low as 10 nM feasible, >2 times lower than the previously reported concentration. We expect that experiments at single-digit nanomolar concentrations are imminent, which have the potential to transform biological PDS applications.

Differentiating between Label and Protein Conformers in Pulsed Dipolar EPR Spectroscopy with the dHis-Cu2+ (NTA) Motif

Pulsed dipolar EPR spectroscopy (PDS) in combination with site-directed spin labeling is a powerful tool in structural biology. However, the commonly used spin labels are conjugated to biomolecules via rather long and flexible linkers, which hampers the translation of distance distributions into biomolecular conformations. In contrast, the spin label copper(II)-nitrilotriacetic acid [Cu2+ (NTA)] bound to two histidines (dHis) is rigid and yields narrow distance distributions, which can be more easily translated into biomolecular conformations. Here, we use this label on the 71 kDa Yersinia outer protein O (YopO) to decipher whether a previously experimentally observed bimodal distance distribution is due to two conformations of the biomolecule or of the flexible spin labels. Two different PDS experiments, that is, pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR aka DEER) and relaxation-induced dipolar modulation enhancement (RIDME), yield unimodal distance distribution with the dHis-Cu2+ (NTA) motif; this result suggests that the α-helical backbone of YopO adopts a single conformation in frozen solution. In addition, we show that the Cu2+ (NTA) label preferentially binds to the target double histidine (dHis) sites even in the presence of 22 competing native histidine residues. Our results therefore suggest that the generation of a His-null background is not required for this spin labeling methodology. Together these results highlight the value of the dHis-Cu2+ (NTA) motif in PDS experiments.

In-cell investigation of the conformational landscape of the GTPase UreG by SDSL-EPR

UreG is a cytosolic GTPase involved in the maturation network of urease, an Ni-containing bacterial enzyme. Previous investigations in vitro showed that UreG features a flexible tertiary organization, making this protein the first enzyme discovered to be intrinsically disordered. To determine whether this heterogeneous behavior is maintained in the protein natural environment, UreG structural dynamics was investigated directly in intact bacteria by in-cell EPR. This approach, based on site-directed spin labeling coupled to electron paramagnetic resonance (SDSL-EPR) spectroscopy, enables the study of proteins in their native environment. The results show that UreG maintains heterogeneous structural landscape in-cell, existing in a conformational ensemble of two major conformers, showing either random coil-like or compact properties. These data support the physiological relevance of the intrinsically disordered nature of UreG and indicates a role of protein flexibility for this specific enzyme, possibly related to the regulation of promiscuous protein interactions for metal ion delivery.

Double Quantum Coherence ESR at Q-Band Enhances the Sensitivity of Distance Measurements at Submicromolar Concentrations

Recently, there have been remarkable improvements in pulsed ESR sensitivity, paving the way for broader applicability of ESR in the measurement of biological distance constraints, for instance, at physiological concentrations and in more complex systems. Nevertheless, submicromolar distance measurements with the commonly used nitroxide spin label take multiple days. Therefore, there remains a need for rapid and reliable methods of measuring distances between spins at nanomolar concentrations. In this work, we demonstrate the power of double quantum coherence (DQC) experiments at Q-band frequencies. With the help of short and intense pulses, we showcase DQC signals on nitroxide-labeled proteins with modulation depths close to 100%. We show that the deep dipolar modulations aid in the resolution of bimodal distance distributions. Finally, we establish that distance measurements with protein concentrations as low as 25 nM are feasible. This limit is approximately 4-fold lower than previously possible. We anticipate that nanomolar concentration measurements will lead to further advancements in the use of ESR, especially in cellular contexts.

Trityl-Based Lanthanide-Supramolecular Assemblies Exhibiting Slow Magnetic Relaxation

The triphenylmethane (trityl) group has been recognized as a supramolecular synthon in crystal engineering, molecular machine rotors and stereochemical chirality inductors in materials science. Herein we demonstrate for the first time how it can be utilized in the domain of molecular magnetic materials through shaping of single molecule magnet (SMM) properties within the lanthanide complexes in tandem with other non-covalent interactions. Trityl-appended mono- (HL1 ) and bis-compartmental (HL2 ) hydrazone ligands were synthesized and complexated with Dy(III) and Er(III) triflate and nitrate salts to generate four monometallic (1-4) and two bimetallic (5, 6) complexes. The static and dynamic magnetic properties of 1-6 were investigated, revealing that only ligand HL1 induces assemblies (1-4) capable of showing SMM behaviour, with Dy(III) congeners (1, 2) able to exhibit the phenomenon also under zero field conditions. Theoretical ab initio studies helped in determination of Dy(III) energetic levels, magnetic anisotropic axes and corroborated magnetic relaxation mechanisms to be a combination of Raman and quantum tunnelling in zero dc field, the latter being cancelled in the optimum non-zero dc field. Our work represents the first study of magneto-structural correlations within the trityl Ln-SMMs, leading to generation of slowly relaxing zero-field dysprosium complexes within the hydrogen-bonded assemblies.

Time-Resolved Mn2+ -NO and NO-NO Distance Measurements Reveal That Catalytic Asymmetry Regulates Alternating Access in an ABC Transporter

ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters shuttle diverse substrates across biological membranes. Transport is often achieved through a transition between an inward-facing (IF) and an outward-facing (OF) conformation of the transmembrane domains (TMDs). Asymmetric nucleotide-binding sites (NBSs) are present among several ABC subfamilies and their functional role remains elusive. Here we addressed this question using concomitant NO-NO, Mn2+ -NO, and Mn2+ -Mn2+ pulsed electron-electron double-resonance spectroscopy of TmrAB in a time-resolved manner. This type-IV ABC transporter undergoes a reversible transition in the presence of ATP with a significantly faster forward transition. The impaired degenerate NBS stably binds Mn2+ -ATP, and Mn2+ is preferentially released at the active consensus NBS. ATP hydrolysis at the consensus NBS considerably accelerates the reverse transition. Both NBSs fully open during each conformational cycle and the degenerate NBS may regulate the kinetics of this process.

Stabilizing Nitroxide Spin Labels for Structural and Conformational Studies of Biomolecules by Maleimide Treatment

Nitroxide (NO) spin radicals are effective in characterizing structures, interactions and dynamics of biomolecules. The EPR applications in cell lysates or intracellular milieu require stable spin labels, but NO radicals are unstable in such conditions. We showed that the destabilization of NO radicals in cell lysates or even in cells is caused by NADPH/NADH related enzymes, but not by the commonly believed reducing reagents such as GSH. Maleimide stabilizes the NO radicals in the cell lysates by consumption of the NADPH/NADH that are essential for the enzymes involved in destabilizing NO radicals, instead of serving as the solo thiol scavenger. The maleimide treatment retains the crowding properties of the intracellular components and allows to perform long-time EPR measurements of NO labeled biomolecules close to the intracellular conditions. The strategy of maleimide treatment on cell lysates for the EPR applications has been demonstrated on double electron-electron resonance (DEER) measurements on a number of NO labeled protein samples. The method opens a broad application range for the NO labeled biomolecules by EPR in conditions that resemble the intracellular milieu.

An in-cell spin-labelling methodology provides structural information on cytoplasmic proteins in bacteria

EPR in-cell spin-labeling was applied to CueR in E. coli. The methodology employed a Cu(II)-NTA complexed with dHis. High resolved in-cell distance distributions were obtained revealing minor differences between in vitro and in-cell data. This methodology allows study of structural changes of any protein in-cell, independent of size or cellular system.

Spectroscopically Orthogonal Spin Labels in Structural Biology at Physiological Temperatures

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) is mostly used in structural biology in conjunction with pulsed dipolar spectroscopy (PDS) methods to monitor interspin distances in biomacromolecules at cryogenic temperatures both in vitro and in cells. In this context, spectroscopically orthogonal spin labels were shown to increase the information content that can be gained per sample. Here, we exploit the characteristic properties of gadolinium and nitroxide spin labels at physiological temperatures to study side chain dynamics via continuous wave (cw) EPR at X band, surface water dynamics via Overhauser dynamic nuclear polarization at X band and short-range distances via cw EPR at high fields. The presented approaches further increase the accessible information content on biomolecules tagged with orthogonal labels providing insights into molecular interactions and dynamic equilibria that are only revealed under physiological conditions.

Enhanced sensitivity for pulse dipolar EPR spectroscopy using variable-time RIDME

Pulse dipolar EPR spectroscopy (PDS) measurements are an important complementary tool in structural biology and are increasingly applied to macromolecular assemblies implicated in human health and disease at physiological concentrations. This requires ever higher sensitivity, and recent advances have driven PDS measurements into the mid-nanomolar concentration regime, though optimization and acquisition of such measurements remains experimentally demanding and time expensive. One important consideration is that constant-time acquisition represents a hard limit for measurement sensitivity, depending on the maximum measured distance. Determining this distance a priori has been facilitated by machine-learning structure prediction (AlphaFold2 and RoseTTAFold) but is often confounded by non-representative behaviour in frozen solution that may mandate multiple rounds of optimization and acquisition. Herein, we endeavour to simultaneously enhance sensitivity and streamline PDS measurement optimization to one-step by benchmarking a variable-time acquisition RIDME experiment applied to CuII-nitroxide and CuII-CuII model systems. Results demonstrate marked sensitivity improvements of both 5- and 6-pulse variable-time RIDME of between 2- and 5-fold over the constant-time analogues.

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy in structural-dynamic studies of large protein complexes

Macromolecular protein assemblies are of fundamental importance for many processes inside the cell, as they perform complex functions and constitute central hubs where reactions occur. Generally, these assemblies undergo large conformational changes and cycle through different states that ultimately are connected to specific functions further regulated by additional small ligands or proteins. Unveiling the 3D structural details of these assemblies at atomic resolution, identifying the flexible parts of the complexes, and monitoring with high temporal resolution the dynamic interplay between different protein regions under physiological conditions is key to fully understanding their properties and to fostering biomedical applications. In the last decade, we have seen remarkable advances in cryo-electron microscopy (EM) techniques, which deeply transformed our vision of structural biology, especially in the field of macromolecular assemblies. With cryo-EM, detailed 3D models of large macromolecular complexes in different conformational states became readily available at atomic resolution. Concomitantly, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) have benefited from methodological innovations which also improved the quality of the information that can be achieved. Such enhanced sensitivity widened their applicability to macromolecular complexes in environments close to physiological conditions and opened a path towards in-cell applications. In this review we will focus on the advantages and challenges of EPR techniques with an integrative approach towards a complete understanding of macromolecular structures and functions.

Magneto-Structural Correlations in a Mixed Porphyrin(Cu2+ )/Trityl Spin System: Magnitude, Sign, and Distribution of the Exchange Coupling Constant

Tetrathiatriarylmethyl radicals (TAM or trityl) are receiving increasing attention in various fields of magnetic resonance such as imaging, dynamic nuclear polarization, spin labeling, and, more recently, molecular magnetism and quantum information technology. Here, a trityl radical attached via a phenyl bridge to a copper(II)tetraphenylporphyrin was synthesized, and its magnetic properties studied by multi-frequency continuous-wave electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and magnetic measurements. EPR revealed that the electron spin-spin coupling constant J between the trityl and Cu²⁺ spin centers is ferromagnetic with a magnitude of -2.3 GHz (-0.077 cm^-1 , + J S → 1 S → 2 ${+J{\vec{S}}_{1}{\vec{S}}_{2}}$ convention) and a distribution width of 1.2 GHz (0.040 cm^-1 ). With the help of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, the obtained ferromagnetic exchange coupling, which is unusual for para-substituted phenyl-bridged biradicals, could be related to the almost perpendicular orientation of the phenyl linker with respect to the porphyrin and trityl ring planes in the energy minimum, while the J distribution was rationalized by the temperature weighted rotation of the phenyl bridge about the molecular axis connecting both spin centers. This study exemplifies the importance of molecular dynamics for the homogeneity (or heterogeneity) of the magnetic properties of trityl-based systems.

A review on recent advances in methods for site-directed spin labeling of long RNAs

RNAs are important biomolecules that play essential roles in various cellular processes and are crucially linked with many human diseases. The key to elucidate the mechanisms underlying their biological functions and develop RNA-based therapeutics is to investigate RNA structure and dynamics and their connections to function in detail using a variety of approaches. Magnetic resonance techniques including paramagnetic nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron magnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopies have proved to be powerful tools to gain insights into such properties. The prerequisites for paramagnetic NMR and EPR studies on RNAs are to achieve site-specific spin labeling of the intrinsically diamagnetic RNAs, which however is not trivial, especially for long ones. In this review, we present some covalent labeling strategies that allow site-specific introduction of electron spins to long RNAs. Generally, these strategies include assembly of long RNAs via enzymatic ligation of short oligonucleotides, co- and post-transcriptional site-specific labeling empowered with the unnatural base pair system, and direct enzymatic functionalization of natural RNAs. We introduce a few case studies to discuss the advantages and limitations of each strategy, and to provide a vision for the future development.

Reconciling membrane protein simulations with experimental DEER spectroscopy data

Spectroscopy experiments are crucial to study membrane proteins for which traditional structure determination methods still prove challenging. Double electron-electron resonance (DEER) spectroscopy experiments provide protein residue-pair distance distributions that are indicative of their conformational heterogeneity. Atomistic molecular dynamics (MD) simulations are another tool that have been proven to be vital to study the structural dynamics of membrane proteins such as to identify inward-open, occluded, and outward-open conformations of transporter membrane proteins, among other partially open or closed states of the protein. Yet, studies have reported that there is no direct consensus between the distributional data from DEER experiments and MD simulations, which has challenged validation of structures obtained from long-timescale simulations and using simulations to design experiments. Current coping strategies for comparisons rely on heuristics, such as mapping the nearest matching peaks between two ensembles or biased simulations. Here we examine the differences in residue-pair distance distributions arising due to the choice of membranes around the protein and covalent modification of a pair of residues to nitroxide spin labels in DEER experiments. Through comparing MD simulations of two proteins, PepT_So and LeuT-both of which have been characterized using DEER experiments previously-we show that the proteins' dynamics are similar despite the choice of the detergent micelle as a membrane mimetic in DEER experiments. On the other hand, covalently modified residues show slight local differences in their dynamics and a huge divergence when the oxygen atom pair distances between spin labeled residues are measured rather than protein backbone distances. Given the computational expense associated with pairwise MTSSL labeled MD simulations, we examine the use of biased simulations to explore the conformational dynamics of the spin labels only to reveal that such simulations alter the underlying protein dynamics. Our study identifies the main cause for the mismatch between DEER experiments and MD simulations and will accelerate the development of potential mitigation strategies to improve the match.

A new 13C trityl-based spin label enables the use of DEER for distance measurements

Triarylmethyl (TAM)-based labels, while still underutilized, are a powerful class of labels for pulsed-Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) distance measurements. They feature slow relaxation rates for long-lasting signals, high stability for cellular experiments, and narrow spectral features for efficient excitation of the spins. However, the typical narrow line shape limits the available distance measurements to only single-frequency experiments, such as Double Quantum Coherence (DQC) and Relaxation Induced Dipolar Modulation Enhancement (RIDME), which can be complicated to perform or hard to process. Therefore, widespread usage of TAM labels can be enhanced by the use of Double Electron-Electron Resonance (DEER) distance measurements. In this work, we developed a new spin label, 13C1-mOX063-d24, with a 13C isotope as the radical center. Due to the resolved hyperfine splitting, the spectrum is sufficiently broadened to permit DEER-based experiments at Q-band spectrometers. Additionally, this new label can be incorporated orthogonally with Cu(II)-based protein label. The orthogonal labeling scheme enables DEER distance measurement at X-band frequencies. Overall, the new trityl label allows for DEER-based distance measurements that complement existing TAM-label DQC and RIDME experiments.

EPR Spectroscopy Provides New Insights into Complex Biological Reaction Mechanisms

In the last 20 years, the use of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) has made a pronounced and lasting impact in the field of structural biology. The advantage of EPR spectroscopy over other structural techniques is its ability to target even minor conformational changes in any biomolecule or macromolecular complex, independent of its size or complexity, or whether it is in solution or in the cell during a biological or chemical reaction. Here, we focus on the use of EPR spectroscopy to study transmembrane transport and transcription mechanisms. We discuss experimental and analytical concerns when referring to studies of two biological reaction mechanisms, namely, transfer of copper ions by the human copper transporter hCtr1 and the mechanism of action of the Escherichia coli copper-dependent transcription factor CueR. Last, we elaborate on future avenues in the field of EPR structural biology.

Solution-State Inter-Copper Distribution of Redox Partner-Linked Copper Nitrite Reductases: A Pulsed Electron-Electron Double Resonance Spectroscopy Study

Copper nitrite reductases (CuNiRs) catalyze the reduction of nitrite to form nitric oxide. In recent years, new classes of redox partner linked CuNiRs have been isolated and characterized by crystallographic techniques. Solution-state biophysical studies have shed light on the complex catalytic mechanisms of these enzymes and implied that protein dynamics may play a role in CuNiR catalysis. To investigate the structural, dynamical, and functional relationship of these CuNiRs, we have used protein reverse engineering and pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR) spectroscopy to determine their solution-state inter-copper distributions. Data show the multidimensional conformational landscape of this family of enzymes and the role of tethering in catalysis. The importance of combining high-resolution crystallographic techniques and low-resolution solution-state approaches in determining the structures and mechanisms of metalloenzymes is emphasized by our approach.

Cross-validation of distance measurements in proteins by PELDOR/DEER and single-molecule FRET

Pulsed electron-electron double resonance spectroscopy (PELDOR/DEER) and single-molecule Förster resonance energy transfer spectroscopy (smFRET) are frequently used to determine conformational changes, structural heterogeneity, and inter probe distances in biological macromolecules. They provide qualitative information that facilitates mechanistic understanding of biochemical processes and quantitative data for structural modelling. To provide a comprehensive comparison of the accuracy of PELDOR/DEER and smFRET, we use a library of double cysteine variants of four proteins that undergo large-scale conformational changes upon ligand binding. With either method, we use established standard experimental protocols and data analysis routines to determine inter-probe distances in the presence and absence of ligands. The results are compared to distance predictions from structural models. Despite an overall satisfying and similar distance accuracy, some inconsistencies are identified, which we attribute to the use of cryoprotectants for PELDOR/DEER and label-protein interactions for smFRET. This large-scale cross-validation of PELDOR/DEER and smFRET highlights the strengths, weaknesses, and synergies of these two important and complementary tools in integrative structural biology.

Exploring protein conformations in vitro and in cell with EPR distance measurements

The electron-electron double resonance (DEER) method, which provides distance distributions between two spin labels, attached site specifically to biomolecules (proteins and nucleic acids), is currently a well-recognized biophysical tool in structural biology. The most commonly used spin labels are based on nitroxide stable radicals, conjugated to the proteins primarily via native or engineered cysteine residues. However, in recent years, new spin labels, along with different labeling chemistries, have been introduced, driven in part by the desire to study structural and dynamical properties of biomolecules in their native environment, the cell. This mini-review focuses on these new spin labels, which allow for DEER on orthogonal spin labels, and on the state of the art methods for in-cell DEER distance measurements.

Impact of Chlorine Substitution on Electron Spin Relaxation of a Trityl Radical

A perchlorotriarylmethyl tricarboxylic acid radical 99% enriched in ¹³C at the central carbon (¹³C₁-PTMTC) was characterized in phosphate buffered saline solution (pH = 7.2) (PBS) at ambient temperature. Samples immobilized in 1:1 PBS:glycerol or in 9:1 trehalose:sucrose were studied as a function of temperature. Isotope enrichment at C₁ creates a trityl that can be used to accurately measure microscopic viscosity. Understanding of the impact of the ¹³C hyperfine interaction on electron spin relaxation is important for application of this trityl in oximetry and distance measurements. The anisotropic ¹³C₁ hyperfine couplings (A_x = A_y = 24 ± 2 MHz, A_z = 200 ± 1 MHz) are larger than for the related ¹³C₁-perdeuterated Finland trityl (¹³C₁-dFT) and the g anisotropy (g_x = 2.0013, g_y = 2.0016, g_z = 2.0042) is slightly larger than for ¹³C₁-dFT. The tumbling correlation times (τ_R) for ¹³C₁-PTMTC are 0.20 ± 0.02 ns in PBS and 0.40 ± 0.05 ns in 3:1 PBS:glycerol, which are shorter than for ¹³C₁-dFT in the same solutions. T₁ for ¹³C₁-PTMTC is 3.5 ± 0.5 μs in PBS and 5.3 ± 0.4 μs in 3:1 PBS:glycerol, which are shorter than for ¹³C₁-dFT due to faster tumbling, larger anisotropy of the ¹³C₁ hyperfine, and about 30% larger contribution from the local mode. In immobilized samples T₁ for ¹³C₁-PTMTC is similar to that for ¹³C₁-dFT and other trityls without chlorine or ¹³C₁ substituents, indicating that the ¹³C₁ and Cl substituents on the phenyl rings have little impact on T₁. The temperature dependence of T₁ was modeled with contributions from the direct, Raman, and local mode processes. Broadening of CW linewidths of about 0.6 G in fluid solution and about 2 G in rigid lattice is attributed to unresolved ^35,37Cl hyperfine couplings.

Orthogonal spin labeling and pulsed dipolar spectroscopy for protein studies

Different types of spin labels are currently available for structural studies of biomolecules both in vitro and in cells using Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) and pulse dipolar spectroscopy (PDS). Each type of label has its own advantages and disadvantages, that will be addressed in this chapter. The spectroscopically distinct properties of the labels have fostered new applications of PDS aimed to simultaneously extract multiple inter-label distances on the same sample. In fact, combining different labels and choosing the optimal strategy to address their inter-label distances can increase the information content per sample, and this is pivotal to better characterize complex multi-component biomolecular systems. In this review, we provide a brief background of the spectroscopic properties of the four most common orthogonal spin labels for PDS measurements and focus on the various methods at disposal to extract homo- and hetero-label distances in proteins. We also devote a section to possible artifacts arising from channel crosstalk and provide few examples of applications in structural biology.

In-Cell Structural Biology by NMR: The Benefits of the Atomic Scale

In-cell structural biology aims at extracting structural information about proteins or nucleic acids in their native, cellular environment. This emerging field holds great promise and is already providing new facts and outlooks of interest at both fundamental and applied levels. NMR spectroscopy has important contributions on this stage: It brings information on a broad variety of nuclei at the atomic scale, which ensures its great versatility and uniqueness. Here, we detail the methods, the fundamental knowledge, and the applications in biomedical engineering related to in-cell structural biology by NMR. We finally propose a brief overview of the main other techniques in the field (EPR, smFRET, cryo-ET, etc.) to draw some advisable developments for in-cell NMR. In the era of large-scale screenings and deep learning, both accurate and qualitative experimental evidence are as essential as ever to understand the interior life of cells. In-cell structural biology by NMR spectroscopy can generate such a knowledge, and it does so at the atomic scale. This review is meant to deliver comprehensive but accessible information, with advanced technical details and reflections on the methods, the nature of the results, and the future of the field.

Stability of the nitroxide biradical AMUPol in intact and lysed mammalian cells

Dynamic Nuclear Polarization (DNP) enhanced solid state NMR increases experimental sensitivity, potentially enabling detection of biomolecules at their physiological concentrations. The sensitivity of DNP experiments is due to the transfer of polarization from electron spins of free radicals to the nuclear spins of interest. Here, we investigate the reduction of AMUPol in both lysed and intact HEK293 cells. We find that nitroxide radicals are reduced with first order reduction kinetics by cell lysates at a rate of ∼ 12% of the added nitroxide radical concentration per hour. We also found that electroporation delivered a consistent amount of AMUPol to intact cells and that nitroxide radicals are reduced just slightly more rapidly (∼15% per hour) by intact cells than by cell lysates. The two nitroxide radicals of AMUPol are reduced independently and this leads to considerable accumulation of the DNP-silent monoradical form of AMUPol, particularly in preparations of intact cells where nearly half of the AMUPol is already reduced to the DNP silent monoradical form at the earliest experimental time points. This confirms that the loss of the DNP-active biradical form of AMUPol is faster than the nitroxide reduction rate. Finally, we investigate the effect of adding N-ethyl maleimide, a well-known inhibitor of thiol (-SH) group-based reduction of nitroxide biradicals in cells, on AMUPol reduction, cellular viability, and DNP performance. Although pre-treatment of cells with NEM effectively inhibited the reduction of AMUPol, exposure to NEM compromised cellular viability and, surprisingly, did not improve DNP performance. Collectively, these results indicate that, currently, the most effective strategy to obtain high DNP enhancements for DNP-assisted in-cell NMR is to minimize room temperature contact times with cellular constituents and suggest that the development of bio-resistant polarization agents for DNP could considerably increase the sensitivity of DNP-assisted in-cell NMR experiments.

Conformational Flexibility of the Protein Insertase BamA in the Native Asymmetric Bilayer Elucidated by ESR Spectroscopy

The β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) consisting of the central β-barrel BamA and four other lipoproteins mediates the folding of the majority of the outer membrane proteins. BamA is placed in an asymmetric bilayer and its lateral gate is suggested to be the functional hotspot. Here we used in situ pulsed electron-electron double resonance spectroscopy to characterize BamA in the native outer membrane. In the detergent micelles, the data is consistent with mainly an inward-open conformation of BamA. The native membrane considerably enhanced the conformational heterogeneity. The lateral gate and the extracellular loop 3 exist in an equilibrium between different conformations. The outer membrane provides a favorable environment for occupying multiple conformational states independent of the lipoproteins. Our results reveal a highly dynamic behavior of the lateral gate and other key structural elements and provide direct evidence for the conformational modulation of a membrane protein in situ.

Spin Labeling of Long RNAs Via Click Reaction and Enzymatic Ligation

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) is a spectroscopic method for investigating structures, conformational changes, and dynamics of biomacromolecules, for example, oligonucleotides. In order to be applicable, the oligonucleotide has to be labeled site-specifically with paramagnetic tags, the so-called spin labels. Here, we provide a protocol for spin labeling of long oligonucleotides with nitroxides. In the first step, a short and commercially available RNA strand is labeled with a nitroxide via a copper-(I)-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition (CuAAC), also referred to as "click" reaction. In the second step, the labeled RNA strand is fused to another RNA sequence by means of enzymatic ligation to obtain the labeled full-length construct. The protocol is robust and has been shown experimentally to deliver high yields for RNA sequences up to 81 nucleotides, but longer strands are in principle also feasible. Moreover, it sets the path to label, for example, long riboswitches, ribozymes, and DNAzymes for coarse-grained structure determination and enables to investigate mechanistical features of these systems.

PELDOR Measurements on Nitroxide-Labeled Oligonucleotides

In the past decades, pulsed dipolar electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (PDS) has emerged as a powerful tool in biophysical chemistry to study the structure, dynamics, and function of biomolecules like oligonucleotides and proteins. Structural information is obtained from PDS methods in form of a distribution of distances between spin centers. Such spin centers can either be intrinsically present paramagnetic metal ions and organic radicals or may be attached to the biomolecule by means of site-directed spin labeling. The most common PDS experiment for probing interspin distances in the nanometer range is pulsed electron-electron double resonance (PELDOR or DEER). In the protocol presented here, we provide a step-by-step workflow on how to set up a PELDOR experiment on a commercially available pulsed EPR spectrometer, outline the data analysis, and highlight potential pitfalls. We suggest PELDOR measurements on nitroxide-labeled oligonucleotides to study the structure of either RNA-cleaving DNAzymes in complex with their RNA targets or modified DNAzymes with different functions and targets, in which deoxynucleotides are substituted by nitroxide-labeled nucleotides.

Fullerene-based triplet spin labels: methodology aspects for pulsed dipolar EPR spectroscopy

Triplet states of photoexcited organic molecules are promising spin labels with advanced spectroscopic properties for Pulsed Dipolar Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (PD EPR) spectroscopy. Recently proposed triplet fullerene labels have shown...

Application of W-band 19F electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy to distance measurement using a trityl spin probe and a fluorine label

Recently, Marina Bennati and coworkers (Angew. Chemie - Int. Ed., 2020, 59, 373–379., A. J. Magn. Reson., 2021, 333, 107091) proposed to use electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy in...

Benchmark Test and Guidelines for DEER/PELDOR Experiments on Nitroxide-Labeled Biomolecules

Distance distribution information obtained by pulsed dipolar EPR spectroscopy provides an important contribution to many studies in structural biology. Increasingly, such information is used in integrative structural modeling, where it delivers unique restraints on the width of conformational ensembles. In order to ensure reliability of the structural models and of biological conclusions, we herein define quality standards for sample preparation and characterization, for measurements of distributed dipole-dipole couplings between paramagnetic labels, for conversion of the primary time-domain data into distance distributions, for interpreting these distributions, and for reporting results. These guidelines are substantiated by a multi-laboratory benchmark study and by analysis of data sets with known distance distribution ground truth. The study and the guidelines focus on proteins labeled with nitroxides and on double electron-electron resonance (DEER aka PELDOR) measurements and provide suggestions on how to proceed analogously in other cases.

Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy on G-protein-coupled receptors: Adopting strategies from related model systems

Membrane proteins, including ion channels, transporters and G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), play a significant role in various physiological processes. Many of these proteins are difficult to express in large quantities, imposing crucial experimental restrictions. Nevertheless, there is now a wide variety of studies available utilizing electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopic techniques that expand experimental accessibility by using relatively small quantities of protein. Here, we give an overview starting from basic strategies in EPR on membrane proteins with a focus on GPCRs, while emphasizing several applications from recent years. We highlight how the arsenal of EPR-based techniques may provide significant further contributions to understanding the complex molecular machinery and energetic phenomena responsible for seamless workflow in essential biological processes.

Rapid protein delivery to living cells for biomolecular investigation

The lack of a simple, fast and efficient method for protein delivery is limiting the widespread application of in-cell experiments, which are crucial for understanding the cellular function. We present here an innovative strategy to deliver proteins into both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, exploiting thermal vesiculation. This method allows to internalize substantial amounts of proteins, with different molecular weight and conformation, without compromising the structural properties and cell viability. Characterizing proteins in a physiological environment is essential as the environment can dramatically affect the conformation and dynamics of biomolecules as shown by in-cell EPR spectra vs those acquired in buffer solution. Considering its versatility, this method opens the possibility to scientists to study proteins directly in living cells through a wide range of techniques.

Synthesis and Redox Properties of Water-Soluble Asymmetric Trityl Radicals

Tetrathiatriarylmethyl (trityl) radicals have been recently shown to react with biological oxidoreductants including glutathione (GSH), ascorbic acid (Asc), and superoxide anion radical (O₂^•-). However, how the substituents affect the reactivity of trityl radicals is still unknown. In this work, five asymmetric trityl radicals were synthesized and their reactivities with GSH, Asc, and O₂^•- investigated. Under aerobic conditions, GSH induces fast decays for the thioether- (TSA) and N-methyleneglycine-substituted (TGA) derivatives and slow decay for the 4-carboxyphenyl-containing one (TPA). Under anaerobic conditions, the direct reduction of these radicals by GSH also occurs with rate constants (k_GSH) from 1.8 × 10^-4 M^-1 s^-1 for TPA to 1.0 × 10^-2 M^-1 s^-1 for TGA. Moreover, these radicals can also react with O₂^•- with rate constants (k_SO) from 1.2 × 10³ M^-1 s^-1 for ET-01 to 1.6 × 10⁴ M^-1 s^-1 for TGA. Surprisingly, these radicals are completely inert to Asc in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Additionally, the substituents exert an important effect on redox potentials of these trityl radicals. This work demonstrates that the redox properties of the trityl radicals strongly depend on their substituents, and TPA with high stability toward GSH shows great potential for intracellular applications.

Cleavage-Resistant Protein Labeling With Hydrophilic Trityl Enables Distance Measurements In-Cell

Sensitive in-cell distance measurements in proteins using pulsed-electron spin resonance (ESR) require reduction-resistant and cleavage-resistant spin labels. Among the reduction-resistant moieties, the hydrophilic trityl core known as OX063 is promising due to its long phase-memory relaxation time (T_m). This property leads to a sufficiently intense ESR signal for reliable distance measurements. Furthermore, the T_m of OX063 remains sufficiently long at higher temperatures, opening the possibility for measurements at temperatures above 50 K. In this work, we synthesized deuterated OX063 with a maleimide linker (mOX063-d₂₄). We show that the combination of the hydrophilicity of the label and the maleimide linker enables high protein labeling that is cleavage-resistant in-cells. Distance measurements performed at 150 K using this label are more sensitive than the measurements at 80 K. The sensitivity gain is due to the significantly short longitudinal relaxation time (T₁) at higher temperatures, which enables more data collection per unit of time. In addition to in vitro experiments, we perform distance measurements in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Interestingly, the T_m of mOX063-d₂₄ is sufficiently long even in the crowded environment of the cell, leading to signals of appreciable intensity. Overall, mOX063-d₂₄ provides highly sensitive distance measurements both in vitro and in-cells.

Chiral Triphenylacetic Acid Esters: Residual Stereoisomerism and Solid-State Variability of Molecular Architectures

We have proven the usability and versatility of chiral triphenylacetic acid esters, compounds of high structural diversity, as chirality-sensing stereodynamic probes and as molecular tectons in crystal engineering. The low energy barrier to stereoisomer interconversion has been exploited to sense the chirality of an alkyl substituent in the esters. The structural information are cascaded from the permanently chiral alcohol (inducer) to the stereodynamic chromophoric probe through cooperative interactions. The ECD spectra of triphenylacetic acid esters are highly sensitive to very small structural differences in the inducer core. The tendencies to maximize the C-H···O hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, and London dispersion forces determine the way of packing molecules in the crystal lattice. The phenyl embraces of trityl groups allowed, to some extent, the control of molecular organization in the crystal. However, the spectrum of possible molecular arrangements is very broad and depends on the type of substituent, the optical purity of the sample, and the presence of a second trityl group in the proximity. Racemates crystallize as the solid solution of enantiomers, where the trityl group acts as a protecting group for the stereogenic center. Therefore, the absolute configuration of the inducer is irrelevant to the packing mode of molecules in the crystal.

Spin Labeling of RNA Using "Click" Chemistry for Coarse-grained Structure Determination via Pulsed Electron-electron Double Resonance Spectroscopy

Understanding the function of oligonucleotides on a molecular level requires methods for studying their structure, conformational changes, and internal dynamics. Various biophysical methods exist to achieve this, including the whole toolbox of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR or ESR) spectroscopy. An EPR method widely used in this regard is Pulsed Electron-Electron Double Resonance (PELDOR or DEER), which provides distances in the nanometer range between electron spins in biomolecules with Angstrom precision, without restriction to the size of the biomolecule, and in solution. Since oligonucleotides inherently do not contain unpaired electrons, these have to be introduced in the form of so-called spin labels. Firstly, this protocol describes how nitroxide spin labels can be site-specifically attached to oligonucleotides using "Click" chemistry. The reaction provides little byproducts, high yields, and is conveniently performed in aqueous solution. Secondly, the protocol details how to run the PELDOR experiment, analyze the data, and derive a coarse-grained structure. Here, emphasis is placed on the pitfalls, requirements for a good dataset, and limits of interpretation; thus, the protocol gives the user a guideline for the whole experiment i.e., from spin labeling, via the PELDOR measurement and data analysis, to the final coarse-grained structure. Graphical abstract: Schematic overview of the workflow described in this protocol: First, the spin-labeling of RNA is described, which is performed as a "Click"-reaction between the alkyne-functionalized RNA strand and the azide group of the spin label. Next, step-by-step instructions are given for setting up PELDOR/DEER distance measurements on the labeled RNA, and for data analysis. Finally, guidelines are provided for building a structural model from the previously analyzed data.

Spatiotemporal Resolution of Conformational Changes in Biomolecules by Combining Pulsed Electron-Electron Double Resonance Spectroscopy with Microsecond Freeze-Hyperquenching

The function of proteins is linked to their conformations that can be resolved with several high-resolution methods. However, only a few methods can provide the temporal order of intermediates and conformational changes, with each having its limitations. Here, we combine pulsed electron-electron double resonance spectroscopy with a microsecond freeze-hyperquenching setup to achieve spatiotemporal resolution in the angstrom range and lower microsecond time scale. We show that the conformational change of the C_α-helix in the cyclic nucleotide-binding domain of the Mesorhizobium loti potassium channel occurs within about 150 μs and can be resolved with angstrom precision. Thus, this approach holds great promise for obtaining 4D landscapes of conformational changes in biomolecules.

In-Cell Double Electron-Electron Resonance at Nanomolar Protein Concentrations

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is an established technique to site-specifically monitor conformational changes of spin-labeled biomolecules. Emerging in-cell EPR approaches aiming to address spin-labeled proteins in their native environment still struggle to reach a broad applicability and to target physiologically relevant protein concentrations. Here, we present a comparative in vitro and in-cell double electron-electron resonance (DEER) study demonstrating that nanomolar protein concentrations are at reach to measure distances up to 4.5 nm between protein sites carrying commercial gadolinium spin labels.

Ox-SLIM: Synthesis of and Site-Specific Labelling with a Highly Hydrophilic Trityl Spin Label

The combination of pulsed dipolar electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (PDS) with site-directed spin labelling is a powerful tool in structural biology. Rational design of trityl-based spin labels has enabled studying biomolecular structures at room temperature and within cells. However, most current trityl spin labels suffer either from aggregation with proteins due to their hydrophobicity, or from bioconjugation groups not suitable for in-cell measurements. Therefore, we introduce here the highly hydrophilic trityl spin label Ox-SLIM. Engineered as a short-linked maleimide, it combines the most recent developments in one single molecule, as it does not aggregate with proteins, exhibits high resistance under in-cell conditions, provides a short linker, and allows for selective and efficient spin labelling via cysteines. Beyond establishing synthetic access to Ox-SLIM, its suitability as a spin label is illustrated and ultimately, highly sensitive PDS measurements are presented down to protein concentrations as low as 45 nm resolving interspin distances of up to 5.5 nm.

Studies of transmembrane peptides by pulse dipolar spectroscopy with semi-rigid TOPP spin labels

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)-based pulsed dipolar spectroscopy measures the dipolar interaction between paramagnetic centers that are separated by distances in the range of about 1.5-10 nm. Its application to transmembrane (TM) peptides in combination with modern spin labelling techniques provides a valuable tool to study peptide-to-lipid interactions at a molecular level, which permits access to key parameters characterizing the structural adaptation of model peptides incorporated in natural membranes. In this mini-review, we summarize our approach for distance and orientation measurements in lipid environment using novel semi-rigid TOPP [4-(3,3,5,5-tetramethyl-2,6-dioxo-4-oxylpiperazin-1-yl)-L-phenylglycine] labels specifically designed for incorporation in TM peptides. TOPP labels can report single peak distance distributions with sub-angstrom resolution, thus offering new capabilities for a variety of TM peptide investigations, such as monitoring of various helix conformations or measuring of tilt angles in membranes.

In Situ Labeling and Distance Measurements of Membrane Proteins in E. coli Using Finland and OX063 Trityl Labels

In situ investigation of membrane proteins is a challenging task. Previously we demonstrated that nitroxide labels combined with pulsed ESR spectroscopy is a promising tool for this purpose. However, the nitroxide labels suffer from poor stability, high background labeling, and low sensitivity. Here we show that Finland (FTAM) and OX063 based labels enable labeling of the cobalamin transporter BtuB and BamA, the central component of the β-barrel assembly machinery (BAM) complex, in E coli. Compared to the methanethiosulfonate spin label (MTSL), trityl labels eliminated the background signals and enabled specific in situ labeling of the proteins with high efficiency. The OX063 labels show a long phase memory time (TM ) of ≈5 μs. All the trityls enabled distance measurements between BtuB and an orthogonally labeled substrate with high selectivity and sensitivity down to a few μm concentration. Our data corroborate the BtuB and BamA conformations in the cellular environment of E. coli.