Acceptor Engineering for Optimized ROS Generation Facilitates Reprogramming Macrophages to M1 Phenotype in Photodynamic Immunotherapy

Orchestrated metal-coordinated carrier-free celastrol hydrogel intensifies T cell activation and regulates response to immune checkpoint blockade for synergistic chemo-immunotherapy

The challenges generated by insufficient T cell activation and infiltration have constrained the application of immunotherapy. Making matters worse, the complex tumor microenvironment (TME), resistance to apoptosis collectively poses obstacles for cancer treatment. The carrier-free small molecular self-assembly strategy is a current research hotspot to overcome these challenges. This strategy can transform multiple functional agents into sustain-released hydrogel without the addition of any excipients. Herein, a coordination and hydrogen bond mediated tricomponent hydrogel (Cel hydrogel) composed of glycyrrhizic acid (GA), copper ions (Cu2+) and celastrol (Cel) was initially constructed. The hydrogel can regulate TME by chemo-dynamic therapy (CDT), which increases reactive oxygen species (ROS) in conjunction with GA and Cel, synergistically expediting cellular apoptosis. What's more, copper induced cuproptosis also contributes to the anti-tumor effect. In terms of regulating immunity, ROS generated by Cel hydrogel can polarize tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) into M1-TAMs, Cel can induce T cell proliferation as well as activate DC mediated antigen presentation, which subsequently induce T cell proliferation, elevate T cell infiltration and enhance the specific killing of tumor cells, along with the upregulation of PD-L1 expression. Upon co-administration with aPD-L1, this synergy mitigated both primary and metastasis tumors, showing promising clinical translational value.

Lanthanum-based dendritic mesoporous nanoplatform for tumor microenvironment activating synergistic anti-glioma efficacy

Lanthanum (La)-based nanotherapeutics are therapeutically advantageous due to cytoplasmic oxygen species (ROS) levels for mediating intrinsic and extrinsic tumor cell apoptosis. While they have not been extensively explored for their potential to suppress malignancies in vivo. Correspondingly, we have formulated a unique lanthanum nanocarrier with high specific surface area, dendritic-divergent mesopores, importantly, exposing more active lanthanum sites. After surface PEGlytion and ICG loading in mesoporous channels, this fantastic nanoplatform can efficaciously enrich in malignant glioblastoma regions. Meaningfully, it can be sensitively dissociated for La ions release under weak acid (pH = 6.5) tumor microenvironment. Upon 808 nm light irradiation, high light-heat conversion efficiency is further proved, then this satisfied thermal in the tumor site progressively enhances ROS production by La ions. Owing to the synergistic oxidative therapy and photothermal therapy of our dendritic La nanoplatform, glioblastoma is efficaciously and synergistically prevented both in vitro and in vivo. All outcomes highlight the therapeutic potency of La based nanoplatform with radial mesopores to treat malignant cancer in vivo and encourage future translational exploration.

Preparation of photo-controlled release ROS-responsive Ce6/elemene co-loaded liposomes and study on the effect on enhancing apoptosis of NMIBC

At present, chemotherapy combined with photodynamic therapy is exerting satisfactory therapeutic effects in the treatment of tumors. Chlorin e6 (Ce6) is a photosensitizer with high efficiency and low dark toxicity. At the same time, elemene (ELE) contains high-efficiency and low-toxicity anti-cancer active ingredients, which can effectively penetrate tumor tissue and inhibit its recovery and proliferation. Due to the poor water solubility of these two drugs, we prepared ELE/Ce6 co-loaded liposomes (Lipo-ELE/Ce6) to improve their water solubility, thereby enhancing the anti-tumor effect. The characterization of Lipo-ELE/Ce6 showed that Lipo-ELE/Ce6 had suitable encapsulation efficiency (EE), particle size, polydispersity (PDI), zeta potential, and good photo-controlled release properties. In vitro, Lipo-ELE/Ce6 effectively inhibited the growth of T24 cells and induced apoptosis, and more importantly, in vivo experiments showed that Lipo-ELE/Ce6 had significant anti-tumor effects, which was significantly better than free drugs. The above results suggest that Lipo-ELE/Ce6 can significantly enhance the induction of apoptosis of non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC) by light-controlled release and ROS response.

Hypoxia-accelerating pyroptosis nanoinducers for promoting image-guided cancer immunotherapy

Precise image-guided cancer immunotherapy holds immense potential in revolutionizing cancer treatment. The strategies facilitating activatable imaging and controlled therapeutics are highly desired yet to be developed. Herein, we report a new pyroptosis nanoinducer that integrates aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen) and DNA methyltransferase inhibitor with hypoxia-responsive covalent organic frameworks (COFs) for advanced image-guided cancer immunotherapy. We first synthesize and compare three donor-acceptor type AIEgens featuring varying numbers of electron-withdrawing units, and find that the incorporation of two acceptors yields the longest response wavelength and most effective photodynamic therapy (PDT) property, surpassing the performance of analogs with one or three acceptor groups. A COF-based nanoplatform containing AIEgen and pyroptosis drug is successfully constructed via the one-pot method. The intra-COF energy transfer significantly quenches AIEgen, in which both fluorescence and PDT properties greatly enhance upon hypoxia-triggered COF degradation. Moreover, the photodynamic process exacerbates hypoxia, accelerating pyroptosis drug release. The nanoagent enables sensitive delineation of tumor site through in situ activatable fluorescence signature. Thanks to the exceptional ROS production capabilities and hypoxia-accelerating drug release, the nanoagent not only inhibits primary tumor growth but also impedes the progression of distant tumors in 4T1 tumor-bearing mice through potent pyroptosis-mediated immune response. This research introduces a novel strategy for achieving activatable phototheranostics and self-accelerating drug release for synergetic cancer immunotherapy.

Enhanced Osteosarcoma Immunotherapy via CaCO3 Nanoparticles: Remodeling Tumor Acidic and Immune Microenvironment for Photodynamic Therapy

Osteosarcoma (OS) is a "cold" tumor enriched in noninflammatory M2 phenotype tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which limits the efficacy of immunotherapy. The acidic tumor microenvironment (TME), generated by factors such as excess hydrogen (H+) ions and high lactate levels, activates immunosuppressive cells, further promoting a suppressive tumor immune microenvironment (TIME). Therefore, a multitarget synergistic combination strategy that neutralizes the acidic TME and reprograms TAMs can be beneficial for OS therapy. Here, a calcium carbonate (CaCO3)/polydopamine (PDA)-based nanosystem (A-NPs@(SHK+Ce6)) is developed. CaCO3 nanoparticles are used to neutralize H+ ions and alleviate the suppressive TIME, and the loaded SHK not only synergizes with photodynamic therapy (PDT) but also inhibits lactate production, further reversing the acidic TME and repolarizing TAMs to consequently lead to enhanced PDT-induced tumor suppression and comprehensive beneficial effects on antitumor immune responses. Importantly, A-NPs@(SHK+Ce6), in combination with programmed cell death protein 1 (PD-1) checkpoint blockade, shows a remarkable ability to eliminate distant tumors and promote long-term immune memory function to protect against rechallenged tumors. This work presents a novel multiple-component combination strategy that coregulates the acidic TME and TAM polarization to reprogram the TIME.

Roles of M1 Macrophages and Their Extracellular Vesicles in Cancer Therapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are inflammatory cells that are important components of the tumor microenvironment. TAMs are functionally heterogeneous and divided into two main subpopulations with distinct and opposite functions: M1 and M2 macrophages. The secretory function of TAMs is essential for combating infections, regulating immune responses, and promoting tissue repair. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanovesicles that are secreted by cells. They play a crucial role in mediating intercellular information transfer between cells. EVs can be secreted by almost all types of cells, and they contain proteins, microRNAs, mRNAs, and even long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) that have been retained from the parental cell through the process of biogenesis. EVs can influence the function and behavior of target cells by delivering their contents, thus reflecting, to some extent, the characteristics of their parental cells. Here, we provide an overview of the role of M1 macrophages and their EVs in cancer therapy by exploring the impact of M1 macrophage-derived EVs (M1-EVs) on tumors by transferring small microRNAs. Additionally, we discuss the potential of M1-EVs as drug carriers and the possibility of reprogramming M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages for disease treatment. We propose that M1-EVs play a crucial role in cancer therapy by transferring microRNAs and loading them with drugs. Reprogramming M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages holds great promise in the treatment of cancers.

A promising strategy for combating bacterial infections through the use of light-triggered ROS in Ce6-immobilized hydrogels

The reactive oxygen species (ROS) are composed of highly reactive molecules, including superoxide anions (O 2 • - ), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and hydroxyl radicals. Researchers have explored the potential benefits of using hydrogel dressings that incorporate active substances to accelerate wound healing. The present investigation involved the development of a hyaluronic acid (HA) hydrogel capable of producing ROS using LED irradiation. The process of creating a composite hydrogel was created by chemically bonding Ce6 to an amide group. Our analysis revealed that the synthesized hydrogel had a well-structured amide bond, and the degree of cross-linking was assessed through swelling, enzyme stability and cytotoxicity tests. ROS production was found to be influenced by both the intensity and duration of light exposure. Furthermore, in situations where cell toxicity resulting from ROS generation in the hydrogel surpassed 70%, no detectable genotoxic consequences were evident, and antibacterial activity was confirmed to be directly caused by the destruction of bacterial membranes as a result of ROS damage. Furthermore, the utilization of the generated ROS influences the polarization of macrophages, resulting in the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, which is a characteristic feature of M1 polarization. Subsequently, we validated the efficacy of a HA hydrogel that produces ROS to directly eradicate microorganisms. Furthermore, this hydrogel facilitated indirect antibacterial activity by stimulating macrophages to release pro-inflammatory cytokines. These cytokines are crucial for coordinating cell-mediated immune responses and for modulating the overall effectiveness of the immune system. Therefore, the Ce6-HA hydrogel has the potential to serve as an effective wound dressing solution for infected wounds because of its ability to produce substantial levels or a consistent supply.

Sulfur oxidation states manipulate excited state electronic configurations for constructing highly efficient organic type I photosensitizers

The multiple relaxation processes of excited states are a bridge connecting molecular structures and properties, providing enormous application potential for organic luminogens. However, a systematic understanding and manipulation of the relationship between the molecular structure, excited state relaxation processes, and properties of organic luminogens is still lacking. Herein, we report a strategy for manipulating excited state electronic configurations through the regulation of the sulfur oxidation state to construct eminent organic type I PSs. Combined with the experimental results and theoretical calculations, we have successfully revealed the decisive role of high sulfur oxidation states in promoting ROS production capacity. Impressively, a higher sulfur oxidation state can reduce the singlet-triplet energy gap (ΔE ST), increase the matching degree of transition configurations, promote the changes of the excited state electronic configurations, and boost the effective ISC proportion by enhancing intramolecular interactions. Therefore, DBTS2O with the highest sulfur oxidation state exhibits the strongest type I ROS generation ability. Additionally, guided by our strategy, a water-soluble PS (2OA) is designed and synthesized, showing selective imaging capacity and photokilling ability against Gram-positive bacteria. This study broadens the horizons for both molecular design and mechanism study of high-performance organic type I PSs.

Potentiating light-harvesting tactics through an A-D-A structure: repolarization of tumor-associated macrophages through phototherapy

Aiming to decrease the recurrence of tumors and achieve patient satisfaction, the elicitation of immunotherapy and its integrated synergistic employment is a bright new direction in oncotherapy, yet an emergently challenging task. In particular, tumor-associated macrophage (TAM) regulation though light-induced photodynamic and photothermal therapy (PDT and PTT) is regarded as a powerful approach, which focuses on the systemic immune system instead of the tumor itself. Herein, this study reports an acceptor-donor-acceptor (A-D-A) aggregation-induced emission luminogen (AIEgen), named TPA-2CN, which was applied as a photosensitizer (PS) and photothermal agent (PTA). Attributed to its A-D-A structure and AIE properties, TPA-2CN exhibits a high molar absorption coefficient and acts as a perfect template in regulating radiative and nonradiative transitions, which mainly utilize excited energy. The generation of type I reactive oxygen promoted its application in hypoxic tumor sites and the combination of hyperpyrexia forcefully induces macrophages to polarize towards the immune response M1 phenotype. In in vitro and in vivo, the successful reversion and reprogramming of the immune microenvironment was impressively proved. This method optimally concentrated immune therapy, PDT and PTT as one and exhibited excellent synergistic therapeutic effects with good biosafety.

NOX2 Enzyme Mimicking Nano-Networks Regulate Tumor-Associated Macrophages to Initiate Both Innate and Adaptive Immune Effects

Macrophages, capable of both direct killing and antigen presentation, are crucial for the interplay between innate and adaptive immunity. However, strategies mainly focus on polarizing tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) to M1 phenotype, while overlooking the inefficient antigen cross-presentation due to hyperactive hydrolytic protease within lysosomes which leads to antigen degradation. In light of the significant influence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) on TAMs' polarization and the inhibition of phagosomal proteolysis, a novel nanosystem termed OVA-Fe-GA (OFG) is engineered, drawing inspiration from the NOX2 enzyme's role. OFG integrates ovalbumin (OVA) and a network composed of Fe-gallic acid (GA), emulating the NOX2 enzyme's sequential ROS generation process ("O2 to O2 •- to H2O2/•OH"). Furthermore, it elucidates a biological mechanism that augments antigen cross-presentation by suppressing the expression of cysteine proteases. OFG restores the innate anti-tumor functionality of TAMs and significantly amplifies their antigen cross-presentation (4.5-fold compared to the PBS control group) in B16-OVA tumor-bearing mice. Notably, the infiltration and activity of intratumoral CD8+ T cells are enhanced, indicating an adaptive immune response. Moreover, OFG exhibits excellent photothermal properties, thereby fostering a system antitumor immune response. This study provides a promising strategy for initiating both innate and adaptive immunity via TAMs activation.

Reprogramming Tumor-Associated Macrophages with a Se-Based Core-Satellite Nanoassembly to Enhance Cancer Immunotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), as the most prevalent immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, play a pivotal role in promoting tumor development through various signaling pathways. Herein, we have engineered a Se@ZIF-8 core-satellite nanoassembly to reprogram TAMs, thereby enhancing immunotherapy outcomes. When the nanoassembly reaches the tumor tissue, selenium nanoparticles and Zn2+ are released in response to the acidic tumor microenvironment, resulting in a collaborative effort to promote the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The generated ROS, in turn, activate the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling pathway, driving the repolarization of TAMs from M2-type to M1-type, effectively eliminating cancer cells. Moreover, the nanoassembly can induce the immunogenic death of cancer cells through excess ROS to expose calreticulin and boost macrophage phagocytosis. The Se@ZIF-8 core-satellite nanoassembly provides a potential paradigm for cancer immunotherapy by reversing the immunosuppressive microenvironment.

Constructing Heavy-Atom-Free Photosensitizers for Hypoxic Tumor Phototherapy Based on Donor-Excited Photoinduced Electron-Transfer-Driven Type-I and Type-II Mechanisms

The spin-orbit charge transfer intersystem crossing (SOCT-ISC) photophysical process has shown great potential for constructing heavy-atom-free photosensitizers (PSs) for photodynamic therapy (PDT) of tumors. However, for almost all such PSs reported to date, the SOCT-ISC is driven by the acceptor-excited photoinduced electron transfer (a-PeT). In this work, for the first time the donor-excited photoinduced electron transfer (d-PeT)-driven SOCT-ISC mechanism is utilized to construct the heavy-atom-free PSs for PDT of tumors by directly installing the electron-deficient N-alkylquinolinium unit (as an electron acceptor) into the meso-position of the near-infrared (NIR) distyryl Bodipy chromophore (as an electron donor). In the less polar environment, the PSs exist as the monomer and promote the production of singlet oxygen (1O2) (Type-II) relying on the d-PeT-driven population of the triplet excited state via SOCT-ISC, whereas in the aqueous environment, they exist as nanoaggregates and induce the generation of superoxides (O2-•) and hydroxyl radicals (HO•) (Type-I) via the d-PeT-driven formation of the delocalized charge-separated state. The PSs could rapidly be internalized into cancer cells and induce the simultaneous production of intracellular 1O2, O2-•, and HO• upon NIR light irradiation, endowing the PSs with superb photocytotoxicity with IC50 values up to submicromolar levels whether under normoxia or under hypoxia. Based on the PSs platform, a tumor-targetable PS is developed, and its abilities in killing cancer cells and in ablating tumors without damage to normal cells/tissues under NIR light irradiation are verified in vitro and in vivo. The study expands the design scope of PSs by introducing the d-PeT conception, thus being highly valuable for achieving novel PSs in the realm of tumor PDT.

Rational design of ROS generation nanosystems to regulate innate immunity of macrophages, dendrtical and natural killing cells for immunotherapy

Innate immunity serves as the first line of host defense in the body against pathogenic infections or malignant diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS), as vital signaling mediators, can efficiently elicit innate immune responses to oxidative-related stress or damage. In the era of nanomedicine, various immunostimulatory nanosystems have been extensively designed and synthesized to elicit immune responses for the immunotherapy of cancer or infectious diseases. In this review, we emphasize that ROS derived from nanosystems regulates innate immune cells to potentiate immunotherapeutic efficacy, such as primarily dendritic cells, macrophages, or natural killer cells. Meanwhile, we also summarize the pathway of ROS generation triggered by exogenous nanosystems in innate immune cells of DCs, macrophages, and NK cells.

Nanomaterial-Based Repurposing of Macrophage Metabolism and Its Applications

Macrophage immunotherapy represents an emerging therapeutic approach aimed at modulating the immune response to alleviate disease symptoms. Nanomaterials (NMs) have been engineered to monitor macrophage metabolism, enabling the evaluation of disease progression and the replication of intricate physiological signal patterns. They achieve this either directly or by delivering regulatory signals, thereby mapping phenotype to effector functions through metabolic repurposing to customize macrophage fate for therapy. However, a comprehensive summary regarding NM-mediated macrophage visualization and coordinated metabolic rewiring to maintain phenotypic equilibrium is currently lacking. This review aims to address this gap by outlining recent advancements in NM-based metabolic immunotherapy. We initially explore the relationship between metabolism, polarization, and disease, before delving into recent NM innovations that visualize macrophage activity to elucidate disease onset and fine-tune its fate through metabolic remodeling for macrophage-centered immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the prospects and challenges of NM-mediated metabolic immunotherapy, aiming to accelerate clinical translation. We anticipate that this review will serve as a valuable reference for researchers seeking to leverage novel metabolic intervention-matched immunomodulators in macrophages or other fields of immune engineering.

A Light-Triggered J-Aggregation-Regulated Therapy Conversion: from Photodynamic/Photothermal Therapy to Long-Lasting Chemodynamic Therapy for Effective Tumor Ablation

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have become an effective tool for tumor treatment. The combination of photodynamic therapy (PDT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) takes advantage of various ROS and enhances therapeutic effects. However, the activation of CDT usually occurs before PDT, which hinders the sustained maintenance of hydroxyl radicals (⋅OH) and reduces the treatment efficiency. Herein, we present a light-triggered nano-system based on molecular aggregation regulation for converting cancer therapy from PDT/photothermal therapy (PTT) to a long-lasting CDT. The ordered J-aggregation enhances the photodynamic properties of the cyanine moiety while simultaneously suppressing the chemodynamic capabilities of the copper-porphyrin moiety. Upon light irradiation, Cu-PCy JNPs demonstrate strong photodynamic and photothermal effects. Meanwhile, light triggers a rapid degradation of the cyanine backbone, leading to the destruction of the J-aggregation. As a result, a long-lasting CDT is sequentially activated, and the sustained generation of ⋅OH is observed for up to 48 hours, causing potent cellular oxidative stress and apoptosis. Due to their excellent tumor accumulation, Cu-PCy JNPs exhibit effective in vivo tumor ablation through the converting therapy. This work provides a new approach for effectively prolonging the chemodynamic activity in ROS-based cancer therapy.

An AIEgen and Iodine Double-Ornamented Platinum(II) Complex for Bimodal Imaging-Guided Chemo-Photodynamic Combination Therapy

Real-time biodistribution monitoring and enhancing the therapeutic efficacy of platinum(II)-based anticancer drugs are urgently required to elevate their clinical performance. Herein, a tetraphenylethene derivative (TP) with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) properties and an iodine atom are selected as ligands to endow platinum (II) complex TP-Pt-I with real-time in vivo self-tracking ability by fluorescence (FL) and computerized tomography (CT) imaging, and improved anticancer efficacy by the combination of chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy. Especially, benefiting from the formation of a donor-acceptor-donor structure between the AIE photosensitizer TP and Pt-I moiety, the heavy atom effects of Pt and I, and the presence of I, TP-Pt-I displayed red-shifted absorption and emission wavelengths, enhanced ROS generation efficiency, and improved CT imaging capacity compared with the pristine TP and the control agent TP-Pt-Cl. As a result, the enhanced intratumoral accumulation of TP-Pt-I loaded nanoparticles is readily revealed by dual-modal FL and CT imaging with high contrast. Meanwhile, the TP-Pt-I nanoparticles show significantly improved tumor growth-inhibiting effects on an MCF-7 xenograft murine model by combining the chemotherapeutic effects of platinum(II) and the photodynamic effects of TP. This self-tracking therapeutic complex thus provides a new strategy for improving the therapeutic outcomes of platinum(II)-based anticancer drugs.

Self-Adaptive Photodynamic-to-Photothermal Switch for Smart Antitumor Photoimmunotherapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) and photothermal therapy (PTT) possess different merits in cancer phototherapy, but the tumor microenvironment becomes unfavorable during the phototheranostic progress. Herein, we report a self-adaptive cyanine derivative Cy5-TPA with the PDT-dominated state to PTT-dominated state autoswitch feature for enhanced photoimmunotherapy. The incorporation of rotatable triphenylamine (TPA) moiety renders Cy5-TPA with the temperature or intramolecular-motion regulated photoactivities, which shows preferable reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation at lower temperature while stronger photothermal conversion at higher ones. Such a promising feature permits the in situ switch from PDT-dominated state to PTT-dominated state along with intratumoral temperature increase during laser irradiation, which also works in line with the concurrently reduced intratumoral oxygen level, exhibiting a self-adaptive phototherapeutic behavior to maximize the phototherapeutic antitumor outcome. Most importantly, the self-adaptive PDT-dominated state to PTT-dominated state switch also facilitates the sequential generation and release of damage-associated molecular patterns during immunogenic cell death (ICD). Hence, Cy5-TPA demonstrates excellent photoimmunotherapy performance in ICD induction, dendritic cell maturation, and T cell activation for tumor eradication and metastasis inhibition.

Combination of Molecule-Targeted Therapy and Photodynamic Therapy Using Nanoformulated Verteporfin for Effective Uveal Melanoma Treatment

Uveal melanoma (UM) is the most common primary ocular malignancy in adults and has high mortality. Recurrence, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance are frequently observed in UM, but no beneficial systemic therapy is available, presenting an urgent need for developing effective therapeutic drugs. Verteporfin (VP) is a photosensitizer and a Yes-Associated Protein (YAP) inhibitor that has been used in clinical practice. However, VP's lack of tumor targetability, poor biocompatibility, and relatively low treatment efficacy hamper its application in UM management. Herein, we developed a biocompatible CD44-targeting hyaluronic acid nanoparticle (HANP) carrying VP (HANP/VP) to improve UM treatment efficacy. We found that HANP/VP showed a stronger inhibitory effect on cell proliferation than that of free VP in UM cells. Systemic delivery of HANP/VP led to targeted accumulation in the UM-tumor-bearing mouse model. Notably, HANP/VP mediated photodynamic therapy (PDT) significantly inhibited UM tumor growth after laser irradiation compared with no treatment or free VP treatment. Consistently, in HANP/VP treated tumors after laser irradiation, the tumor proliferation and YAP expression level were decreased, while the apoptotic tumor cell and CD8+ immune cell levels were elevated, contributing to effective tumor growth inhibition. Overall, the results of this preclinical study showed that HANP/VP is an effective nanomedicine for tumor treatment through PDT and inhibition of YAP in the UM tumor mouse model. Combining phototherapy and molecular-targeted therapy offers a promising approach for aggressive UM management.

Nanomedomics

Nanomaterials have attractive physicochemical properties. A variety of nanomaterials such as inorganic, lipid, polymers, and protein nanoparticles have been widely developed for nanomedicine via chemical conjugation or physical encapsulation of bioactive molecules. Superior to traditional drugs, nanomedicines offer high biocompatibility, good water solubility, long blood circulation times, and tumor-targeting properties. Capitalizing on this, several nanoformulations have already been clinically approved and many others are currently being studied in clinical trials. Despite their undoubtful success, the molecular mechanism of action of the vast majority of nanomedicines remains poorly understood. To tackle this limitation, herein, this review critically discusses the strategy of applying multiomics analysis to study the mechanism of action of nanomedicines, named nanomedomics, including advantages, applications, and future directions. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanism could provide valuable insight and therefore foster the development and clinical translation of nanomedicines.

Ligand Regulation Strategy to Modulate ROS Nature in a Rhodamine-Iridium(III) Hybrid System for Phototherapy

The efficacy of photodynamic therapy (PDT) is highly dependent on the photosensitizer features. The reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by photosensitizers is proven to be associated with immunotherapy by triggering immunogenic cell death (ICD) as well. In this work, we establish a rhodamine-iridium(III) hybrid model functioning as a photosensitizer to comprehensively understand its performance and potential applications in photodynamic immunotherapy. Especially, the correlation between the ROS generation efficiency and the energy level of the Ir(III)-based excited state (T1'), modulated by the cyclometalating (C∧N) ligand, is systematically investigated and correlated. We prove that in addition to the direct population of the rhodamine triplet state (T1) formed through the intersystem crossing process with the assistance of a heavy Ir(III) metal center, the fine-tuned T1' state could act as a relay to provide an additional pathway for promoting the cascade energy transfer process that leads to enhanced ROS generation ability. Moreover, type I ROS can be effectively produced by introducing sulfur-containing thiophene units in C∧N ligands, providing a stronger M1 macrophage-activation efficiency under hypoxia to evoke in vivo antitumor immunity. Overall, our work provides a fundamental guideline for the molecular design and exploration of advanced transition-metal-based photosensitizers for biomedical applications.

Recent Advances in Reprogramming Strategy of Tumor Microenvironment for Rejuvenating Photosensitizers-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has recently been considered a potential tumor therapy due to its time-space specificity and non-invasive advantages. PDT can not only directly kill tumor cells by using cytotoxic reactive oxygen species but also induce an anti-tumor immune response by causing immunogenic cell death of tumor cells. Although it exhibits a promising prospect in treating tumors, there are still many problems to be solved in its practical application. Tumor hypoxia and immunosuppressive microenvironment seriously affect the efficacy of PDT. The hypoxic and immunosuppressive microenvironment is mainly due to the abnormal vascular matrix around the tumor, its abnormal metabolism, and the influence of various immunosuppressive-related cells and their expressed molecules. Thus, reprogramming the tumor microenvironment (TME) is of great significance for rejuvenating PDT. This article reviews the latest strategies for rejuvenating PDT, from regulating tumor vascular matrix, interfering with tumor cell metabolism, and reprogramming immunosuppressive related cells and factors to reverse tumor hypoxia and immunosuppressive microenvironment. These strategies provide valuable information for a better understanding of the significance of TME in PDT and also guide the development of the next-generation multifunctional nanoplatforms for PDT.

An On-Demand Collaborative Innate-Adaptive Immune Response to Infection Treatment

Deep tissue infection is a common clinical issue and therapeutic difficulty caused by the disruption of the host antibacterial immune function, resulting in treatment failure and infection relapse. Intracellular pathogens are refractory to elimination and can manipulate host cell biology even after appropriate treatment, resulting in a locoregional immunosuppressive state that leads to an inadequate response to conventional anti-infective therapies. Here, a novel antibacterial strategy involving autogenous immunity using a biomimetic nanoparticle (NP)-based regulating system is reported to induce in situ collaborative innate-adaptive immune responses. It is observed that a macrophage membrane coating facilitates NP enrichment at the infection site, followed by active NP accumulation in macrophages in a mannose-dependent manner. These NP-armed macrophages exhibit considerably improved innate capabilities, including more efficient intracellular ROS generation and pro-inflammatory factor secretion, M1 phenotype promotion, and effective eradication of invasive bacteria. Furthermore, the reprogrammed macrophages direct T cell activation at infectious sites, resulting in a robust adaptive antimicrobial immune response to ultimately achieve bacterial clearance and prevent infection relapse. Overall, these results provide a conceptual framework for a novel macrophage-based strategy for infection treatment via the regulation of autogenous immunity.

Nanomaterials-Involved Tumor-Associated Macrophages' Reprogramming for Antitumor Therapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play pivotal roles in tumor development. As primary contents of tumor environment (TME), TAMs secrete inflammation-related substances to regulate tumoral occurrence and development. There are two kinds of TAMs: the tumoricidal M1-like TAMs and protumoral M2-like TAMs. Reprogramming TAMs from immunosuppressive M2 to immunocompetent M1 phenotype is considered a feasible way to improve immunotherapeutic efficiency. Notably, nanomaterials show great potential for biomedical fields due to their controllable structures and properties. There are many types of nanomaterials that exhibit great regulatory activities for TAMs' reprogramming. In this review, the recent progress of nanomaterials-involved TAMs' reprogramming is comprehensively discussed. The various nanomaterials for TAMs' reprogramming and the reprogramming strategies are summarized and introduced. Additionally, the challenges and perspectives of TAMs' reprogramming for efficient therapy are discussed, aiming to provide inspiration for TAMs' regulator design and promote the development of TAMs-mediated immunotherapy.

Photo-Induced Disproportionation-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy: Simultaneous Oxidation of Tetrahydrobiopterin and Generation of Superoxide Radicals

We herein present an approach of photo-induced disproportionation for preparation of Type-I photodynamic agents. As a proof of concept, BODIPY-based photosensitizers were rationally designed and prepared. The photo-induced intermolecular electron transfer between homotypic chromophores leads to the disproportionation reaction, resulting in the formation of charged intermediates, cationic and anionic radicals. The cationic radicals efficiently oxidize the cellularimportant coenzyme, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4 ), and the anionic radicals transfer electrons to oxygen to produce superoxide radicals (O2 - ⋅). One of our Type-I photodynamic agents not only self-assembles in water but also effectively targets the endoplasmic reticulum. It displayed excellent photocytotoxicity even in highly hypoxic environments (2 % O2 ), with a half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) of 0.96 μM, and demonstrated outstanding antitumor efficacy in murine models bearing HeLa tumors.

Sulfonated Perylene as Three-in-One STING Agonist for Cancer Chemo-Immunotherapy

Activation of stimulator of interferon genes (STING) by cyclic dinucleotides (CDNs) has been considered as a powerful immunotherapy strategy. While promising, the clinical translation of CDNs is still overwhelmed by its limited biostability and the resulting systemic immunotoxicity. Being differentiating from current application of exogenous CDNs to address these challenges, we herein developed one perylene STING agonist PDIC-NS, which not only promotes the production of endogenous CDNs but also inhibits its hydrolysis. More significantly, PDIC-NS can well reach lung-selective enrichment, and thus mitigates the systemic immunotoxicity upon intravenous administration. As a result, PDIC-NS had realized remarkable in vivo antitumor activity, and backward verified on STING knock out mice. Overall, this study states that PDIC-NS can function as three-in-one small-molecule STING agonist characterized by promoting the content and biostability of endogenous CDNs as well as possessing good tissue specificity, and hence presents an innovative strategy and platform for tumor chemo-immunotherapy.

Engineered Extracellular Vesicles Expressing Siglec-10 Camouflaged AIE Photosensitizer to Reprogram Macrophages to Active M1 Phenotype and Present Tumor-Associated Antigens for Photodynamic Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has attracted considerable attention due to its advantages of persistence, targeting, and ability to kill tumor cells. However, the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy in practical applications is limited by tumor heterogeneity and complex tumor immunosuppressive microenvironments in which abundant of M2 macrophages and immune checkpoints (ICs) are present. Herein, two type-I aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active photosensitizers with various reactive oxygen species (ROS)-generating efficiencies are designed and synthesized. Engineered extracellular vesicles (EVs) that express ICs Siglec-10 are first obtained from 4T1 tumor cells. The engineered EVs are then fused with the AIE photosensitizer-loaded lipidic nanosystem to form SEx@Fc-NPs. The ROS generated by the inner type-I AIE photosensitizer of the SEx@Fc-NPs through photodynamic therapy (PDT) can convert M2 macrophages into M1 macrophages to improve tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment. The outer EV-antigens that carry 4T1 tumor-associated antigens directly stimulate dendritic cells maturation to activate different types of tumor-specific T cells in overcoming tumor heterogeneity. In addition, blocking Siglec-10 reversed macrophage exhaustion for enhanced antitumor ability. This study presents that a combination of PDT, immune checkpoints, and EV-antigens can greatly improve the efficiency of tumor immunotherapy and is expected to serve as an emerging strategy to improve tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment and overcome immune escape.

An AIE-based monofunctional Pt(ii) complex for photodynamic therapy through synergism of necroptosis-ferroptosis

Side effects and drug resistance are among the major problems of platinum-based anticancer chemotherapies. Photodynamic therapy could show improved tumor targeting ability and better anticancer effect by region-selective light irradiation. Here, we report an aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-based monofunctional Pt(ii) complex (TTC-Pt), which shows enhanced singlet oxygen production by introduction of a Pt atom to elevate the intersystem crossing (ISC) rate. Moreover, TTC-Pt exhibits decent capacity of inhibition on tumor cell growth upon light irradiation, with negligible dark toxicity compared to the commonly used chemodrug cisplatin. Mechanistic study suggests that TTC-Pt enters HeLa cells via the endocytosis pathway and locates mainly in lysosomes, causing FSP1 down-regulation and intracellular lipid peroxidation accumulation under irradiation, finally leading to ferroptosis and necroptosis. The synergistic dual cell death pathways could help to kill apoptosis-resistant tumor cells. Therefore, TTC-Pt could serve as a potent antitumor photosensitizer, which overcomes the drug resistance with minimum side effects.

Anti-Acidification and Immune Regulation by Nano-Ceria-Loaded Mg-Al Layered Double Hydroxide for Rheumatoid Arthritis Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune disease featuring an abnormal immune microenvironment and resultant accumulation of hydrogen ions (H+ ) produced by activated osteoclasts (OCs). Currently, clinic RA therapy can hardly achieve sustained or efficient therapeutic outcomes due to the failures in generating sufficient immune modulation and manipulating the accumulation of H+ that deteriorates bone damage. Herein, a highly effective immune modulatory nanocatalytic platform, nanoceria-loaded magnesium aluminum layered double hydroxide (LDH-CeO2 ), is proposed for enhanced immune modulation based on acid neutralization and metal ion inherent bioactivity. Specifically, the mild alkaline LDH initiates significant M2 repolarization of macrophages triggered by the elevated antioxidation effect of CeO2 via neutralizing excessive H+ in RA microenvironment, thus resulting in the efficient recruitment of regulatory T cell (Treg) and suppressions on T helper 17 cell (Th 17) and plasma cells. Moreover, the osteogenic activity is stimulated by the Mg ion released from LDH, thereby promoting the damaged bone healing. The encouraging therapeutic outcomes in adjuvant-induced RA model mice demonstrate the high feasibility of such a therapeutic concept, which provides a novel and efficient RA therapeutic modality by the immune modulatory and bone-repairing effects of inorganic nanocatalytic material.

Ultrasound activated probe for disease imaging and therapy In-Vivo

Sonodynamic therapy (SDT) is the use of ultrasound (US) to excite sonosensitizers to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) to induce tumor cell death, thereby achieving therapeutic purposes. Based on the strong tissue penetration ability of ultrasound, SDT can realize the treatment of deeper tumors, and it is targeted, can be specifically concentrated at the tumor site, and has little impact on surrounding normal tissues. It has broad clinical transformation prospects. Therefore, sonosensitizers are the key to SDT, and the exploration of sonosensitizers with excellent therapeutic performance has received great attention. We reviewed the development of ultrasound-inspired sound sensitizers for imaging and treatment. First, different types of sonosensitizers are introduced, the construction and performance of inorganic, organic and hybrid types of sonosensitizers are evaluated, followed by a review of different image-guided SDT, and finally the key problems and solutions in this field are discussed in detail.

Tailoring the surface charges of iron-crosslinked dextran nanogels towards improved tumor-associated macrophage targeting

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) have emerged as therapeutic interests in cancer nanomedicine because TAMs play a pivotal role in the immune microenvironment of solid tumors. Dextran and its derived nanocarriers are among the most promising nanomaterials for TAM targeting due to their intrinsic affinities towards macrophages. Various dextran-based nanomaterials have been developed to image TAMs. However, the effects of physiochemical properties especially for surface charges of dextran nanomaterials on TAM-targeting efficacy were ambiguous in literature. To figure out the surface charge effects on TAM targeting, here we developed a facile non-covalent self-assembly strategy to construct oppositely charged dextran nanogels (NGs) utilizing the coordination interaction of ferric ions, chlorine e6 (Ce6) dye and three dextran derivatives, diethylaminoethyl-, sulfate sodium- and carboxymethyl-dextran. The acquired dextran NGs exhibit different charges but similar hydrodynamic size, Ce6 loading and mechanical stiffness, which enables a side-by-side comparison of the effects of NG surface charges on TAM targeting monitored by the Ce6 fluorescence imaging. Compared with negative NGs, the positive NG clearly displays a superior TAM targeting in murine breast cancer model. This study identifies that positively charged dextran NG could be a promising approach to better engineer nanomedicine towards an improved TAM targeting.

Nanozymes With Osteochondral Regenerative Effects: An Overview of Mechanisms and Recent Applications

With the discovery of the intrinsic enzyme-like activity of metal oxides, nanozymes garner significant attention due to their superior characteristics, such as low cost, high stability, multi-enzyme activity, and facile preparation. Notably, in the field of biomedicine, nanozymes primarily focus on disease detection, antibacterial properties, antitumor effects, and treatment of inflammatory conditions. However, the potential for application in regenerative medicine, which primarily addresses wound healing, nerve defect repair, bone regeneration, and cardiovascular disease treatment, is garnering interest as well. This review introduces nanozymes as an innovative strategy within the realm of bone regenerative medicine. The primary focus of this approach lies in the facilitation of osteochondral regeneration through the modulation of the pathological microenvironment. The catalytic mechanisms of four types of representative nanozymes are first discussed. The pathological microenvironment inhibiting osteochondral regeneration, followed by summarizing the therapy mechanism of nanozymes to osteochondral regeneration barriers is introduced. Further, the therapeutic potential of nanozymes for bone diseases is included. To improve the therapeutic efficiency of nanozymes and facilitate their clinical translation, future potential applications in osteochondral diseases are also discussed and some significant challenges addressed.

Sequence-Responsive Multifunctional Supramolecular Nanomicelles Act on the Regression of TNBC and Its Lung Metastasis via Synergic Pyroptosis-Mediated Immune Activation

Design of effective nanodrugs to modulate the immunosuppression of tumor microenvironment is a desirable approach to boost the clinical tumor-therapeutic effect. Supramolecular nanomicelles PolyMN-TO-8, which are constructed by self-assembling supramolecular host MTX-MPEG2000, guest NPX-2S, and TO-8 through hydrophobic forces, have excellent stability and responsiveness to carboxylesterase and glutathione in turn. In vivo studies validate that PolyMN-TO-8 enable to trigger pyroptosis-mediated immunogenic cell death under laser, avoiding the occurrence of immune dysregulation simultaneously. This therapeutic mode strengthens dendritic cells' maturation and accelerates the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into tumors through moderate activation of pro-inflammatory factors with elimination of immune-escape, ultimately making the tumor inhibition rate as high as 87.44% via synergistic functions of photodynamic therapy, photothermal therapy, chemotherapy, etc. The loss of immune-escape quickens the infiltration of CD8+ T cells into lungs, and further eschews the generation of tumor nodules in it. Chemotherapy, the release of interferon-γ, and immune memory effect also strengthen the defense against metastasis. The generation of O2 catalyzed by PolyMN-TO-8 under laser is indispensable for tumor metastasis inhibition undoubtedly.

A Mitochondria-Targeted NIR-II AIEgen Induced Pyroptosis for Enhanced Tumor Immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy is a favorable strategy for facilitating anti-tumor immunity, but it shows limited benefits in clinical practice owing to the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Pyroptosis shows great immunostimulatory effect on tumor, whereas the lack of pyroptotic inducer with imaging property has restricted its progress in tumor theranostics. Herein, a mitochondria-targeted aggregation-induced emission (AIE) luminogen (TPA-2TIN) with NIR-II emission is designed for highly efficient induction of tumor cell pyroptosis. The fabricated TPA-2TIN nanoparticles can be efficiently taken up by tumor cells and selectively accumulated in tumor for a long term observed by NIR-II fluorescence imaging. More importantly, the TPA-2TIN nanoparticles can effectively stimulate immune responses both in vitro and in vivo mediated by the mitochondrial dysfunctions and the subsequent activation of the pyroptotic pathway. Ultimately, the reversal of the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment significantly enhances the immune checkpoint therapy. This study paves a new avenue for adjuvant immunotherapy of cancer.

More Is Better: Dual-Acceptor Engineering for Constructing Second Near-Infrared Aggregation-Induced Emission Luminogens to Boost Multimodal Phototheranostics

The manipulation of electron donor/acceptor (D/A) shows an endless impetus for innovating optical materials. Currently, there is booming development in electron donor design, while research on electron acceptor engineering has received limited attention. Inspired by the philosophical idea of "more is different", two systems with D'-D-A-D-D' (1A system) and D'-D-A-A-D-D' (2A system) structures based on acceptor engineering were designed and studied. It was demonstrated that the 1A system presented a weak aggregation-induced emission (AIE) to aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) phenomenon, along with the increased acceptor electrophilicity and planarity. In sharp contrast, the 2A system with one more acceptor exhibited an opposite ACQ-to-AIE transformation. Interestingly, the fluorophore with a more electron-deficient A-A moiety in the 2A system displayed superior AIE activity. More importantly, all compounds in the 2A system showed significantly higher molar absorptivity (ε) in comparison to their counterparts in the 1A system. Thanks to the highest ε, near-infrared-II (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) emission, desirable AIE property, favorable reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and high photothermal conversion efficiency, a representative member of the 2A system handily performed in fluorescence-photoacoustic-photothermal multimodal imaging-guided photodynamic-photothermal collaborative therapy for efficient tumor elimination. Meanwhile, the NIR-II fluorescence imaging of blood vessels and lymph nodes in living mice was also accomplished. This study provides the first evidence that the dual-connected acceptor tactic could be a new molecular design direction for the AIE effect, resulting in high ε, aggregation-intensified NIR-II fluorescence emission, and improved ROS and heat generation capacities of phototheranostic agents.

In Situ Self-Assembled J-Aggregate Nanofibers of Glycosylated Aza-BODIPY for Synergetic Cell Membrane Disruption and Type I Photodynamic Therapy

The in situ self-assembly of exogenous molecules is a powerful strategy for manipulating cellular behavior. However, the direct self-assembly of photochemically inert constituents into supramolecular nano-photosensitizers (PSs) within cancer cells for precise photodynamic therapy (PDT) remains a challenge. Herein, we developed a glycosylated Aza-BODIPY compound (LMBP) capable of self-assembling into J-aggregate nanofibers in situ for cell membrane destruction and type I PDT. LMBP selectively entered human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells and subsequently self-assembled into intracellular J-aggregate nanovesicles and nanofibers through supramolecular interactions. Detailed studies revealed that these J-aggregate nanostructures generated superoxide radicals (O2 - ⋅) exclusively through photoinduced electron transfer, thus enabling effective PDT. Furthermore, the intracellular nanofibers exhibited an aggregation-induced retention effect, which resulted in selective toxicity to HepG2 cells by disrupting their cellular membranes and synergizing with PDT for powerful tumor suppression efficacy in vivo.

A Cascade Strategy Boosting Hydroxyl Radical Generation with Aggregation-Induced Emission Photosensitizers-Albumin Complex for Photodynamic Therapy

Effective photodynamic therapy (PDT) requires photosensitizers (PSs) to massively generate type I reactive oxygen species (ROS) in a less oxygen-dependent manner in the hypoxia tumor microenvironment. Herein, we present a cascade strategy to boost type I ROS, especially hydroxyl radical (OH·-), generation with an aggregation-induced emission (AIE) photosensitizer-albumin complex for hypoxia-tolerant PDT. The cationic AIE PS TPAQ-Py-PF6 (TPA = triphenylamine, Q = anthraquinone, Py = pyridine) contains three important moieties to cooperatively enhance free radical generation: the AIE-active TPA unit ensures the effective triplet exciton generation in aggregate, the anthraquinone moiety possesses the redox cycling ability to promote electron transfer, while the cationic methylpyridinium cation further increases intramolecular charge transfer and electron separation processes. Inserting the cationic TPAQ-Py-PF6 into the hydrophobic domain of bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA NPs) could greatly immobilize its molecular geometry to further increase triplet exciton generation, while the electron-rich microenvironment of BSA ultimately leads to OH·- generation. Both experimental and theoretical results confirm the effectiveness of our molecular cationization and BSA immobilization cascade strategy for enhancing OH·- generation. In vitro and in vivo experiments validate the excellent antitumor PDT performance of BSA NPs, superior to the conventional polymeric encapsulation approach. Such a multidimensional cascade strategy for specially boosting OH·- generation shall hold great potential in hypoxia-tolerant PDT and related antitumor applications.

Chirality-Dependent Reprogramming of Macrophages by Chiral Nanozymes

It is known that extracellular free radical reactive oxygen species (ROS) rather than intracellular ROS plays a non-substitutable role in regulation of tumor-suppressing (M1) tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) polarization. However, most therapeutic nanoplatforms mainly provide intracellular ROS and exhibit insufficient accumulation near TAMs, which strongly limits the macrophage-based immunotherapeutic effects. Here we design and synthesize chiral MoS2 /CoS2 nanozymes with peroxidase (POD)-like and catalase (CAT)-like activities to efficiently modulate TAMs polarization and reverse tumor immunosuppression by harnessing their chirality-specific interactions with biological systems. MoS2 /CoS2 nanoparticles coordinated with d-chirality (d-NPs, right-handed) show improved pharmacokinetics with longer circulating half-life and higher tumor accumulation compared with their l (left-handed)- and dl (racemate)-counterparts. Further, d-NPs can escape from macrophage uptake in the tumor microenvironment (TME) with the aid of cell-unpreferred opposite chirality and act as extracellular hydroxyl radicals (⋅OH) and oxygen (O2 ) generators to efficiently repolarize TAMs into M1 phenotype. On the contrary, l-NPs showed high cellular uptake due to chirality-driven homologous adhesion between l-NPs and macrophage membrane, leading to limited M1 polarization performance. As the first example for developing chiral nanozymes as extracellular-localized ROS generators to reprogram TAMs for cancer immunotherapy, this study opens an avenue for applications of chiral nanozymes in immunomodulation.

Single Component Organic Photosensitizer with NIR-I Emission Realizing Type-I Photodynamic and GSH-Depletion Caused Ferroptosis Synergistic Theranostics

Phototheranostic agents have thrived as prominent tools for tumor luminescence imaging and therapies. Herein, a series of organic photosensitizers (PSs) with donor-acceptors (D-A) are elaborately designed and synthesized. In particular, PPR-2CN exhibits stable near infrared-I (NIR-I) emission, excellent free radicals generation and phototoxicity. Experimental analysis and calculations imply that a small singlet-triplet energy gap (ΔES1-T1 ) and large spin-orbit coupling (SOC) constant boost the intersystem crossing (ISC), leading to type-I photodynamic therapy (PDT). Additionally, the specific glutamate (Glu) and glutathione (GSH) consumption abilities of PPR-2CN inhibit the intracellular biosynthesis of GSH, resulting in redox dyshomeostasis and GSH-depletion causing ferroptosis. This work first realizes that single component organic PS could be simultaneously used as a type-I photodynamic agent and metal-free ferroptosis inducer for NIR-I imaging-guided multimodal synergistic therapy.

Macrophage-reprogramming upconverting nanoparticles for enhanced TAM-mediated antitumor therapy of hypoxic breast cancer

In an attempt to achieve antitumor effects by switching the phenotype of macrophages from the tumor-promoting M2 type to the tumor-suppressing M1 type, we fabricated mannose-decorated/macrophage membrane-coated, silica-layered NaErF4@NaLuF4 upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) co-doped with perfluorocarbon (PFC)/chlorin e6 (Ce6) and loaded with paclitaxel (PTX) (UCNP@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX: ∼61 nm; -11.6 mV). These nanoparticles were designed to have two major functionalities, (i) efficient singlet oxygen generation aided by an oxygen supply and (ii) good targeting to tumor-associated macrophage (TAMs) (M2-type), to induce polarization to M1 type macrophages that release proinflammatory cytokines and suppress breast cancers. The primary UCNPs consisted of lanthanide elements (erbium and lutetium) in a core@shell structure, and they facilely emitted 660 nm light in response to a deep-penetrating 808 nm near-infrared laser. Moreover, the UCNPs@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX were able to release O2 and generate 1O2 because of the co-doped PFC/Ce6 and upconversion. Our nanocarriers' excellent uptake to RAW 264.7 macrophage cells (M2 type) and efficient M1-type polarization activity were clearly demonstrated using qRT-PCR and immunofluorescence-based confocal laser scanning microscopy. Our nanocarriers displayed significant cytotoxicity to 4T1 cells in 2D culture and 3D co-culture systems of 4T1/RAW 264.7 cells. More importantly, UCNPs@mSiO2-PFC/Ce6@RAW-Man/PTX (+808 nm laser) noticeably suppressed tumor growth in 4T1-xenografted mice, compared with the other treatment groups (332.4 vs. 709.5-1185.5 mm3). We attribute this antitumor efficacy to the prominent M1-type macrophage polarization caused by our nanocarriers through efficient ROS/O2 generation and targeting of M2-type TAMs via mannose ligands on coated macrophage-membrane.

A biophotonic device based on a conjugated polymer and a macrophage-laden hydrogel for triggering immunotherapy

A biophotonic device is fabricated by a 3D printing technique for tumor immunotherapy utilizing a flexible organic light-emitting diode (OLED) with deep blue emission and a gelatin-alginate hydrogel that contains a poly(phenylene vinylene) (PPV) derivative and live immune cells of macrophages (M₀-RAW264.7). PPV is excited by the OLED to generate reactive oxygen species (ROS), enabling the macrophages to polarize to the M₁ phenotype and secrete cytotoxic cytokines to induce the apoptosis of tumor cells. This strategy provides a new method for fabricating cell-involved biophotonic devices for immunotherapy.

Lysosome-Targeting Aggregation-Induced Emission Nanoparticle Enables Adoptive Macrophage Transfer-Based Precise Therapy of Bacterial Infections

Traditional antibacterial procedures are getting inefficient due to the emergence of antimicrobial resistance, which makes alternative treatments in urgent demand. However, the selectivity toward infectious bacteria is still challenging. Herein, by taking advantage of the self-directed capture of infectious bacteria by macrophages, we developed a strategy to realize precise in vivo antibacterial photodynamic therapy (APDT) through adoptive photosensitizer-loaded macrophage transfer. TTD with strong reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and bright fluorescence was first synthesized and was subsequently formulated into TTD nanoparticles for lysosome targeting. TTD-loaded macrophages (TLMs) were constructed by direct incubation of TTD nanoparticles with macrophages, in which the TTD was localized in the lysosomes to meet the captured bacteria in the phagolysosomes. The TLMs could precisely capture and eradicate bacteria while being activated toward the proinflammatory and antibacterial M1 phenotype upon light illumination. More importantly, after subcutaneous injection, TLMs could effectively inhibit bacteria in the infected tissue through APDT, leading to good tissue recovery from severe bacterial infection. Overall, the engineered cell-based therapeutic approach shows great potential in the treatment of severe bacterial infectious diseases.

Recent advances in type I organic photosensitizers for efficient photodynamic therapy for overcoming tumor hypoxia

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) with an oxygen-dependent character is a noninvasive therapeutic method for cancer treatment. However, its clinical therapeutic effect is greatly restricted by tumor hypoxia. What's more, both PDT-mediated oxygen consumption and microvascular damage aggravate tumor hypoxia, thus, further impeding therapeutic outcomes. Compared to type II PDT with high oxygen dependence and high oxygen consumption, type I PDT with less oxygen consumption exhibits great potential to overcome the vicious hypoxic plight in solid tumors. Type I photosensitizers (PSs) are significantly important for determining the therapeutic efficacy of PDT, which performs an electron transfer photochemical reaction with the surrounding oxygen/substrates to generate highly cytotoxic free radicals such as superoxide radicals (˙O₂^-) as type I ROS. In particular, the primary precursor (˙O₂^-) would progressively undergo a superoxide dismutase (SOD)-mediated disproportionation reaction and a Haber-Weiss/Fenton reaction, yielding higher cytotoxic species (˙OH) with better anticancer effects. As a result, developing high-performance type I PSs to treat hypoxic tumors has become more and more important and urgent. Herein, the latest progress of organic type I PSs (such as AIE-active cationic/neutral PSs, cationic/neutral PSs, polymer-based PSs and supramolecular self-assembled PSs) for monotherapy or synergistic therapeutic modalities is summarized. The molecular design principles and strategies (donor-acceptor system, anion-π⁺ incorporation, polymerization and cationization) are highlighted. Furthermore, the future challenges and prospects of type I PSs in hypoxia-overcoming PDT are proposed.

Recent Organic Photosensitizer Designs for Evoking Proinflammatory Regulated Cell Death in Antitumor Immunotherapy

In the past decades, immunotherapy has achieved a series of clinical successes in the field of cancer. However, existing therapeutic options usually show a low immune response to solid tumors caused by immunosuppressive "cold" tumor microenvironment (TME). Several types of proinflammatory regulated cell death (RCD), mainly including ferroptosis and pyroptosis, have been studied recently, which can provide proinflammatory signals and immunogenicity necessary for remodeling TME and activating an antitumor immune response. A variety of chemotherapeutic drugs are proven to be effective in the proinflammatory RCD induction of tumor cells, but several adverse effects and intrinsic drug resistance usually occur in the therapeutic process, greatly hindering their further clinical application. The emerging organic photosensitizer (PS)-based materials open new possibilities to effectively activate proinflammatory RCD through precise spatiotemporal regulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species-associated signaling pathways, which can overcome many challenges encountered in current proinflammatory RCD-mediated immunotherapy. In this review, the recent design strategies of PS probes are detailly summarized and their potential advantages for tumor-specific proinflammatory RCD induction are discussed. Moreover, the representative examples in cancer immunotherapy are highlighted and future perspectives in this emerging field are proposed.

Self-Adaptive Antibiofilm Effect and Immune Regulation by Hollow Cu2MoS4 Nanospheres for Treatment of Implant Infections

Implant infections are difficult to cure by traditional antibiotic therapy due to bacterial biofilm-induced antibiotic tolerance and impaired immune responses. To efficiently treat implant infections, therapeutic agents need to kill bacteria and regulate the inflammatory response of immune cells during the biofilm elimination process. Herein, multifunctional smart hollow Cu₂MoS₄ nanospheres (H-CMS NSs) with pH-responsive enzyme-like activities were prepared for self-adaptively eliminating biofilms and regulating the inflammation of macrophages in implant infections. During biofilm infection, the tissue microenvironment around implants is acidic. H-CMS NSs with oxidase (OXD)/peroxidase (POD)-like activities can catalyze reactive oxidative species (ROS) generation for directly killing bacteria and polarizing macrophages to a proinflammatory phenotype. Moreover, the POD-like activity and antibacterial property of H-CMS NSs can be further enhanced under ultrasound (US) irradiation. After the elimination of biofilms, the tissue microenvironment around implants shifts from acidic to neutral. H-CMS NSs show catalase (CAT)-like activity and eliminate excessive ROS, which polarizes macrophages to anti-inflammatory phenotype and promotes healing of infected tissue. This work provides a smart nanozyme with self-adaptive regulation of the antibiofilm activity and immune response by regulating ROS generation/elimination according to the different pathological microenvironments in implant infections during the different therapeutic stages.

Exploring a ferroptosis and oxidative stress-based prognostic model for clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Background

Ferroptosis is a newly defined cell death process triggered by increased iron load and tremendous lipid reactive oxygen species (ROS). Oxidative stress-related ferroptosis is of great important to the occurrence and progression of clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC), which is particularly susceptibility to ferroptosis agonist. Therefore, exploring the molecular features of ferroptosis and oxidative stress might guide the clinical treatment and prognosis prediction for ccRCC patients.

Methods

The differentially expressed ferroptosis and oxidative stress-associated genes (FPTOSs) between normal renal and ccRCC tissues were identified based on The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, and those with prognostic significances were applied to develop a prognostic model and a risk scoring system (FPTOS_score). The clinical parameter, miRNA regulation, tumor mutation burden (TMB), immune cell infiltration, immunotherapy response, and drug susceptibility between two FPTOS-based risk stratifications were determined.

Results

We have identified 5 prognosis-associated FPTOSs (ACADSB, CDCA3, CHAC1, MYCN, and TFAP2A), and developed a reliable FPTOS_socre system to distinguish patients into low- and high-risk groups. The findings implied that patients from the high-risk group performed poor prognoses, even after stratified analysis of various clinical parameters. A total of 30 miRNA-FPTOS regulatory pairs were recognized to identify the possible molecular mechanisms. Meanwhile, patients from the high-risk group exhibited higher TMB levels than those from the low-risk groups, and the predominant mutated driver genes were VHL, PBRM1 and TTN in both groups. The main infiltrating immune cells of high- and low-risk groups were CD8+ T cells and resting mast cells, respectively, and patients from the high-risk groups showed preferable drug responsiveness to anti-PD-1 immunotherapy. Eventually, potential sensitive drugs (cisplatin, BI-D1870, and docetaxel) and their enrichment pathways were identified to guide the treatment of ccRCC patients with high-risk.

Conclusion

Our study comprehensively analyzed the expression profiles of FPTOSs and constructed a scoring system with considerable prognostic value, which would supply novel insights into the personalized treatment strategies and prognostic evaluation of ccRCC patient.

Type Ι Photosensitizer Targeting G-Quadruplex RNA Elicits Augmented Immunity for Cancer Ablation

Type Ι photodynamic therapy (PDT) represents a promising treatment modality for tumors with intrinsic hypoxia. However, type Ι photosensitizers (PSs), especially ones with near infrared (NIR) absorption, are limited and their efficacy needs improvement via new targeting tactics. We develop a NIR type Ι PS by engineering acridinium derived donor-π-acceptor systems. The PS exhibits an exclusive type Ι PDT mechanism due to effective intersystem crossing and disfavored energy transfer to O₂ , and shows selective binding to G-quadruplexes (G4s) via hydrogen bonds identified by a molecular docking study. Moreover, it enables fluorogenic detection of G4s and efficient O₂ ⋅^- production in hypoxic conditions, leading to immunogenic cell death and substantial variations of gene expression in RNA sequencing. Our strategy demonstrates augmented antitumor immunity for effective ablation of immunogenic cold tumor, highlighting its potential of RNA-targeted type Ι PDT in precision cancer therapy.

Acene enlargement for absorption red-shifting and photosensitization enhancement of photosensitizers with aggregation-induced emission

Photosensitizers with aggregation-induced emission (AIE PSs) were widely explored in photodynamic therapy. Numerous acceptors but few donors were reported to design AIE PSs. In this study, we developed a new kind of donor that can improve the comprehensive performance of AIE PSs by expanding the π extension of aromatic rings at the end of the triphenylamine group through acene enlargement. The absorption and fluorescence peaks of anthryl-substituted AIE PS are red-shifted by 29 nm and 42 nm; the photosensitization efficiency is enhanced by 1.16 times; the AIE factor is 86.1 and the fluorescence quantum yield is 9.3%. We also demonstrated that the anthryl-based AIE PS can image and ablate cancer cells well both in vitro and in vivo. The anthryl-triphenylamine donor provides an excellent option to design donor-acceptor AIE PSs with high comprehensive performance.

Porous Silicon Nanocarriers Boost the Immunomodulation of Mitochondria-Targeted Bovine Serum Albumins on Macrophage Polarization

The development of nanosystems with intrinsic immunomodulatory effects on macrophage polarization is important for the macrophage-targeted immunotherapy. Here, mitochondria-targeted bovine serum albumins (BSAs) via the conjugation of fluorescent, lipophilic, and cationic rhodamine 110 molecules can efficiently enhance the gene expression of the proinflammatory phenotype of macrophages and correspondingly inhibit the gene expression of their anti-inflammatory phenotype. On this basis, porous silicon nanocarriers can further boost the immunomodulation of these mitochondria-targeted BSAs in vitro or in vivo, accompanied by the secretion of proinflammatory mediators including tumor necrosis factor α, nitric oxide, and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Meanwhile, BSA coatings can also improve the biocompatibility of porous silicon nanoparticulate cores on macrophages. Finally, the mechanism investigations demonstrate that porous silicon nanocarriers can efficiently deliver mitochondria-targeted BSA into macrophages to generate mitochondrial ROS via the interference with mitochondrial respiratory chains, which can further trigger the downstream signaling transduction pathways for the proinflammatory transition. Considering the good biosafety and versatile loading capability, this developed porous silicon@BSA nanosystem with a strong proinflmmatory regulatory effect has important potential on the combinatorial chemoimmunotherapy against cancer or viral/bacterial-related infectious diseases.