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Moore CO, André MR, Šlapeta J, Breitschwerdt EB. Vector biology of the cat flea Ctenocephalides felis. Trends Parasitol 2024; 40:324-337. [PMID: 38458883 PMCID: PMC11168582 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2024.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Ctenocephalides felis, the cat flea, is among the most prevalent and widely dispersed vectors worldwide. Unfortunately, research on C. felis and associated pathogens (Bartonella and Rickettsia spp.) lags behind that of other vectors and vector-borne pathogens. Therefore, we aimed to review fundamental aspects of C. felis as a vector (behavior, epidemiology, phylogenetics, immunology, and microbiome composition) with an emphasis on key techniques and research avenues employed in other vector species. Future laboratory C. felis experimental infections with Bartonella, Rickettsia, and Wolbachia species/strains should examine the vector-pathogen interface utilizing contemporary visualization, transcriptomic, and gene-editing techniques. Further environmental sampling will inform the range and prevalence of C. felis and associated pathogens, improving the accuracy of vector and pathogen modeling to improve infection/infestation risk assessment and diagnostic recommendations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte O Moore
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Science, North Carolina State University, NC, USA
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Vector-Borne Bioagents Laboratory (VBBL), Department of Pathology, Reproduction, and One Health, Faculty of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, São Paulo State University (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, SP 14884-900, Brazil
| | - Jan Šlapeta
- Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science, The University of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Edward B Breitschwerdt
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Science, North Carolina State University, NC, USA.
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André MR, Neupane P, Lappin M, Herrin B, Smith V, Williams TI, Collins L, Bai H, Jorge GL, Balbuena TS, Bradley J, Maggi RG, Breitschwerdt EB. Using Proteomic Approaches to Unravel the Response of Ctenocephalides felis felis to Blood Feeding and Infection With Bartonella henselae. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:828082. [PMID: 35155282 PMCID: PMC8831700 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.828082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the Ctenocephalides felis felis-borne pathogens, Bartonella henselae, the main aetiological agent of cat scratch disease (CSD), is of increasing comparative biomedical importance. Despite the importance of B. henselae as an emergent pathogen, prevention of the diseases caused by this agent in cats, dogs and humans mostly relies on the use of ectoparasiticides. A vaccine targeting both flea fitness and pathogen competence is an attractive choice requiring the identification of flea proteins/metabolites with a dual effect. Even though recent developments in vector and pathogen -omics have advanced the understanding of the genetic factors and molecular pathways involved at the tick-pathogen interface, leading to discovery of candidate protective antigens, only a few studies have focused on the interaction between fleas and flea-borne pathogens. Taking into account the period of time needed for B. henselae replication in flea digestive tract, the present study investigated flea-differentially abundant proteins (FDAP) in unfed fleas, fleas fed on uninfected cats, and fleas fed on B. henselae-infected cats at 24 hours and 9 days after the beginning of blood feeding. Proteomics approaches were designed and implemented to interrogate differentially expressed proteins, so as to gain a better understanding of proteomic changes associated with the initial B. henselae transmission period (24 hour timepoint) and a subsequent time point 9 days after blood ingestion and flea infection. As a result, serine proteases, ribosomal proteins, proteasome subunit α-type, juvenile hormone epoxide hydrolase 1, vitellogenin C, allantoinase, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase, succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase, glycinamide ribotide transformylase, secreted salivary acid phosphatase had high abundance in response of C. felis blood feeding and/or infection by B. henselae. In contrast, high abundance of serpin-1, arginine kinase, ribosomal proteins, peritrophin-like protein, and FS-H/FSI antigen family member 3 was strongly associated with unfed cat fleas. Findings from this study provide insights into proteomic response of cat fleas to B. henselae infected and uninfected blood meal, as well as C. felis response to invading B. henselae over an infection time course, thus helping understand the complex interactions between cat fleas and B. henselae at protein levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Rogério André
- Laboratory of Immunoparasitology, Department of Pathology, Reproduction and One Health, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, Brazil
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, The Comparative Medicine Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Pradeep Neupane
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, The Comparative Medicine Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Michael Lappin
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Center for Companion Animal Studies, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Brian Herrin
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Vicki Smith
- Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, United States
| | - Taufika Islam Williams
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Molecular Education, Technology and Research Innovation Center (METRIC), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Leonard Collins
- Molecular Education, Technology and Research Innovation Center (METRIC), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Hongxia Bai
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- Molecular Education, Technology and Research Innovation Center (METRIC), North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Gabriel Lemes Jorge
- Departmento de Biotecnologia Agropecuária e Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Tiago Santana Balbuena
- Departmento de Biotecnologia Agropecuária e Ambiental, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias, Universidade Estadual Paulista (FCAV/UNESP), Jaboticabal, Brazil
| | - Julie Bradley
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, The Comparative Medicine Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Ricardo G. Maggi
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, The Comparative Medicine Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
| | - Edward B. Breitschwerdt
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, Department of Clinical Sciences, The Comparative Medicine Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States
- *Correspondence: Edward B. Breitschwerdt,
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Brown LD. Immunity of fleas (Order Siphonaptera). DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 98:76-79. [PMID: 31002845 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2019.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The immune response of arthropod vectors plays a key role in the spread and transmission of vector-borne diseases. Although fleas transmit several human pathogens (e.g., Bartonella henselae, Rickettsia felis, R. typhi, and Yersinia pestis), few studies have examined how these vectors respond to infection. In hematophagous arthropods, imbibed pathogens must survive the hostile environment of blood meal digestion, which includes proteolytic digestive enzymes, protease inhibitors and expression of genes associated with protection of epithelial linings. Additionally, insect epithelial cells exhibit local immune defense against ingested pathogens by producing antimicrobial peptides and reactive oxygen species. This review details these and other aspects of insect immunity as it relates to fleas, with an emphasis on the gut immune response to two blood-borne pathogens, R. typhi and Y. pestis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa D Brown
- Department of Biology, Georgia Southern University, P.O. Box 8042-1, Statesboro, GA, 30460, USA.
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Gao Q, Yang L, Dai J, Yuan G, Wang L, Qian C, Zhu B, Liu C, Wei G. Characterization and functional analysis of serpin-28 gene from silkworm, Bombyx mori. J Invertebr Pathol 2018; 159:18-27. [PMID: 30473012 DOI: 10.1016/j.jip.2018.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Revised: 10/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Serine protease inhibitors (Serpins) are a broadly distributed superfamily of proteins with a SERPIN domain and participate in several immune responses. In this study, a serpin-28 gene was identified in B. mori and its role in immune regulation was investigated. This gene has an open reading frame of 1065 bp that encodes a 354-amino acid residue polypeptide containing one SERPIN domain with a predicted molecular weight of 40.3 kDa. Recombinant Bmserpin-28 protein was expressed in Escherichia coli and used to raise rabbit anti-Bmserpin-28 polyclonal antibodies. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis revealed that Bmserpin-28 was expressed in all examined tissues, with maximum expression in the fat body and silk gland. Expression pattern of different developmental stages showed that the highest expression level was in the pupae, while the lowest expression level was recorded at the egg stage. After challenge with four different microorganisms (Escherichia coli, Beauveria bassiana, Micrococcus luteus and B. mori nuclear polyhedrosis virus), the expression pattern of Bmserpin-28 was investigated in fat body and haemocyte samples. A substantial upregulation of Bmserpin-28 expression level was recorded following pathogen challenge in both the tested tissues. Furthermore, RNA interference of Bmserpin-28 resulted in significant upregulation of antimicrobial peptide genes. In summary, our results indicated that Bmserpin-28 may be involved in the innate immunity of B. mori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuping Gao
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Liangli Yang
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Junjun Dai
- Sericultural Research Institute, Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hefei, PR China
| | - Guozhen Yuan
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Lei Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Cen Qian
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Baojian Zhu
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Chaoliang Liu
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China
| | - Guoqing Wei
- School of Life Sciences, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, PR China.
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Contreras M, Villar M, Artigas-Jerónimo S, Kornieieva L, Mуtrofanov S, de la Fuente J. A reverse vaccinology approach to the identification and characterization of Ctenocephalides felis candidate protective antigens for the control of cat flea infestations. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:43. [PMID: 29347954 PMCID: PMC5774092 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-2618-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Despite the abundance of the domestic cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis (Bouché, 1835) and disease risks associated with them, flea control is difficult and requires the development of new control interventions such as vaccines. In this study, a reverse vaccinology approach was designed to achieve a rational selection of cat flea candidate protective antigens. Methods Based on transcriptomics and proteomics data from unfed adult fleas it was possible to select more specific candidate protective antigens based on highly represented and functionally relevant proteins present in the predicted exoproteome. The protective capacity of the recombinant antigens was evaluated for the control of C. felis infestations in vaccinated cats. Results Vaccination with recombinant antigens induced an antibody response in immunized cats. Furthermore, a correlation was obtained between the effect of vaccination (antibody levels) and vaccine efficacy on flea phenotype (egg hatchability). The results suggested that the main effect of vaccination with these antigens was on reducing cat flea egg hatchability and fertility, with an overall vaccine efficacy of 32–46%. Although vaccination with these antigens did not have an effect on flea infestations, vaccines affecting reproductive capacity could reduce cat flea populations, particularly under conditions of direct insect transmission between cats. Conclusions These results support the development of vaccines with protective antigens affecting flea reproduction and development after feeding on immunized animals for the control of cat flea infestations. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-018-2618-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marinela Contreras
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Margarita Villar
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Sara Artigas-Jerónimo
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Lidiia Kornieieva
- Acro Veterinary Laboratories, 15a Privokzalna Street, Pilipovichi village, Kyiv region, Ukraine
| | - Sergіі Mуtrofanov
- Acro Veterinary Laboratories, 15a Privokzalna Street, Pilipovichi village, Kyiv region, Ukraine
| | - José de la Fuente
- SaBio. Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC-CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005, Ciudad Real, Spain. .,Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, 74078, USA.
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Greene WK, Macnish MG, Rice KL, Thompson RCA. Identification of genes associated with blood feeding in the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:368. [PMID: 26168790 PMCID: PMC4501088 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-0972-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) is a blood-feeding ectoparasitic insect and particular nuisance pest of companion animals worldwide. Identification of genes that are differentially expressed in response to feeding is important for understanding flea biology and discovering targets for their control. Methods C. felis fleas were maintained and fed for 24 h using an artificial rearing system. The technique of suppression subtractive hybridization was employed to screen for mRNAs specifically expressed in fed fleas. Results We characterized nine distinct full-length flea transcripts that exhibited modulated or de novo expression during feeding. Among the predicted protein sequences were two serine proteases, a serine protease inhibitor, two mucin-like molecules, a DNA topoisomerase, an enzyme associated with GPI-mediated cell membrane attachment of proteins and a component of the insect innate immune response. Conclusions Our results provide a molecular insight into the physiology of flea feeding. The protein products of the genes identified may play important roles during flea feeding in terms of blood meal digestion, cellular growth/repair and protection from feeding-associated stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wayne K Greene
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, W.A. 6150, Australia.
| | - Marion G Macnish
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, W.A. 6150, Australia.
| | - Kim L Rice
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, W.A. 6150, Australia. .,Present address: INSERM UMR 944, Equipe Labellisée par la Ligue Nationale contre le Cancer, Institut Universitaire d'Hématologie, Hôpital St. Louis, Paris, France.
| | - R C Andrew Thompson
- School of Veterinary and Life Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, W.A. 6150, Australia.
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Porter L, Radulović Ž, Kim T, Braz GRC, Da Silva Vaz I, Mulenga A. Bioinformatic analyses of male and female Amblyomma americanum tick expressed serine protease inhibitors (serpins). Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2014; 6:16-30. [PMID: 25238688 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2014.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/20/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Serine protease inhibitors (serpins) are a diverse family of proteins that is conserved across taxa. The diversity of Amblyomma americanum serpins (AAS) is far more complex than previously thought as revealed by discovery of 57 and 33 AAS transcripts that are respectively expressed in male and female A. americanum ticks, with 30 found in both. While distinct reproductively, both male and female metastriate ticks, such as A. americanum, require a blood meal. Thus, 30 AAS sequences found in both male and female ticks could play important role(s) in regulating tick feeding and thus represent attractive candidates for anti-tick vaccine development. Of significant interest, 19 AAS sequences expressed in male and female ticks are also part of the 48 AAS sequences expressed in fed female tick salivary glands or midguts; two organs through which the tick interacts with host blood and immune response factors. Considered the most important domain for serpin function, the reactive center loop (RCL) is further characterized by a single 'P1' site amino acid residue, which is central to determining the protease regulated by the serpin. In this study, a diversity of 17 different P1 site amino acid residues were predicted, suggesting that A. americanum serpins potentially regulate a large number of proteolytic pathways. Our data also indicate that some serpins in this study could regulate target protease common to all tick species, in that more than 40% of AAS show 58-97% inter-species amino acid conservation. Of significance, 24% of AAS showed 62-100% inter-species conservation within the functional RCL domain, with 10 RCLs showing ≥90-100% conservation. In vertebrates, serpins with basic residues at the P1 site regulate key host defense pathways, which the tick must evade to feed successfully. Interestingly, we found that AAS sequences with basic or polar uncharged residues at the putative P1 site are more likely to be conserved across tick species. Another notable observation from our data is that AAS sequences found only in female ticks and those found in both males and females, but not those found only in male ticks, were highly conserved in other tick species. While descriptive, this study provides the basis for more in-depth studies exploring the roles of serpins in tick feeding physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lindsay Porter
- Texas A & M University AgriLife Research, Department of Entomology, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Željko Radulović
- Texas A & M University AgriLife Research, Department of Entomology, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Tae Kim
- Texas A & M University AgriLife Research, Department of Entomology, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Gloria R C Braz
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro - UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Itabajara Da Silva Vaz
- Centro de Biotecnologia and Faculdade de Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Bento Gonçalves, 9500, Prédio 43421, Porto Alegre 91501-970, RS, Brazil
| | - Albert Mulenga
- Texas A & M University AgriLife Research, Department of Entomology, 2475 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, United States.
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An C, Ragan EJ, Kanost MR. Serpin-1 splicing isoform J inhibits the proSpätzle-activating proteinase HP8 to regulate expression of antimicrobial hemolymph proteins in Manduca sexta. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 35:135-41. [PMID: 20851714 PMCID: PMC2956776 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2010.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2010] [Revised: 09/04/2010] [Accepted: 09/04/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The innate immune system of insects include the Toll pathway, which is mediated by an extracellular serine proteinase cascade. In the tobacco hornworm, Manduca sexta, hemolymph proteinase 8 (HP8) promotes the synthesis of antimicrobial proteins by cleaving proSpätzle, the putative ligand of M. sexta Toll. HP8 has been observed to form a complex in hemolymph with M. sexta serpin-1, which has multiple alternative splicing isoforms. To investigate the regulation of HP8 and its processing of proSpätzle, we characterized the interaction of recombinant HP8 with serpin-1 isoform J (serpin-1J). Recombinant serpin-1J formed an SDS-stable complex with HP8 in vitro. The association rate constant of serpin-1J and HP8 was 1.3×10(4)M(-1)s(-1), with a stoichiometry of inhibition of 5.4. Serpin-1J inhibited the cleavage of proSpätzle by HP8. Injection of serpin-1J into M. sexta larvae resulted in decreased bacteria-induced antimicrobial activity in hemolymph and reduced expression of cecropin, attacin and hemolin mRNA in fat body. Altogether, these results suggest that serpin-1J functions to inhibit HP8 and thereby modulates the concentration of active Spätzle to regulate the Toll pathway response in M. sexta.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunju An
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
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Bioinformatic Approaches for the Identification of Serpin Genes with Multiple Reactive Site Loop Coding Exons. Methods Enzymol 2011; 501:209-22. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-385950-1.00010-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
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Ragan EJ, An C, Yang CT, Kanost MR. Analysis of mutually exclusive alternatively spliced serpin-1 isoforms and identification of serpin-1 proteinase complexes in Manduca sexta hemolymph. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:29642-50. [PMID: 20624920 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.125419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutually exclusive alternative splicing produces transcripts for 12 serpin-1 isoforms in Manduca sexta that differ only in the region encoding the carboxyl-terminal 36-40-amino acid residues. This variable region includes the reactive center loop, which determines the inhibitory selectivity of the serpin. We investigated mRNA levels of individual serpin-1 isoforms by quantitative PCR. The 12 isoforms were expressed at similar levels in hemocytes, but in fat body isoform B mRNA was present at significantly higher levels than isoforms C, D, E, F, G, J, K, and Z. To investigate the presence of individual serpin-1 isoforms in plasma we used immunoaffinity purification of serpin-1 isoforms from M. sexta plasma, followed by two-dimensional PAGE and identification of protein spots by digestion with a series of proteinases and analysis of the resulting peptides by MALDI-TOF/TOF. We identified nine of the 12 serpin-1 isoforms and, through analysis of putative serpin-1-proteinase complexes, identified three endogenous M. sexta proteinase targets of serpin-1. Our results suggest that M. sexta serpin-1 isoforms A, E, and J can inhibit hemolymph proteinase 8, which activates the cytokine spätzle. At least one isoform of serpin-1 can inhibit hemocyte proteinase 1, another M. sexta blood proteinase. In addition, a complex of serpin-1K in a complex with M. sexta midgut chymotrypsin was identified, suggesting serpin-1 isoforms may also function to protect insect tissues from digestive proteinases that may leak into the hemocoel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Ragan
- Department of Biochemistry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506, USA
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Dreher-Lesnick SM, Ceraul SM, Lesnick SC, Gillespie JJ, Anderson JM, Jochim RC, Valenzuela JG, Azad AF. Analysis of Rickettsia typhi-infected and uninfected cat flea (Ctenocephalides felis) midgut cDNA libraries: deciphering molecular pathways involved in host response to R. typhi infection. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2010; 19:229-241. [PMID: 20017753 PMCID: PMC3179627 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2009.00978.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Murine typhus is a flea-borne febrile illness that is caused by the obligate intracellular bacterium, Rickettsia typhi. The cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, acquires R. typhi by imbibing a bloodmeal from a rickettsemic vertebrate host. To explore which transcripts are expressed in the midgut in response to challenge with R. typhi, cDNA libraries of R. typhi-infected and uninfected midguts of C. felis were constructed. In this study, we examined midgut transcript levels for select C. felis serine proteases, GTPases and defence response genes, all thought to be involved in the fleas response to feeding or infection. An increase in gene expression was observed for the serine protease inhibitors and vesicular trafficking proteins in response to feeding. In addition, R. typhi infection resulted in an increase in gene expression for the chymotrypsin and rab5 that we studied. Interestingly, R. typhi infection had little effect on expression of any of the defence response genes that we studied. We are unsure as to the physiological significance of these gene expression profiles and are currently investigating their potential roles as it pertains to R. typhi infection. To our knowledge, this is the first report of differential expression of flea transcripts in response to infection with R. typhi.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Dreher-Lesnick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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A repertoire of the dominant transcripts from the salivary glands of the blood-sucking bug, Triatoma dimidiata, a vector of Chagas disease. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2009; 10:184-91. [PMID: 19900580 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2009.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2009] [Revised: 10/10/2009] [Accepted: 10/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Triatoma (T.) dimidiata is a hematophagous Hemiptera and a main vector of Chagas disease. The saliva of this and other blood-sucking insects contains potent pharmacologically active components that assist them in counteracting the host hemostatic and inflammatory systems during blood feeding. To describe the repertoire of potential bioactive salivary molecules from this insect, a number of randomly selected transcripts from the salivary gland cDNA library of T. dimidiata were sequenced and analyzed. This analysis showed that 77.5% of the isolated transcripts coded for putative secreted proteins, and 89.9% of these coded for variants of the lipocalin family proteins. The most abundant transcript was a homologue of procalin, the major allergen of T. protracta saliva, and contributed more than 50% of the transcripts coding for putative secreted proteins, suggesting that it may play an important role in the blood-feeding process. Other salivary transcripts encoding lipocalin family proteins had homology to triabin (a thrombin inhibitor), triafestin (an inhibitor of kallikrein-kinin system), pallidipin (an inhibitor of collagen-induced platelet aggregation) and others with unknown function.
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Pyati PS, Bell HA, Fitches E, Price DRG, Gatehouse AMR, Gatehouse JA. Cathepsin L-like cysteine proteinase (DcCathL) from Delia coarctata (wheat bulb fly): basis of insecticidal activity. INSECT BIOCHEMISTRY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 39:535-546. [PMID: 19481148 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibmb.2009.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2009] [Revised: 05/05/2009] [Accepted: 05/16/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A cDNA encoding a cathepsin L-like cysteine proteinase (DcCathL) was prepared from gut tissue of larvae of wheat bulb fly (Delia coarctata: Diptera). The predicted protein is a homologue of the product of Drosophila melanogaster gene Cp-1 (CG6692), and is similar to a sub-family of cysteine proteinases found in other insects which have roles in tissue remodelling during development, and moulting. Recombinant DcCathL was produced using the yeast Pichia pastoris as expression host, and showed hydrolytic activity in vitro towards the synthetic substrate Z-Phe-Arg-AMC with a pH optimum of 4.5. DcCathL was insecticidal to lepidopteran larvae when injected into haemolymph, causing mortality that was accompanied by systemic melanisation, suggesting that DcCathL was affecting the immune-related proteolytic activation cascade leading to production of active phenoloxidase. This process is normally negatively regulated by serpins in the haemolymph. Recombinant serpins from cabbage moth (Mamestra brassicae) did not inhibit DcCathL, and were susceptible to degradation by the enzyme in vitro in buffer and extracted haemolymph. When M. brassicae larvae were co-injected with a lethal dose of DcCathL and exogenous recombinant serpins, no mortality or systemic melanisation was observed, suggesting that the insecticidal effects of DcCathL in vivo result from degradation of endogenous serpins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant S Pyati
- School of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Durham University, South Road, Durham, UK
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14
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The serpin gene family in Anopheles gambiae. Gene 2009; 442:47-54. [PMID: 19394412 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2009.04.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2009] [Revised: 04/10/2009] [Accepted: 04/17/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Serpins (serine protease inhibitors) regulate some innate immune responses of insects by inhibiting endogenous proteases. In this study, we characterized the serpin (SRPN) gene family in the mosquito Anopheles gambiae, the major malaria vector in Sub-Saharan Africa. We identified 18 A. gambiae SRPN genes, all on chromosomes 2 and 3, through searches of genomic DNA and EST databases. In addition to SRPN10, previously documented to exhibit alternative splicing, we found three splicing isoforms of SRPN4. We completed sequencing of cDNAs for the A. gambiae serpins to obtain complete coding sequence information and to verify or improve gene predictions. The predicted SRPN9 and 15 in the initial genome annotation were determined to be a single gene (SRPN9). Sixteen of the serpins contained putative secretion signal sequences. Multiple sequence alignments showing conserved residues important in structural conformation, including the consensus pattern within the hinge region, indicated that most of the A. gambiae serpins may be inhibitory. Phylogenetic analyses confirmed that SRPN1, 2, 3, 8, 9 and 10 formed phylogenetic clusters with known inhibitory serpins from Drosophila melanogaster and Manduca sexta. Many of the A. gambiae serpins were expressed during all life stages. However, SRPN7, 8, 12, and 19 were expressed at very low levels in the adult stage. SRPN13 was expressed mostly in eggs and young larvae, whereas SRPN5 and 14 were expressed mostly in adults. Such differences in expression pattern suggest that the serpins are involved in multiple physiological processes. Determining the biological functions of the mosquito serpins will require future work to identify the proteases they inhibit in vivo.
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15
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Koo YD, Ahn JE, Salzman RA, Moon J, Chi YH, Yun DJ, Lee SY, Koiwa H, Zhu-Salzman K. Functional expression of an insect cathepsin B-like counter-defence protein. INSECT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2008; 17:235-45. [PMID: 18397276 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2583.2008.00799.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Insects are capable of readjusting their digestive regimes in response to dietary challenge. Cowpea bruchids (Callosobruchus maculatus) strongly induce C. maculatus cathepsin B-like cysteine protease 1 (CmCatB1) transcripts when fed diet containing a soybean cysteine protease inhibitor soyacystatin N (scN). CmCatB1 shares significant sequence similarity with cathepsin B-like cysteine proteases. In this study, we isolated another cDNA, namely CmCatB2 that encodes a protein sequence otherwise identical to CmCatB1, but lacking a 70-amino-acid internal section. CmCatB1 and CmCatB2 probably resulted from alternate splicing events. Only the CmCatB1 transcript, however, exhibited differential expression in response to dietary scN. Further, this expression was only detectable in larvae, which is the developmental stage associated with food ingestion. The scN-activated and developmentally regulated CmCatB1 expression pattern suggests it may have a unique function in insect counter-defence against antinutritional factors. Heterologously expressed recombinant CmCatB1 protein exhibited enzymatic activity in a pH-dependent manner. Activity of the protein was inhibited by both the cysteine protease inhibitor E-64 and the cathepsin B-specific inhibitor CA-074, verifying its cathepsin B-like cysteine protease nature. Interestingly, the enzymatic activity was unaffected by the presence of scN. Together, we have provided functional evidence suggesting that CmCatB1 confers inhibitor-insensitive enzymatic activity to cowpea bruchids, which is crucial for insect survival when challenged by dietary protease inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y D Koo
- Department of Entomology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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16
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Just FT, Gilles J, Pradel I, Pfalzer S, Lengauer H, Hellmann K, Pfister K. Molecular evidence for Bartonella spp. in cat and dog fleas from Germany and France. Zoonoses Public Health 2008; 55:514-20. [PMID: 18489542 DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01131.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Nine hundred and fifty-two fleas were collected from 148 cats and 133 dogs at 18 widely distributed geographic locations in Germany and France and examined for the presence of six different Bartonella spp. (Bartonella bacilliformis, Bartonella clarridgeiae, Bartonella elizabethae, Bartonella henselae, Bartonella quintana, Bartonella vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii) by PCR. Thirty-five specimens (3.7%) tested positive for either B. henselae (14 positive fleas) or B. clarridgeiae (21 positive fleas). DNA of other Bartonella spp. were not detected. Bartonella clarridgeiae was the dominating species in samples from France (19 out of 22 positive fleas), whereas B. henselae was more frequent in Germany (11 out of 13 positive fleas). With 3.5% (22 out of 632 fleas) in France and 4.1% (13 out of 320 fleas) in Germany, the overall prevalences of pathogen did not vary significantly between the flea populations of both countries. 5.4% of cats in France versus 16.1% of cats from Germany were infested by fleas carrying Bartonella, whereas 9.5% of dogs in France but none of the examined dogs from Germany were infested by Bartonella positive fleas. The molecular evidence of Bartonella infections reveals that agents of zoonotic potential are established in flea populations in Germany and France and that the spectrum of species can vary significantly from country to country.
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Affiliation(s)
- F T Just
- Institute for Comparative Tropical Medicine and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Germany.
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17
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Hegedus DD, Erlandson M, Baldwin D, Hou X, Chamankhah M. Differential expansion and evolution of the exon family encoding the Serpin-1 reactive centre loop has resulted in divergent serpin repertoires among the Lepidoptera. Gene 2008; 418:15-21. [PMID: 18495381 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2008.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2008] [Revised: 03/24/2008] [Accepted: 03/27/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Serpins are a unique class of serine protease inhibitors that are becoming increasingly recognized as important regulators of insect defense mechanisms and developmental processes. Previously, we identified three Mamestra configurata serpins that were similar in structure to those encoded by the Manduca sexta Serpin-1 gene. To gain insight into the evolution and function of serpins in lepidopterans, we developed a bacterial artificial chromosome library and sequenced the entire M. configurata gene. The Serpin-1 gene was 28 kbp and had the capacity to encode nine serpin isoforms via alternate splicing of exons encoding variant reactive center loops onto a common scaffold. The relative abundance of each isoform was estimated by expressed sequence tag analysis and their expression patterns examined in various developmental stages and larval tissues. The organization of the M. configurata Serpin-1 gene was very similar to that of M. sexta Serpin-1; however, only the Ms Serpin-1Z (1 of 12) and the Mc Serpin-1a isoforms exhibited a high degree of similarity. Orthologs similar to this variant were also found in other lepidopterans, namely Bombyx mori and Plutella xylostella, suggesting that they are involved in a conserved biochemical process and likely represent the ancestral serpin variant. Expansion of the exon family encoding the Serpin-1 reactive centre loop region appears to be a product of recent duplication events that has given rise to different serpin repertoires in related insect taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dwayne D Hegedus
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Saskatoon Research Centre, Saskatoon, SK Canada.
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Börner S, Ragg H. Functional diversification of a protease inhibitor gene in the genus Drosophila and its molecular basis. Gene 2008; 415:23-31. [PMID: 18395367 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2008.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2007] [Revised: 01/31/2008] [Accepted: 02/01/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The mutually exclusive use of alternative reactive site loop (RSL) cassettes due to alternative splicing of serpin (serine protease inhibitor) gene transcripts is a widespread strategy to create target-selective protease inhibitors in the animal kingdom. Since molecular basis and evolution of serpin RSL cassette exon amplification and diversification are unexplored, the exon-intron organization of the serpin gene spn4 from 12 species of the genus Drosophila was studied. The analysis of the gene structures shows that both number and target enzyme specificities of Spn4 RSL cassettes are highly variable in fruit flies and includes inhibitor variants with novel antiproteolytic activities in some species, indicating that RSL diversity is the result of adaptive evolution. Comparative genomics suggests that interallelic gene conversion and/or recombination events contribute to RSL cassette exon amplification. Due to an intron that is located at the most suitable position within the RSL region, multiple inhibitors can be formed in an economic manner that are both efficient and target-selective, allowing fruit flies to control an astonishing variety of proteases with different cleavage chemistry and evolutionary ancestry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Börner
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Technology, Bielefeld University, D-33501 Bielefeld, Germany
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Mulenga A, Khumthong R, Blandon MA. Molecular and expression analysis of a family of the Amblyomma americanum tick Lospins. J Exp Biol 2007; 210:3188-98. [PMID: 17766296 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.006494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
SUMMARY
Serine proteinase inhibitors (serpins) are a family of structurally similar but functionally diverse proteins that regulate several important proteolytic cascades in most branches of life. We have characterized 17 Amblyomma americanum serpin cDNAs here named as `Lospins' (L; an acronym for Lone Star tick serpin) that possess three β-sheets, eight α-helices and a reactive center loop consistent with the consensus serpin superfamily secondary structures. Visual inspection of deduced amino acid sequences revealed two patterns of basic residues: (i) 86DKSRVLKAYKRL97 in L5 and L13–16 and (ii) 158VRDKTRGKI166 in all Lospins, which are similar to consensus glycosaminoglycan (GAG) binding sites (XBnXmBX, where X and B are non-basic and basic residues, n=1 or 2 and m=1, 2 or 3). On three-dimensional models, the two putative GAG binding sites mapped onto α-helices D and F, respectively, with calculation of electrostatic surface potentials revealing basic patches on L5 and L13–16 models that are comparable to the heparin-binding site on antithrombin. RT-PCR expression analysis of 15 selected genes showed that the majority (11/15) of the Lospins were ubiquitously expressed in the midgut, ovary and salivary glands. On a neighbor-joining phylogeny guide tree, 15 serpins from other ticks and 17 Lospins from this study, a total of 32 tick serpin sequences, segregated into five groups with Lospins in groups A and D being conserved across tick species. The discovery of Lospins in this study sets the framework for future studies to understand the role of serpins in tick physiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Mulenga
- Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A & M University, TAMU 2475, College Station, TX 77843, USA.
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Abstract
The interaction of proteinase inhibitors produced, in most cases, by host organisms and the invasive proteinases of pathogens or parasites or the dietary proteinases of predators, results in an evolutionary 'arms race' of rapid and ongoing change in both interacting proteins. The importance of these interactions in pathogenicity and predation is indicated by the high level and diversity of observable evolutionary activity that has been found. At the initial level of evolutionary change, recruitment of other functional protein-folding families has occurred, with the more recent evolution of one class of proteinase inhibitor from another, using the same mechanism and proteinase contact residues. The combination of different inhibitor domains into a single molecule is also observed. The basis from which variation is possible is shown by the high rate of retention of gene duplication events and by the associated process of inhibitory domain multiplication. At this level of reorganization, mutually exclusive splicing is also observed. Finally, the major mechanism by which variation is achieved rapidly is hypervariation of contact residues, an almost ubiquitous feature of proteinase inhibitors. The diversity of evolutionary mechanisms in a single class of proteins is unlikely to be common, because few systems are under similar pressure to create variation. Proteinase inhibitors are therefore a potential model system in which to study basic evolutionary process such as functional diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Christeller
- Horticulture and Food Research Institute of NZ, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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