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Zita L, Kurhan S, Krunt O, Chmelíková E, Kraus A, Čítek J, Klouček P, Stupka R. The Effect of Carbamazepine on Performance, Carcass Value, Hematological and Biochemical Blood Parameters, and Detection of Carbamazepine and Its Metabolites in Tissues, Internal Organs, and Body Fluids in Growing Rabbits. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2041. [PMID: 37370551 DOI: 10.3390/ani13122041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Revised: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Antiepileptic drugs (e.g., carbamazepine; CBZ) are widely prescribed for various conditions beyond epilepsy, including neurologic and psychiatric disorders. These medications can have both favorable and unfavorable impacts on mood, anxiety, depression, and psychosis. CBZ has been found at low concentrations (in the unit of nanograms per liter) in rivers, surface water, and even drinking water. As a result, when reclaimed wastewater is used for irrigation in agricultural ecosystems, CBZ can be reintroduced into the environment. That is why we tested different doses of CBZ in rabbits' feed as the meat is consumed in every community, has no religious barriers, and the potential risk of consuming meat which has been exposed to CBZ treatment is not known. Also, the evidence of the effect of CBZ on rabbits is missing. Mainly, the CBZ doses affected the count of leukocytes and other blood traits, meaning the higher the dose, the higher the reduction. Moreover, there were only low amounts of CBZ in rabbits' meat or tissues when they were exposed to the treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukáš Zita
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Sebnem Kurhan
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ondřej Krunt
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Eva Chmelíková
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Adam Kraus
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jaroslav Čítek
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Klouček
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Stupka
- Department of Animal Science, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic
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Al-Humadi HW, Al-Saigh RJ, Al-Humadi AW. Addressing the Challenges of Tuberculosis: A Brief Historical Account. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:689. [PMID: 29033842 PMCID: PMC5626940 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2017] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a highly contagious disease that still poses a threat to human health. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB), the pathogen responsible for TB, uses diverse ways in order to survive in a variety of host lesions and to subsequently evade immune surveillance; as a result, fighting TB and its associated multidrug resistance has been an ongoing challenge. The aim of this review article is to summarize the historical sequence of drug development and use in the fight against TB, with a particular emphasis on the decades between World War II and the dawn of the twenty first century (2000).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hussam W. Al-Humadi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmacy College, University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Rafal J. Al-Saigh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Pharmacy College, University of Babylon, Babylon, Iraq
| | - Ahmed W. Al-Humadi
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Karbownik A, Szałek E, Sobańska K, Grabowski T, Wolc A, Grześkowiak E. Pharmacokinetic drug-drug interaction between erlotinib and paracetamol: A potential risk for clinical practice. Eur J Pharm Sci 2017; 102:55-62. [PMID: 28232141 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2017.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2016] [Revised: 01/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Erlotinib is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor available for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer. Paracetamol is an analgesic agent, commonly used in cancer patients. Because these drugs are often co-administered, there is an increasing issue of interaction between them. OBJECTIVE The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of paracetamol on the pharmacokinetic parameters of erlotinib, as well as the influence of erlotinib on the pharmacokinetics of paracetamol. METHODS The rabbits were divided into three groups: the rabbits receiving erlotinib (IER), the group receiving paracetamol (IIPR), and the rabbits receiving erlotinib+paracetamol (IIIER+PR). A single dose of erlotinib was administered orally (25mg) and was administered intravenously (35mg/kg). Plasma concentrations of erlotinib, its metabolite (OSI420), paracetamol and its metabolites - glucuronide and sulphate were measured with the validated method. RESULTS During paracetamol co-administration we observed increased erlotinib maximum concentration (Cmax) and area under the plasma concentration-time curve from time zero to infinity (AUC0-∞) by 87.7% and 31.1%, respectively. In turn, erlotinib lead to decreased paracetamol AUC0-∞ by 35.5% and Cmax by 18.9%. The mean values of paracetamol glucuronide/paracetamol ratios for Cmax were 32.2% higher, whereas paracetamol sulphate/paracetamol ratios for Cmax and AUC0-∞ were 37.1% and 57.1% lower in the IIPR group, when compared to the IIIER+PR group. CONCLUSIONS Paracetamol had significant effect on the enhanced plasma exposure of erlotinib. Additionally, erlotinib contributed to the lower concentrations of paracetamol. Decreased glucuronidation and increased sulphation of paracetamol after co-administration of erlotinib were also observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Karbownik
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biopharmacy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Św. Marii Magdaleny 14, PL 61-861 Poznań, Poland
| | - Edyta Szałek
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biopharmacy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Św. Marii Magdaleny 14, PL 61-861 Poznań, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Sobańska
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biopharmacy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Św. Marii Magdaleny 14, PL 61-861 Poznań, Poland.
| | | | - Anna Wolc
- Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, 239E Kildee Hall, Ames, IA 50011, USA; Hy-Line International, 2583 240th Street, Dallas Center, IA 50063, USA
| | - Edmund Grześkowiak
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Biopharmacy, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Św. Marii Magdaleny 14, PL 61-861 Poznań, Poland
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Saxena A, Valicherla GR, Jain GK, Bhatta RS, Saxena AK, Gayen JR. Metabolic profiling of a novel antithrombotic compound, S002-333 and enantiomers: metabolic stability, species comparison andin vitro-in vivoextrapolation. Biopharm Drug Dispos 2016; 37:185-99. [DOI: 10.1002/bdd.1995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amrita Saxena
- Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
| | - Guru R. Valicherla
- Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
| | - Girish K. Jain
- Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
| | - Rabi S. Bhatta
- Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
| | - Anil K. Saxena
- Medicinal and Processing Chemistry Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
| | - Jiaur R. Gayen
- Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism Division; CSIR - Central Drug Research Institute; Lucknow 226031 India
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Svensson EM, Murray S, Karlsson MO, Dooley KE. Rifampicin and rifapentine significantly reduce concentrations of bedaquiline, a new anti-TB drug. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014; 70:1106-14. [PMID: 25535219 PMCID: PMC4356204 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dku504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives Bedaquiline is the first drug of a new class approved for the treatment of TB in decades. Bedaquiline is metabolized by cytochrome P450 (CYP) 3A4 to a less-active M2 metabolite. Its terminal half-life is extremely long (5–6 months), complicating evaluations of drug–drug interactions. Rifampicin and rifapentine, two anti-TB drugs now being optimized to shorten TB treatment duration, are potent inducers of CYP3A4. This analysis aimed to predict the effect of repeated doses of rifampicin or rifapentine on the steady-state pharmacokinetics of bedaquiline and its M2 metabolite from single-dose data using a model-based approach. Methods Pharmacokinetic data for bedaquiline and M2 were obtained from a Phase I study involving 32 individuals each receiving two doses of bedaquiline, alone or together with multiple-dose rifampicin or rifapentine. Sampling was performed over 14 days following each bedaquiline dose. Pharmacokinetic analyses were performed using non-linear mixed-effects modelling. Models were used to simulate potential dose adjustments. Results Rifamycin co-administration increased bedaquiline clearance substantially: 4.78-fold [relative standard error (RSE) 9.10%] with rifampicin and 3.96-fold (RSE 5.00%) with rifapentine. Induction of M2 clearance was equally strong. Average steady-state concentrations of bedaquiline and M2 are predicted to decrease by 79% and 75% when given with rifampicin or rifapentine, respectively. Simulations indicated that increasing the bedaquiline dosage to mitigate the interaction would yield elevated M2 concentrations during the first treatment weeks. Conclusions Rifamycin antibiotics reduce bedaquiline concentrations substantially. In line with current treatment guidelines for drug-susceptible TB, concomitant use is not recommended, even with dose adjustment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elin M Svensson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, PO Box 591, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Stephen Murray
- Department of Clinical Research, Global Alliance for TB Drug Development, New York, NY, USA
| | - Mats O Karlsson
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biosciences, Uppsala University, PO Box 591, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Kelly E Dooley
- Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
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The influence of the time of day on midazolam pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics in rabbits. Pharmacol Rep 2014; 66:143-52. [PMID: 24905320 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2013.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 06/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This study evaluates the time-of-day effect on midazolam and 1-OH midazolam pharmacokinetics, and on the sedative pharmacodynamic response in rabbits. Also, circadian fluctuations in rabbits' vital signs, such as the blood pressure, heart rate and body temperature were examined. The water intake was measured in order to confirm the presence of the animals' diurnal activity. The secondary aim involved the comparison of two methods of data analysis: a noncompartmental and a population modeling approach. METHODS Twelve rabbits were sedated with intravenous midazolam 0.35 mg/kg at four local times: 09.00, 14.00, 18.00 and 22.00 h. Each rabbit served as its own control by being given a single infusion at the four different times of the day on four separate occasions. The values of the monitored physiological parameters were recorded during the experiment and arterial blood samples were collected for midazolam assay. The pedal withdrawal reflex was used as the measurement of the sedation response. Two and one compartmental models were successfully used to describe midazolam and 1-OH midazolam pharmacokinetics. The categorical pharmacodynamic data were described with a logistic model. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS We did not find any time-of-day effects for the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics parameters of midazolam. For 1-OH midazolam, statistically significant time-of-day differences in the apparent volume of distribution and clearance were noticed. They corresponded well with the rabbits' water intake. The noncompartmental and model-based parameters were essentially similar. However, more information can be obtained from the population model and this method should be preferred in chronopharmacokinetic and chronopharmacodynamic studies.
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Szałek E, Karbownik A, Grabowski T, Sobańska K, Wolc A, Grześkowiak E. Pharmacokinetics of sunitinib in combination with fluoroquinolones in rabbit model. Pharmacol Rep 2013; 65:1383-90. [DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(13)71497-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Computational analysis of CYP3A4-mediated metabolism to investigate drug interactions between anti-TB and anti-HIV drugs in HIV/TB co-infection. Med Chem Res 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-013-0680-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Fetzner L, Burhenne J, Weiss J, Völker M, Unger M, Mikus G, Haefeli WE. Daily Honey Consumption Does Not Change CYP3A Activity in Humans. J Clin Pharmacol 2013; 51:1223-32. [DOI: 10.1177/0091270010382022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Sunitinib in combination with clarithromycin or azithromycin – is there a risk of interaction or not? Pharmacol Rep 2012; 64:1554-9. [DOI: 10.1016/s1734-1140(12)70953-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Revised: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Aristoff PA, Garcia GA, Kirchhoff PD, Showalter HD. Rifamycins--obstacles and opportunities. Tuberculosis (Edinb) 2010; 90:94-118. [PMID: 20236863 DOI: 10.1016/j.tube.2010.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 02/02/2010] [Accepted: 02/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
With nearly one-third of the global population infected by Mycobacterium tuberculosis, TB remains a major cause of death (1.7 million in 2006). TB is particularly severe in parts of Asia and Africa where it is often present in AIDS patients. Difficulties in treatment are exacerbated by the 6-9 month treatment times and numerous side effects. There is significant concern about the multi-drug-resistant (MDR) strains of TB (0.5 million MDR-TB cases worldwide in 2006). The rifamycins, long considered a mainstay of TB treatment, were a tremendous breakthrough when they were developed in the 1960's. While the rifamycins display many admirable qualities, they still have a number of shortfalls including: rapid selection of resistant mutants, hepatotoxicity, a flu-like syndrome (especially at higher doses), potent induction of cytochromes P450 (CYP) and inhibition of hepatic transporters. This review of the state-of-the-art regarding rifamycins suggests that it is quite possible to devise improved rifamycin analogs. Studies showing the potential of shortening the duration of treatment if higher doses could be tolerated, also suggest that more potent (or less toxic) rifamycin analogs might accomplish the same end. The improved activity against rifampin-resistant strains by some analogs promises that further work in this area, especially if the information from co-crystal structures with RNA polymerase is applied, should lead to even better analogs. The extensive drug-drug interactions seen with rifampin have already been somewhat ameliorated with rifabutin and rifalazil, and the use of a CYP-induction screening assay should serve to efficiently identify even better analogs. The toxicity due to the flu-like syndrome is an issue that needs effective resolution, particularly for analogs in the rifalazil class. It would be of interest to profile rifalazil and analogs in relation to rifampin, rifapentine, and rifabutin in a variety of screens, particularly those that might relate to hypersensitivity or immunomodulatory processes.
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Elbarbry F, Attia A, Shoker A. Validation of a new HPLC method for determination of midazolam and its metabolites: Application to determine its pharmacokinetics in human and measure hepatic CYP3A activity in rabbits. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2009; 50:987-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2009.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2009] [Revised: 07/03/2009] [Accepted: 07/03/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Effect of simvastatin on steroid-induced osteonecrosis evidenced by the serum lipid level and hepatic cytochrome P4503A in a rabbit model. J Orthop Sci 2008; 13:463-8. [PMID: 18843462 DOI: 10.1007/s00776-008-1257-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2008] [Accepted: 05/20/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study was designed to investigate the efficacy of lipid-lowering agents in preventing steroid-induced osteonecrosis and the mechanism by which they do so in a rabbit model. METHODS Female Japanese white rabbits were randomly allocated to receive probucol (group P), pravastatin (group PS), simvastatin (group SS), or saline (group C) for 6 weeks (n = 15 in groups P, PS, and SS; n = 30 in group C). Methylprednisolone (20 mg/kg) was injected at 3 weeks after starting treatment, and the femurs were histologically examined bilaterally 3 weeks after methylprednisolone injection. Midazolam clearance was measured before treatment and before methylprednisolone injection to determine hepatic cytochrome P4503A (CYP3A) levels. RESULTS The incidence of osteonecrosis in the proximal metaphysis of the femurs in groups PS and SS was significantly lower than in group C (P < 0.05 and P < 0.0001, respectively), whereas it did not differ between groups P and C. It was significantly lower in group SS than in group PS (P < 0.05). Plasma concentrations of lipids (low-density lipoprotein, triglyceride, free fatty acid, and total cholesterol) in groups P, PS, and SS were significantly lower than in group C; and hepatic CYP3A levels were significantly higher in group SS than in groups P or PS after treatment (P < 0.005 for both). CONCLUSIONS Simvastatin and pravastatin significantly reduced the incidence of steroid-induced osteonecrosis in rabbits. Simvastatin was more effective in reducing the incidence of the disease, and increased CYP3A activity is a possible mechanism for this effect.
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Onyebujoh PC, Ribeiro I, Whalen CC. Treatment Options for HIV-Associated Tuberculosis. J Infect Dis 2007; 196 Suppl 1:S35-45. [PMID: 17726832 PMCID: PMC2860284 DOI: 10.1086/518657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The vicious interaction between the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and tuberculosis (TB) pandemics poses special challenges to national control programs and individual physicians. Although recommendations for the treatment of TB in HIV-infected patients do not significantly differ from those for HIV-uninfected patients, the appropriate management of HIV-associated TB is complicated by health system issues, diagnostic difficulties, adherence concerns, overlapping adverse-effect profiles and drug interactions, and the occurrence of paradoxical reactions after the initiation of effective antiretroviral therapy. In this article, recommended treatment strategies and novel approaches to the management of HIV-associated TB are reviewed, including adjuvant treatment and options for treatment simplification. A focused research agenda is proposed in the context of the limitations of the current knowledge framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip Chukwuka Onyebujoh
- United Nations Children's Fund/United Nations Development Programme/World Bank/World Health Organization Special Programme for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases, Geneva, Switzerland.
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Kunta JR, Lee SH, Perry BA, Lee YH, Sinko PJ. DIFFERENTIATION OF GUT AND HEPATIC FIRST-PASS LOSS OF VERAPAMIL IN INTESTINAL AND VASCULAR ACCESS-PORTED (IVAP) RABBITS. Drug Metab Dispos 2004; 32:1293-8. [PMID: 15304428 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.104.000752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Low and varied oral bioavailability (BA) of some drugs has been attributed to extraction by the intestine and liver. However, the role of the intestine is difficult to directly assess. We recently developed an in vivo intestinal and vascular access-ported (IVAP) rabbit model that allows for a direct assessment of the contributions of the gut and the liver to the first-pass loss of drugs. The current studies validate the utility of the IVAP rabbit model using verapamil (VL). VL pharmacokinetics (PK) were determined after intravenous (i.v.), portal venous (PV), and upper small intestinal (USI) administration. In the i.v. dose range studied, VL exhibited linear PK. The PV concentration of VL was significantly lower than systemic concentrations after i.v. administration, suggesting significant intestinal second-pass extraction. The intestinal and hepatic extraction of VL, calculated directly from area under the curve measurements, were 79% and 92%, respectively, and are in contrast to our previous dog results that showed VL intestinal extraction to be negligible. Assessing the role of intestinal extraction using an "indirect" method was not predictive, further showing the utility of this direct measurement model. The BA of VL after USI administration was 1.65%, much lower than that reported for rats, dogs, or humans. However, humans and rabbits behave similarly in that the contribution of intestinal extraction for VL is high. In conclusion, the current results demonstrate the utility of the rabbit IVAP model in studying the first- and second-pass intestinal and hepatic loss of drugs and other xenobiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeevan R Kunta
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway 08854, USA
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Chojkier
- Department of Medicine and Center for Molecular Genetics, Veterans Affairs Healthcare System and University of California San Diego, VAMC (111-D), San Diego, CA 92161, USA.
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