Effects of glucocorticoids on weight change during the treatment of Wegener's granulomatosis

Association between body mass index and age of disease onset with clinical outcomes in paediatric-onset Crohn's Disease (CD): a UK nation-wide analyses using the NIHR-IBD BioResource

BACKGROUND

The evidence on the relationship between adiposity and disease outcomes in paediatric Crohn's disease (CD) is limited and lacks consensus.

AIM

To investigate the relationship between (a) body mass index (BMI) and clinical CD outcomes (hospitalisation, surgery, disease behaviour, biologic use, extra-intestinal manifestations (EIMs)) and (b) the age of CD onset with clinical outcomes.

DESIGN

Clinical outcomes were examined in CD patients diagnosed at age <17 years and enroled in the National Institute for Health Research IBD-UK BioResource at a median age of 24 years. All outcomes and BMI were recorded at the time of enrolment. Participants were categorised into normal (<25 kg/m2) and high (≥25 kg/m2) BMI. Age at disease diagnosis was categorised into pre-puberty/early puberty (<11 years), puberty (11-14 years) and post-puberty (15-17 years). Spearman rank correlation was used to test the associations between continuous variables and chi-square test to compare categorical variables.

RESULTS

848 participants with CD were included (51.8% males) and median age at diagnosis was 14 years. Participants with high BMI experienced a greater frequency of EIMs (P = 0.05) than those with low BMI (1 type of EIM: 18.5% vs. 13.2%, respectively; ≥2 types of EIMs: 7.8% vs. 5.6%, respectively). Age at diagnosis and BMI showed weak correlations with corticosteroid use (ρ = 0.08, P = 0.03 and ρ = -0.09, P = 0.01; respectively). An early diagnosis (<11 years) was associated with higher occurrence of stenosing and penetrating disease behaviour (P = 0.01) and hospitalisations (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

A higher BMI and an earlier age of disease onset are associated with worse CD clinical presentation.

Antiobesity pharmacotherapy to facilitate living kidney donation

Obesity is a chronic, relapsing disease that increases the risks of living kidney donation; at the same time, transplant centers have liberalized body mass index constraints for donors. With the increasing number of antiobesity medications available, the treatment of obesity with antiobesity medications may increase the pool of potential donors and enhance donor safety. Antiobesity medications are intended for long-term use given the chronic nature of obesity. Cessation of treatment can be expected to lead to weight regain and increase the risk of comorbidity rebound/development. In addition, antiobesity medications are meant to be used in conjunction with-rather than in replacement of-diet and physical activity optimization. Antiobesity medication management includes selecting medications that may ameliorate any coexisting medical conditions, avoiding those that are contraindicated in such conditions, and being sensitive to any out-of-pocket expenses that may be incurred by the potential donor. A number of questions remain regarding who will and should shoulder the costs of long-term obesity treatment for donors. In addition, future studies are needed to quantify the degree of weight loss and duration of weight loss maintenance needed to normalize the risk of adverse kidney outcomes relative to comparable nondonors and lower-weight donors.

Consensus of the definitions of the OMERACT glucocorticoid impact core domain set for people with rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases

BACKGROUND

The Outcome Measures in Rheumatology (OMERACT) Glucocorticoid (GC) Impact Working Group has been working to develop a core domain set to measure the impact of GCs on patients living with rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases. The mandatory domains previously identified for inclusion in all clinical trials measuring the GC effects include infection, bone fragility, mood disturbance, hypertension, diabetes, weight, fatigue, and mortality. Before progressing to instrument selection, the Working Group sought to establish precise definitions of all mandatory domains within the core domain set.

METHODS

OMERACT methodology was applied with the use of evidence and consensus-based decision making of all stakeholder groups (patient research partners, health care professionals, clinician researchers, industry members and methodologists) to develop detailed definitions for the broad domain, target domain and domain components, taking into consideration sources of variability that could affect measurement of the domain.  The working group synthesized prior qualitative studies, quantitative work, and results from Delphi rounds, to develop a rich definition of 'what' is to be measured.

RESULTS

Between 2021 and 2023, the OMERACT Working Group on GC Impact conducted virtual meetings to establish domain definitions. First, we mapped each domain onto an OMERACT Core Area. All domains were primarily represented within the Pathophysiological Manifestations Core Area, except from Fatigue which was primarily Life Impact and Weight which spanned both Core Areas. Sources of variability included cultural factors, age, gender, education level, socioeconomic status, personal experiences, emotional state, and language barriers. The domain definitions will form the foundation for instrument selection and the initial step of domain / concept match and content validity in the OMERACT pillar of 'truth' before moving on to feasibility and discrimination.

CONCLUSION

The OMERACT GC Impact Working Group has developed and agreed upon detailed domain definitions for core domains. Future steps of the working group are to select instruments and develop the core outcome measurement set for clinical trials measuring the impact of GC on patients with rheumatic and musculoskeletal diseases.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on patients with systemic vasculitis: a single-centre retrospective study

This study aimed to study the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on patients living with systemic vasculitis in Kazakhstan. A single-centre retrospective study of the medical histories of 82 patients was carried out based on the regional clinical hospital of the city for all admissions with systemic vasculitis in the period from January 2019 to December 2021. The following qualitative (gender, disability, concomitant diseases) and quantitative (age, disease experience, laboratory data, etc.) variables were studied. To conduct the study, the criteria for the inclusion and exclusion of patients in the study were determined. According to the results of the study, there is a decrease in the number of hospitalized patients with vasculitis in the rheumatology department of the regional clinical hospital. Compared to 2019, in 2021, the number of hospitalized patients decreased by almost half (Table 1). Out of 82 cases, the most common was Takayasu disease (nonspecific aortoarteritis) (43.9%), IgA-vasculitis (Schenlein-Genoch disease) (31.71%), and they are typical mainly for females of rural origin, who were admitted to the hospital in a comorbid state (p < 0.001). 41.6% of patients have disabilities, and the majority of patients have a II disability group. The average body mass index is 24.2; 27 patients out of the total number of patients suffer from obesity. The most common clinical symptoms of patients with systemic vasculitis were injuries of the musculoskeletal system (75.6%). A negative average correlation was found between the indicators of the level of ESR and haemoglobin, the correlation coefficient is -0.535. The patients had concomitant diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, iron deficiency anaemia, coronary heart disease, hypertension, gastrointestinal tract diseases and hepatitis. Women of reproductive age from rural areas are often diagnosed with systemic vasculitis. A high rate of disability revealed among the patients can be explained by two main factors, the first is that the patients consulted the doctors untimely and the second is that the medical community are insufficiently informed about the management of autoimmune rheumatic diseases, in particular about systemic vasculitis, which hinders timely diagnosis and treatment, respectively. Patients, included in this survey, were mostly suffering from diseases of the musculoskeletal system, but depending on the type of vasculitis, other organs and systems may be affected. Table 1 Frequency of patients with systemic vasculitis over 3 years Year Frequency % p-value 2019 42 51.2 χ² = 12.463^a; p = 0.002 2020 23 28.0 2021 17 20.7 Total 82 100.0.

Trivalent chromium supplementation ameliorates adjuvant induced rheumatoid arthritis through up-regulation of FOXP3 and decrease in synovial Cathepsin G expression

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a known debilitating autoimmune disease. Immune-suppressants that are used for disease treatment have serious side effects, therefore, trivalent chromium (Cr (III)); which has shown evidence of its influences on some inflammatory pathways and cytokines; was used in this study for the first time to be assessed for its therapeutic effect in RA rat model and was compared to prednisolone in a trial to find a treatment with lesser side effects.

METHODS

Adult male albino rats were randomly divided into four groups: normal, untreated RA, prednisolone treated RA (1.25 mg/kg/day) and Cr (III) treated RA groups (80 μg/kg/day), induction of RA was done by subcutaneous complete Freund adjuvant injection. Study duration was 4 weeks throughout which arthritis scoring and weight measurement were pursued. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical FOXP3 assessment were done for joint biopsies. Serum inflammatory markers (interleukin 17, interleukin 10, CRP) and synovial erosive arthritis marker (Cathepsin G) were measured. HDL and non-HDL cholesterol were estimated as well.

RESULTS

Cr (III) treatment showed marked clinical and histopathological improvement, also astonishing anti-inflammatory effects (increase in FOXP3 expression and interleukin 10, with decrease in interleukin 17, CRP and synovial Cathepsin G) to the extent that Cr (III) effects on inflammation abolishment were comparable to that of prednisolone and even better at some aspects. Moreover, Cr (III) was protective from side effects, i.e., weight gain and dyslipidemia that were seen with prednisolone treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Cr (III) is promising in treating RA and it lacks some side effects of accustomed immune-modulatory agents including prednisolone. Further experimental studies and clinical trials should be held to see the efficacy of Cr (III) in different doses and to assess its long term side effects when used for rheumatoid arthritis and other autoimmune diseases treatment.

Emerging concepts and opportunities for endocrine disruptor screening of the non-EATS modalities

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are ubiquitous in the environment and involve diverse chemical-receptor interactions that can perturb hormone signaling. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development has validated several EDC-receptor bioassays to detect endocrine active chemicals and has established guidelines for regulatory testing of EDCs. Focus on testing over the past decade has been initially directed to EATS modalities (estrogen, androgen, thyroid, and steroidogenesis) and validated tests for chemicals that exert effects through non-EATS modalities are less established. Due to recognition that EDCs are vast in their mechanisms of action, novel bioassays are needed to capture the full scope of activity. Here, we highlight the need for validated assays that detect non-EATS modalities and discuss major international efforts underway to develop such tools for regulatory purposes, focusing on non-EATS modalities of high concern (i.e., retinoic acid, aryl hydrocarbon receptor, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor, and glucocorticoid signaling). Two case studies are presented with strong evidence amongst animals and human studies for non-EATS disruption and associations with wildlife and human disease. This includes metabolic syndrome and insulin signaling (case study 1) and chemicals that impact the cardiovascular system (case study 2). This is relevant as obesity and cardiovascular disease represent two of the most significant health-related crises of our time. Lastly, emerging topics related to EDCs are discussed, including recognition of crosstalk between the EATS and non-EATS axis, complex mixtures containing a variety of EDCs, adverse outcome pathways for chemicals acting through non-EATS mechanisms, and novel models for testing chemicals. Recommendations and considerations for evaluating non-EATS modalities are proposed. Moving forward, improved understanding of the non-EATS modalities will lead to integrated testing strategies that can be used in regulatory bodies to protect environmental, animal, and human health from harmful environmental chemicals.

The Effects of Treatment on Body Mass Index in Giant Cell Arteritis: A Post Hoc Analysis of the GiACTA Trial

Introduction

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) requires treatment with high-dose, long-term glucocorticoids (GCs), and tocilizumab is often used early in the treatment paradigm. Weight gain, which is associated with morbidity and mortality, is a major concern for patients, though the factors that contribute to changes in body mass index (BMI) throughout the treatment of GCA are poorly understood.

Methods

We analyzed GCA patients enrolled in the GiACTA (Tocilizumab in Giant Cell Arteritis) trial. We used univariable and multivariable mixed-effects modeling to examine the association between changes in BMI and cumulative GC dose, disease status at baseline (newly diagnosed versus relapsing), randomization to tocilizumab, and disease flares.

Results

A total of 250 patients were included (75% females, mean age 69 years). The mean ± SD BMI change over 52 weeks was 1.18 ± 1.98 kg/m². On multivariable analysis, cumulative prednisone dose at 52 weeks was independently associated with BMI increase (β = 0.94 kg/m² for 0–1 g exposure; β = 1.40 kg/m² for ≥ 4 g exposure; p for trend < 0.001). Relapsing disease at baseline (β = − 0.42 kg/m² compared to those with newly diagnosed disease; p = 0.002) and flares over 52 weeks in newly diagnosed patients (β = − 0.18 kg/m² per flare; p = 0.03) were independently associated with lower BMI increase.

Conclusions

Cumulative prednisone exposure is associated with increased BMI in GCA patients. In those with newly diagnosed disease, effective disease control regardless of the treatment used also contributes to BMI increase. Modest weight gain may be an indicator of adequate treatment response.

Long-term systemic glucocorticoid therapy and weight gain: a population-based cohort study

OBJECTIVES

To describe the variation in weight gain in people chronically exposed to systemic glucocorticoids in primary care and to identify the risk factors for weight gain.

METHODS

Data were analysed from the British database, The Health Improvement Network. Body weight variations of individuals prescribed systemic glucocorticoids for at least 3 months at a mean dose ≥10 mg/day were described. The risk factors associated with weight gain ≥10% of the usual weight were assessed.

RESULTS

A total of 31 516 adults prescribed glucocorticoids and 26 967 controls were included in the study. During glucocorticoid exposure, only 12 475 (39.6%) individuals gained >2 kg compared with their usual weight. Younger women were more likely to gain weight (mean weight gain in 18-39-year-old glucocorticoid-exposed women: 3.6 kg (s.d. 8.6) compared with 2 kg (s.d. 7.3) in the control group; the absolute mean difference was 1.6 kg (95% CI 0.9, 2.2; P < 0.001). Weight gain ≥10% of the usual weight was observed in 10.2% (n = 3208) of those chronically exposed to glucocorticoids. Women, younger people, those living in areas of higher deprivation, smokers, those on higher doses of the drug and those previously exposed to glucocorticoids were at higher risk. The risk was lower in people prescribed glucocorticoids for an inflammatory condition when compared with asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

CONCLUSION

After taking into account usual weight rather than weight just before glucocorticoid initiation and the natural history of weight variation, the amount of weight gain induced by systemic glucocorticoids as prescribed in primary care is less than usually thought.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

18THIN081.

Exploring the Hazards of Scaling Up Clinical Data Analyses: A Drug Side Effect Discovery Case Report

We assessed the scalability of pharmacological signal detection use case from a single-site CDW to a large aggregated clinical data warehouse (single-site database with 754,214 distinct patient IDs vs. multisite database with 49.8M). We aimed to explore whether a larger clinical dataset would provide clearer signals for secondary analyses such as detecting the known relationship between prednisone and weight. We found significant weight gain rate using the single-site data but not from using aggregated data (0.0104 kg/day, p<0.0001 vs. -0.050 kg/day, p<.0001). This rate was also found more consistently across 30 age and gender subgroups using the single-site data than in the aggregated data (26 vs. 18 significant weight gain findings). Contrary to our expectations, analyses of much larger aggregated clinical datasets did not yield stronger signals. Researchers must check the underlying model assumptions and account for greater heterogeneity when analyzing aggregated multisite data to ensure reliable findings.

Recent advances in the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) has classically been diagnosed by temporal artery biopsy and treated with high-dose, long-term glucocorticoid therapy. Noninvasive imaging increasingly is employed for diagnostic purposes, but further studies are needed to determine the role of imaging in monitoring longitudinal disease activity. Glucocorticoid-sparing therapy mitigates the numerous adverse effects of glucocorticoids. This review addresses new developments in these areas.

RECENT FINDINGS

For diagnosis, when performed at a center with expertise in its use, temporal artery ultrasound has an estimated sensitivity and specificity of 78 and 79%, respectively. State-of-the-art time-of-flight positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) has an estimated sensitivity and specificity of 71 and 91%, respectively. The sensitivities of both imaging modalities decrease following glucocorticoid administration. Tocilizumab is an effective glucocorticoid-sparing therapy, demonstrating sustained glucocorticoid-free remission in 56% of patients receiving weekly tocilizumab compared with 18% of patients receiving a 52-week prednisone taper. The traditional acute phase reactants are of no value in patients treated with interleukin-6 receptor (IL6-R) blockade, and thus, the development of new biomarkers is an important priority in the field.

SUMMARY

Noninvasive imaging techniques are increasingly used in the absence of temporal artery biopsy to confirm diagnostic suspicions of GCA. Tocilizumab reduces the cumulative glucocorticoid exposure and increases the rate of sustained remission. Ongoing efforts are directed towards new methods to identify disease flares.

Comorbidities and health-related quality of life in Patients with Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody (ANCA) - associated vasculitis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The optimization of immunosuppressive therapies has led to a marked improvement in the survival of ANCA-associated vasculitides (AAV). The main issue now appears to be the management of comorbidities and the improvement of quality of life. The objective of this review was to investigate the incidence and the impact of AAV-associated comorbidities, as well as the determinants of health-related quality of life (HRQoL).

METHODS

We performed a systematic literature review of articles published in Medline from 2001 to 04/28/2020. We selected relevant articles about AAV-associated comorbidities as well as HRQoL and fatigue. For each selected article, data on the incidence of comorbidity were extracted, and factors associated with the Mental component score (MCS) and the Physical component score (PCS) were identified.

RESULTS

Among the 10,993 references identified, 103 were retained for the final analysis. A significant increase in cardiovascular risk was evidenced, particularly for coronary artery disease and thromboembolic events, especially during the active phase of the disease. AAV was also associated with bronchiectasis, thyroid diseases and osteoporosis. A marked decrease in HRQoL and an increase in fatigue and anxiety were reported. Decrease in PCS and MCS was associated with fatigue, mood disorders, sleep disturbance, and/or unemployment.

CONCLUSION

The excess mortality of AAV is still a concern, partly in connection with cardiovascular and thromboembolic comorbidities. AAV patients also experiment a reduction in their HRQoL that requires integrated management. Patients with AAV need comorbidity management strategies to improve their quality of life and outcomes.

How Do Glucocorticoids Used in Rheumatic Disease Affect Body Weight? A Narrative Review of the Evidence

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are widely used to effectively treat inflammatory disease, but GCs have a number of recognized side effects. Patients and clinicians view these side effects differently, with clinicians most concerned with serious side effects such as osteoporosis and diabetes mellitus. Consequently, these side effects are well researched with clinical guidelines and recommendations. A side effect of particular concern to patients is weight gain, but this topic has not been well researched, and consequently clinicians find it difficult to provide patients with accurate information about the potential of weight gain. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of GC use specifically in rheumatic disease, patient views on GC therapy, and GC-induced weight gain. We will discuss the evidence, including the extent and the impact of weight gain on the patient, and highlight areas that warrant further investigation.

Modeling of cumulative effects of time-varying drug exposures on within-subject changes in a continuous outcome

An accurate assessment of the safety or effectiveness of drugs in pharmaco-epidemiological studies requires defining an etiologically correct time-varying exposure model, which specifies how previous drug use affects the outcome of interest. To address this issue, we develop, and validate in simulations, a new approach for flexible modeling of the cumulative effects of time-varying exposures on repeated measures of a continuous response variable, such as a quantitative surrogate outcome, or a biomarker. Specifically, we extend the linear mixed effects modeling to estimate how past and recent drug exposure affects the way individual values of the outcome change throughout the follow-up. To account for the dosage, duration and timing of past exposures, we rely on a flexible weighted cumulative exposure methodology to model the cumulative effects of past drug use, as the weighted sum of past doses. Weights, modeled with unpenalized cubic regression B-splines, reflect the relative importance of doses taken at different times in the past. In simulations, we evaluate the performance of the model under different assumptions concerning (i) the shape of the weight function, (ii) the sample size, (iii) the number of the longitudinal observations and (iv) the intra-individual variance. Results demonstrate the accuracy of our estimates of the weight function and of the between- and within-patients variances, and good correlation between the observed and predicted longitudinal changes in the outcome. We then apply the proposed method to re-assess the association between time-varying glucocorticoid exposure and weight gain in people living with rheumatoid arthritis.

Emotional eating is more frequent in obese rheumatoid arthritis patients

BACKGROUND & AIM

Obesity is a risk factor for both cardiovascular mortality and poor disease control. Unfavourable eating behaviours may have a role in obesity and increase the risk for obesity. In this study, we evaluated the eating behaviours of the patients with rheumatoid arthritis and compare these with controls. Also, we assessed the eating behaviour differences between obese and non-obese rheumatoid arthritis patients.

METHODS

It was a cross sectional case control study. We enrolled 157 rheumatoid arthritis patients and 60 controls to the study in one year period. We evaluated the eating behaviours of the patients with Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire R-18. Firstly, we compared eating behaviours of the rheumatoid arthritis patients with controls, and then we evaluated the differences in eating features between obese rheumatoid arthritis patients with non-obese rheumatoid arthritis patients. We compared the continuous variables with Mann-Whitney u test. Furthermore, categorical variables were compared with Chi-square test.

RESULTS

Sixty-three (40.2%) of the rheumatoid arthritis patients were obese. Eating behaviours of rheumatoid arthritis patients and controls were similar, out of uncontrolled eating score. This score was found higher in control group than rheumatoid arthritis patients (p = 0.01). Moreover, emotional eating domain scores were higher in obese RA patients (p = 0.04).

CONCLUSIONS

Even though there were no negative eating features in general rheumatoid arthritis population, obese rheumatoid arthritis patients may have an emotional eating problem. Herein, treatments that address psychosomatic sides of eating may be effective for treatment of obesity in rheumatoid arthritis.

Interventions for renal vasculitis in adults

BACKGROUND

Renal vasculitis presents as rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis and comprises of a group of conditions characterised by acute kidney injury (AKI), haematuria and proteinuria. Treatment of these conditions involve the use of steroid and non-steroid agents in combination with plasma exchange. Although immunosuppression overall has been very successful in treatment of these conditions, many questions remain unanswered in terms of dose and duration of therapy, the use of plasma exchange and the role of new therapies. This 2019 publication is an update of a review first published in 2008 and updated in 2015.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of any intervention used for the treatment of renal vasculitis in adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Register of Studies up to 21 November 2019 through contact with the Information Specialist using search terms relevant to this review. Studies in the Register are identified through searches of CENTRAL, MEDLINE, and EMBASE, conference proceedings, the International Clinical Trials Register (ICTRP) Search Portal and ClinicalTrials.gov.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials investigating any intervention for the treatment of renal vasculitis in adults.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed study quality and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using a random effects model and results expressed as risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous outcomes or mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

Forty studies (3764 patients) were included. Studies conducted earlier tended to have a higher risk of bias due to poor (or poorly reported) study design, broad inclusion criteria, less well developed disease definitions and low patient numbers. Later studies tend to have improved in all areas of quality, aided by the development of large international study groups. Induction therapy: Plasma exchange as adjunctive therapy may reduce the need for dialysis at three (2 studies: RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.23 to 0.78; I² = 0%) and 12 months (6 studies: RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.72; I² = 0%) (low certainty evidence). Plasma exchange may make little or no difference to death, serum creatinine (SCr), sustained remission or to serious or the total number of adverse events. Plasma exchange may increase the number of serious infections (5 studies: RR 1.26, 95% CI 1.03 to 1.54; I² = 0%; low certainty evidence). Remission rates for pulse versus continuous cyclophosphamide (CPA) were equivalent but pulse treatment may increase the risk of relapse (4 studies: RR 1.79, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.87; I² = 0%) (low certainty evidence) compared with continuous cyclophosphamide. Pulse CPA may make little or no difference to death at final follow-up, or SCr at any time point. More patients required dialysis in the pulse CPA group. Leukopenia was less common with pulse treatment; however, nausea was more common. Rituximab compared to CPA probably makes little or no difference to death, remission, relapse, severe adverse events, serious infections, or severe adverse events. Kidney function and dialysis were not reported. A single study reported no difference in the number of deaths, need for dialysis, or adverse events between mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and CPA. Remission was reported to improve with MMF however more patients relapsed. A lower dose of steroids was probably as effective as high dose and may be safer, causing fewer infections; kidney function and relapse were not reported. There was little of no difference in death or remission between six and 12 pulses of CPA. There is low certainty evidence that there were less relapses with 12 pulses (2 studies: RR 1.57, 95% CI 0.96 to 2.56; I² = 0%), but more infections (2 studies: RR 0.79, 95% CI 0.36 to 1.72; I² = 45%). One study reported severe adverse events were less in patients receiving six compared to 12 pulses of CPA. Kidney function and dialysis were not reported. There is limited evidence from single studies about the effectiveness of intravenous immunoglobulin, avacopan, methotrexate, immunoadsorption, lymphocytapheresis, or etanercept. Maintenance therapy: Azathioprine (AZA) has equivalent efficacy as a maintenance agent to CPA with fewer episodes of leucopenia. MMF resulted in a higher relapse rate when tested against azathioprine in remission maintenance. Rituximab is an effective remission induction and maintenance agent. Oral co-trimoxazole did not reduce relapses in granulomatosis with polyangiitis. There were fewer relapses but more serious adverse events with leflunomide compared to methotrexate. There is limited evidence from single studies about the effectiveness of methotrexate versus CPA or AZA, cyclosporin versus CPA, extended versus standard AZA, and belimumab.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Plasma exchange was effective in patients with severe AKI secondary to vasculitis. Pulse cyclophosphamide may result in an increased risk of relapse when compared to continuous oral use but a reduced total dose. Whilst CPA is standard induction treatment, rituximab and MMF were also effective. AZA, methotrexate and leflunomide were effective as maintenance therapy. Further studies are required to more clearly delineate the appropriate place of newer agents within an evidence-based therapeutic strategy.

A novel glucocorticoid-free maintenance regimen for anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody-associated vasculitis

Objectives

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are a mainstay of treatment for patients with ANCA-associated vasculitis (AAV) but are associated with significant adverse effects. Effective remission induction in severe AAV using extremely limited GC exposure has not been attempted. We tested an early rapid GC withdrawal induction regimen for patients with severe AAV.

Methods

Patients with active MPO- or PR3-ANCA vasculitis or ANCA-negative pauci-immune glomerulonephritis were included. Induction treatment consisted of two doses of rituximab, 3 months of low-dose CYC and a short course of oral GC (for between 1 and 2 weeks). Clinical, biochemical and immunological outcomes as well as adverse events were recorded.

Results

A total of 49 patients were included, with at least 12 months of follow-up in 46. All patients achieved remission, with decreases observed in creatinine, proteinuria, CRP, ANCA level and BVAS. Three patients requiring dialysis at presentation became dialysis independent. Two patients required the introduction of maintenance GC for treatment of vasculitis. Overall outcomes were comparable to those of two matched cohorts (n = 172) from previous European Vasculitis Society (EUVAS) trials, but with lower total exposure to CYC and GCs (P < 0.001) and reduced rates of severe infections (P = 0.02) compared with the RITUXVAS (rituximab versus cyclophosphamide in AAV) trial. We found no new cases of diabetes in the first year compared with historic rates of 8.2% from the EUVAS trials (P = 0.04).

Conclusion

Early GC withdrawal in severe AAV is as effective for remission induction as the standard of care and is associated with reduced GC-related adverse events.

Medications that cause weight gain and alternatives in Canada: a narrative review

BACKGROUND

The cause of the obesity epidemic is multifactorial, but may, in part, be related to medication-induced weight gain. While clinicians may strive to do their best to select pharmacotherapy(ies) that has the least negative impact on weight, the literature regarding the weight effects of medication is often limited and devoid of alternative therapies.

RESULTS

Antipsychotics, antidepressants, antihyperglycemics, antihypertensives and corticosteroids all contain medications that were associated with significant weight gain. However, there are several medication alternatives within the majority of these classes associated with weight neutral or even weight loss effects. Further, while not all of the classes of medication examined in this review have weight-favorable alternatives, there exist many other tools to mitigate weight gain associated with medication use, such as changes in dosing, medication delivery or the use of adjunctive therapies.

CONCLUSION

Medication-induced weight gain can be frustrating for both the patient and the clinician. As the use of pharmaceuticals continues to increase, it is pertinent for clinicians to consider the weight effects of medications prior to prescribing or in the course of treatment. In the case where it is not feasible to make changes to medication, adjunctive therapies should be considered.

Clinical manifestations of granulomatosis with polyangiitis: key considerations and major features

BACKGROUND

Granulomatosis with polyangiitis (GPA) presents a wide spectrum of manifestations from the common respiratory symptoms to infrequent neurological and cardiac complications. The challenge in diagnosis and management makes the rapidly progressive disorder one of the most challenging dilemmas in clinical medicine.

METHOD

An extensive electronic literature search was done using multiple databases (e.g. PubMed) from January 2007 to August 2017 to gather information on the etiopathogenesis, clinical presentation, and current treatment management plan of GPA. The language used was English. Search items included 'Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis symptoms,' 'Wegener's Granulomatosis,' and 'Treatment of Granulomatosis with Polyangiitis' for the databases. Inclusion criteria consisted of published articles in the English language which reported on the clinical manifestations of GPA, as well as on the treatment of the disease. Exclusion criteria included articles that: (1) did not specifically report on GPA vasculitis but also focused on discussion of other vasculitis such as MPA or Churg-Strauss; (2) reported on treatment/symptoms of GPA prior to 2007.

RESULT

This review provides an overview of work undertaken in key areas of GPA research, including its complex multifactorial etiology, clinical manifestations, treatment strategies, and treatment-related adverse effects.

CONCLUSION

Major advances in the understanding and treatment of GPA over recent decades have contributed to the notable decline in morbidity and mortality of patients. The ultimate goal is an improved prognosis through outcome measures which assesses the disease control with minimal adverse effects of intensive immunosuppressive regimens, an integral part of the clinical approach to improve the quality of life of GPA patients.

Drug-induced obesity and its metabolic consequences: a review with a focus on mechanisms and possible therapeutic options

Weight gain is a common side effect of many widely used drugs. Weight gain of a few kilograms to an increase of 10% or more of initial body weight has been described. Not only the weight gain as such puts a burden on the health risks of the involved patients, the accompanying increase in the incidence of the metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and cardiovascular risk factors urges the caregiver to identify and to closely monitor the patients at risk. In this review, the different classes of drugs with significant weight gaining properties and the metabolic consequences are described. Specific attention is given to pathogenetic mechanisms underlying the metabolic effects and to potential therapeutic measures to prevent them.

Effect of Disease Activity, Glucocorticoid Exposure, and Rituximab on Body Composition During Induction Treatment of Antineutrophil Cytoplasmic Antibody-Associated Vasculitis

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the relationships between glucocorticoid use, disease activity, and changes in body mass index (BMI) in patients with antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (AAV).

METHODS

We analyzed AAV patients enrolled in the Rituximab in AAV trial. Glucocorticoid use, BMI, and disease activity were measured regularly during the trial period. We performed mixed-effects regressions to examine the associations of time-dependent cumulative average glucocorticoid use and disease activity with changes in BMI over time, while adjusting for potential confounders.

RESULTS

The mean ± SD baseline BMI of the 197 patients enrolled was 28.8 ± 6.3 kg/m² . Patients with newly diagnosed AAV tended to have a lower mean ± SD BMI than those with relapsing disease (28.0 ± 5.7 kg/m² versus 29.6 ± 6.8 kg/m² ) and higher disease activity (mean ± SD Birmingham Vasculitis Activity Score for Wegener's Granulomatosis 8.7 ± 3.3 versus 7.4 ± 2.7). The most significant change in BMI occurred during the first 6 months of the trial (mean ± SD increase of 1.1 ± 2.2 kg/m² ; P < 0.0001). Disease activity improvement, glucocorticoid exposure, and randomization to rituximab were each independently associated with an increase in BMI (P < 0.001 for all analyses).

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that changes in BMI, as well as glucocorticoid exposure, are independently associated with improvements in disease activity in AAV. Rituximab may also have effects on BMI independent of its impact on disease activity.

Patient perceptions of glucocorticoid side effects: a cross-sectional survey of users in an online health community

OBJECTIVES

To identify the side effects most important to glucocorticoid (GC) users through a survey of a UK online health community (Healthunlocked.com).

DESIGN

Online cross-sectional survey.

SETTING

Participants were recruited through Healthunlocked.com, an online social network for health.

PARTICIPANTS

Adults who were currently taking GCs, or had taken GCs in the past month.

METHOD

Responders scored the importance of listed side effects from 1 to 10, with 10 being of high importance to them. For each side effect, histograms were plotted, and the median rating and IQR were determined. Side effects were ranked by median ranking (largest to smallest) and then IQR (smallest to largest). The scores were categorised as low (scores 1-3), medium (scores 4-7) and high (scores 8-10) importance.

RESULTS

604 responders completed the survey. Histograms of side effect scores showed a skew towards high importance for weight gain, a U-shaped distribution for cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, eye disease and infections, and a skew towards low importance for acne. When ranked, the side effect of most importance to responders was weight gain (median score=9, IQR 6-10) followed by insomnia and moon face with equal median score (8) and IQR (5-10). Three serious side effects, CVD, diabetes and infections, were ranked of lower importance overall but had wide ranging scores (median score=8, IQR 1-10).

CONCLUSIONS

The three most highly rated side effects were not clinically serious but remained important to patients, perhaps reflecting their impact on quality of life and high prevalence. This should be taken into consideration when discussing treatment options and planning future GC safety studies.

Obesity in IBD: epidemiology, pathogenesis, disease course and treatment outcomes

Incidence of IBD is rising in parallel with overweight and obesity. Contrary to conventional belief, about 15-40% of patients with IBD are obese, which might contribute to the development of IBD. Findings from cross-sectional and retrospective cohort studies are conflicting on the effect of obesity on natural history and course of IBD. Most studies are limited by small sample size, low event rates, non-validated assessment of disease activity and lack robust longitudinal follow-up and have incomplete adjustment for confounding factors. The effect of obesity on the efficacy of IBD-related therapy remains to be studied, though data from other autoimmune diseases suggests that obesity results in suboptimal response to therapy, potentially by promoting rapid clearance of biologic agents leading to low trough concentrations. These data provide a rationale for using weight loss interventions as adjunctive therapy in patients with IBD who are obese. Obesity also makes colorectal surgery technically challenging and might increase the risk of perioperative complications. In this Review, we highlight the existing literature on the epidemiology of obesity in IBD, discuss its plausible role in disease pathogenesis and effect on disease course and treatment response, and identify high-priority areas of future research.

Obesity in IBD: epidemiology, pathogenesis, disease course and treatment outcomes

Incidence of IBD is rising in parallel with overweight and obesity. Contrary to conventional belief, about 15-40% of patients with IBD are obese, which might contribute to the development of IBD. Findings from cross-sectional and retrospective cohort studies are conflicting on the effect of obesity on natural history and course of IBD. Most studies are limited by small sample size, low event rates, non-validated assessment of disease activity and lack robust longitudinal follow-up and have incomplete adjustment for confounding factors. The effect of obesity on the efficacy of IBD-related therapy remains to be studied, though data from other autoimmune diseases suggests that obesity results in suboptimal response to therapy, potentially by promoting rapid clearance of biologic agents leading to low trough concentrations. These data provide a rationale for using weight loss interventions as adjunctive therapy in patients with IBD who are obese. Obesity also makes colorectal surgery technically challenging and might increase the risk of perioperative complications. In this Review, we highlight the existing literature on the epidemiology of obesity in IBD, discuss its plausible role in disease pathogenesis and effect on disease course and treatment response, and identify high-priority areas of future research.

Stress-induced alterations in estradiol sensitivity increase risk for obesity in women

The prevalence of obesity in the United States continues to rise, increasing individual vulnerability to an array of adverse health outcomes. One factor that has been implicated causally in the increased accumulation of fat and excess food intake is the activity of the limbic-hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (LHPA) axis in the face of relentless stressor exposure. However, translational and clinical research continues to understudy the effects sex and gonadal hormones and LHPA axis dysfunction in the etiology of obesity even though women continue to be at greater risk than men for stress-induced disorders, including depression, emotional feeding and obesity. The current review will emphasize the need for sex-specific evaluation of the relationship between stress exposure and LHPA axis activity on individual risk for obesity by summarizing data generated by animal models currently being leveraged to determine the etiology of stress-induced alterations in feeding behavior and metabolism. There exists a clear lack of translational models that have been used to study female-specific risk. One translational model of psychosocial stress exposure that has proven fruitful in elucidating potential mechanisms by which females are at increased risk for stress-induced adverse health outcomes is that of social subordination in socially housed female macaque monkeys. Data from subordinate female monkeys suggest that increased risk for emotional eating and the development of obesity in females may be due to LHPA axis-induced changes in the behavioral and physiological sensitivity of estradiol. The lack in understanding of the mechanisms underlying these alterations necessitate the need to account for the effects of sex and gonadal hormones in the rationale, design, implementation, analysis and interpretation of results in our studies of stress axis function in obesity. Doing so may lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets with which to combat stress-induced obesity exclusively in females.

Common Medications Which Lead to Unintended Alterations in Weight Gain or Organ Lipotoxicity

Obesity is one of the most common chronic conditions in the world. Its management is difficult, partly due to the multiple associated comorbidities including fatty liver, diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. As a result, the choice of prescription medications in overweight and obese patients has important implications as some of them can actually worsen the fat accumulation and its associated metabolic complications. Several prescription medications are associated with weight gain with mechanisms that are often poorly understood and under-recognized. Even less data are available on the distribution of fat and lipotoxicity (the organ damage related to fat accumulation). The present review will discuss the drugs associated with weight gain, their mechanism of action, and the magnitude and timing of their effect.

Interventions for renal vasculitis in adults

BACKGROUND

Renal vasculitis presents as rapidly progressive glomerulonephritis which comprises of a group of conditions characterised by acute kidney injury (AKI), haematuria and proteinuria. Treatment of these conditions comprises steroid and non-steroid agents in combination with plasma exchange. Although immunosuppression overall has been very successful in treatment of these conditions, many questions remain unanswered in terms of dose and duration of therapy, the use of plasma exchange and the role of new therapies. This an update of a review first published in 2008.

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the benefits and harms of any intervention used for the treatment of renal vasculitis in adults.

SEARCH METHODS

We searched the Cochrane Kidney and Transplant Specialised Register up to 27 July 2015 through contact with the Trials' Search Co-ordinator using search terms relevant to this review.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials investigating any intervention for the treatment of renal vasculitis in adults.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently assessed study quality and extracted data. Statistical analyses were performed using a random effects model and results expressed as risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) for dichotomous outcomes or mean difference (MD) for continuous outcomes.

MAIN RESULTS

Thirty one studies (2217 patients) were included. Studies conducted earlier tended to have a higher risk of bias due to poor (or poorly reported) study design, broad inclusion criteria, less well developed disease definitions and low patient numbers. Later studies tend to have improved in all areas of quality, aided by the development of large transnational study groups.Plasma exchange as adjunctive therapy significantly reduces the risk of end-stage kidney disease at three months (2 studies: RR 0.43, 95% CI 0.23 to 0.78) and 12 months (6 studies: RR 0.45, 95% CI 0.29 to 0.72). Four studies (300 patients) compared the use of pulse and continuous administration of cyclophosphamide. Remission rates were equivalent but pulse treatment causes an increased risk of relapse (4 studies: RR 1.79, 95% CI 1.11 to 2.87) compared with continuous cyclophosphamide. Azathioprine has equivalent efficacy as a maintenance agent to cyclophosphamide with fewer episodes of leucopenia. Mycophenolate mofetil may be equivalent to cyclophosphamide as an induction agent but resulted in a higher relapse rate when tested against azathioprine in remission maintenance. Rituximab is an effective remission induction agent. Methotrexate or leflunomide are potential choices in remission maintenance therapy. Oral co-trimoxazole did not reduce relapses significantly in granulomatosis with polyangiitis.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Plasma exchange was effective in patients with severe AKI secondary to vasculitis. Pulse cyclophosphamide results in an increased risk of relapse when compared to continuous oral use but a reduced total dose. Whilst cyclophosphamide is standard induction treatment, rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil were also effective. Azathioprine, methotrexate and leflunomide were effective as maintenance therapy. Further studies are required to more clearly delineate the appropriate place of newer agents within an evidence-based therapeutic strategy.

The antinociceptive effects of tualang honey in male sprague-dawley rats: a preliminary study

Tualang honey (蜂蜜 Fēng Mì) is known to have anti-inflammatory property, but its antinociceptive property has not been extensively investigated. In this study, we examined the preemptive effects on administering different doses of Tualang honey and prednisolone on the nociceptive response in male Sprague-Dawley rats. Thirty-five male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomized into five groups (n = 7) and each group received either distilled water, Tualang honey (0.2, 1.2 or 2.4 g/kg) or prednisolone (10 mg/kg) for 10 days. The response to noxious thermal stimulus was assessed using tail flick test on Day 10. The well-being of the rats was also assessed by monitoring their food intake and body weight. Data were analyzed using one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with post-hoc Scheffe's test and P value less than 0.05 was considered significant. In tail flick test, the tail flick latency time was significantly higher in the groups that received 1.2 g/kg and 2.4 g/kg of Tualang honey and 10 mg/kg of prednisolone, compared to the control group (P < 0.05). There was significant reduction in the total food pellet intake in the groups receiving prednisolone and Tualang honey (1.2 g/kg and 2.4 g/kg) compared to controls; however, the body weight gain was only significantly reduced in the prednisolone group. All the parameters were not significantly affected in the group receiving 0.2 g/kg of Tualang honey. In conclusion, preemptive administration of Tualang honey (1.2 g/kg and 2.4 g/kg) and prednisolone (10 mg/kg) had reduced the pain responses. The reduced weight gain in the prednisolone group is an unwanted effect due to its metabolic and central actions. Further studies are required to confirm the antinociceptive effects and elucidate the mechanism of antinociceptive action of Tualang honey in the rats.

Weight change associated with corticosteroid therapy in adolescents with systemic lupus erythematosus

Physical appearance is very important to adolescents and weight gain secondary to corticosteroid (CS) treatment may have a direct impact on adolescent development. Understanding weight gain in adolescents with SLE who are being treated with CS will help clinicians develop strategies for prevention of nonadherence, obesity and eating disorders in this population.

Methods:

Patients aged 11–18 years old with newly diagnosed SLE between January,1995 and December, 2006 were identified through the Rheumatology database at the Sickkids hospital, Canada. All charts were reviewed. Patients were categorized based on final BMI status as normal, overweight and obese. Risk factors for being obese were examined by logistic regression model analysis.

Results:

Of 236 patients, 78% fulfilled the criteria. 85% were female with mean age at onset of diagnosis was 14 ± 1.7 years. Mean duration of CS treatment was 50 ± 31 months and mean cumulative CS dosage was 34.11 ± 32.7 g of prednisone. At baseline, 10% had BMI >25 kg/m2 while at the end of the study, 20% were overweight and 10.4% were obese. In addition, 61% gained <10 kg while 15% gained ≥20 kg. Initial BMI was a significant predictors for final BMI (OR = 27.59, 95%CI = 6.04–126.09, p < .001) while male (OR = 8.50, 95%CI = 2.95–24.5, p < 0.000) and cumulative CS dosage (OR = 1.53, 95%CI = 1.05–2.23, p < .05) were the significant predictors for weight gain >10 kg. Duration of CS treatment did not correlate with obesity.

Conclusion:

Although a significant number of patients became overweight or obese after being treated with CS, most gained <10 kg. Obesity secondary to CS treatment in SLE patients was significantly correlated with baseline BMI, gender and cumulative CS dosage.

Complications of long-term therapy for ANCA-associated systemic vasculitis

The antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody (ANCA)-associated systemic vasculitides (AASVs) include granulomatosis with polyangiitis and microscopic polyangiitis. These conditions are characterized by small-vessel inflammation and necrosis, predominantly in pulmonary and renal vascular beds. Untreated AASV has a poor prognosis, although the advent of effective immunosuppressive therapy (the mainstay of which remains cyclophosphamide with high-dose corticosteroids) has markedly improved patients' survival (78% at 5 years). Patients with AASV, however, continue to have an increased mortality compared to the general population. Mortality is greatest in the first year after diagnosis and remains consistently elevated in subsequent years. Patients with AASV also experience increased rates of infections, malignancies and cardiovascular events as compared to the general population. Current treatments for AASV, although effective in controlling the aggressive systemic disease, incur substantial long-term toxic effects. Long-term immunosuppressive therapy also has notable deleterious effects on bone health and fertility. The long-term safety profiles of biological therapies (such as rituximab) are yet to be evaluated in patients with AASV, but represent a promising treatment option. The challenge for the future is to develop specific therapies with improved safety profiles that can cure these diseases.

A dissociated glucocorticoid receptor modulator reduces airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in a mouse model of asthma

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) is a transcription factor able to support either target gene activation via direct binding to DNA or gene repression via interfering with the activity of various proinflammatory transcription factors. An improved therapeutic profile for combating chronic inflammatory diseases has been reported through selectively modulating the GR by only triggering its transrepression function. We have studied in this paper the activity of Compound A (CpdA), a dissociated GR modulator favoring GR monomer formation, in a predominantly Th2-driven asthma model. CpdA acted similarly to the glucocorticoid dexamethasone (DEX) in counteracting OVA-induced airway hyperresponsiveness, recruitment of eosinophils, dendritic cells, neutrophils, B and T cells, and macrophages in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, lung Th2, Tc2, Th17, Tc17, and mast cell infiltration, collagen deposition, and goblet cell metaplasia. Both CpdA and DEX inhibited Th2 cytokine production in bronchoalveolar lavage as well as nuclear translocation of NF-κB and its subsequent recruitment onto the IκBα promoter in the lung. By contrast, DEX but not CpdA induces expression of the GR-dependent model gene MAPK phosphatase 1 in the lung, confirming the dissociative action of CpdA. Mechanistically, we demonstrate that CpdA inhibited IL-4-induced STAT6 translocation and that GR is essential for CpdA to mediate chemokine repression. In conclusion, we clearly show in this study the anti-inflammatory effect of CpdA in a Th2-driven asthma model in the absence of transactivation, suggesting a potential therapeutic benefit of this strategy.

Central nervous system effects of natural and synthetic glucocorticoids

Natural glucocorticoids (NGC) physiologically modulate body homeostasis and coordinate adaptive responses to stress, involving almost all organs and tissues, including brain. Since their therapeutic availability, synthetic GC (SGC) have been successfully prescribed for a variety of diseases. Mounting evidence, however, demonstrated pleiotropic adverse effects (AE), including central nervous system (CNS) disturbances, which are often misdiagnosed or underestimated. The aim of the present study was therefore to review and discuss the CNS effects of both NGC and SGC. A detailed search was carried out of the available literature using the PubMed (US National Library of Medicine) database. Cortisolemia plays a crucial role in control of behavior, cognition, mood, and early life programming of stress reactivity. Hypercortisolemia or SGC treatments may induce behavioral, psychic and cognitive disturbances, due to functional and, over time, structural alterations in specific brain target areas. These AE are generally dose and time dependent (infrequent at prednisone-equivalent doses <20 mg/day) and usually reversible. Pediatric patients are particularly susceptible. Behavioral changes, including feeding and sleeping modifications, are common. Psychic AE are unpredictable and heterogeneous, usually mild/moderate, severe in 5-10% of cases. Manic symptoms have been mostly associated with short SGC courses, and depressive disorder with long-term treatments. Suicidality has been reported. Cognitive AE peculiarly affect declarative memory performance. Physiologic levels of NGC are essential for efficient brain functions. Otherwise, hypercortisolemia and SGC treatments may cause dose-/time-dependent neuropsychic AE and, over time, structural alterations in brain target areas. Clinicians should carefully monitor patients, especially children and/or when administering high doses SGC.

Adverse effects of therapy for ANCA-associated vasculitis

The introduction of cyclophosphamide- and prednisolone-based treatment regimens has significantly improved outcome in patients with anti-neutrophil cytoplasm antibody (ANCA)-associated vasculitis. However, these regimens are nonspecific immunosuppressants associated with significant toxicity, including increased risk of infection, leucopenia, diabetes and malignancy. In addition, disease damage, particularly renal failure, increases the risk of toxicity. Improvements in disease management should include the increased awareness of treatment-related toxicity and its prevention.

Translational mini-review series on immunology of vascular disease: accelerated atherosclerosis in vasculitis

Premature atherosclerosis has been observed during the course of different systemic inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and sytemic lupus erythematosus. Remarkably, relatively few studies have been published on the occurrence of accelerated atherosclerosis in patients with vasculitis. In giant cell arteritis (GCA), mortality because of ischaemic heart disease is not increased. In addition, intima media thickness (IMT) is lower in patients with GCA than in age-matched controls. In contrast, IMT is increased significantly in Takayasu arteritis, another form of large vessel vasculitis occurring in younger patients. In Takayasu arteritis and in Kawasaki disease, a form of medium-sized vessel vasculitis, accelerated atherosclerosis has been well documented. In small vessel vasculitis because of anti-neutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibodies-associated vasculitis, cardiovascular diseases are a major cause of mortality. IMT measurements reveal conflicting results. During active disease these patients experience acceleration of the atherosclerotic process. However, when inflammation is controlled, these patients have atherosclerotic development as in healthy subjects. Several risk factors, such as diabetes and hypertension, are present more often in patients with vasculitis compared with healthy controls. In addition, steroids may be pro-atherogenic. Most importantly, many patients have impaired renal function, persistent proteinuria and increased levels of C-reactive protein, well-known risk factors for acceleration of atherosclerosis. Enhanced oxidation processes, persistently activated T cells and reduced numbers of regulatory T cells are among the many pathophysiological factors that play a role during acceleration of atherogenesis. Finally, autoantibodies that may be relevant for acceleration of atherosclerosis are found frequently in elevated titres in patients with vasculitis. Because patients have an increased risk for cardiovascular events, vasculitis should be treated with as much care as possible. In addition, treatment should be considered with angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and/or angiotensin receptor-1 blockers, statins and acetylsalicyl acid. Finally, classical risk factors for cardiovascular disease should be monitored and treated as much as possible.