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LaFountain AM, McMahon HE, Reid NM, Yuan YW. To stripe or not to stripe: the origin of a novel foliar pigmentation pattern in monkeyflowers (Mimulus). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 237:310-322. [PMID: 36101514 PMCID: PMC10601762 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The origin of phenotypic novelty is one of the most challenging problems in evolutionary biology. Although genetic regulatory network rewiring or co-option has been widely recognised as a major contributor, in most cases how such genetic rewiring/co-option happens is completely unknown. We have studied a novel foliar pigmentation pattern that evolved recently in the monkeyflower species Mimulus verbenaceus. Through genome-wide association tests using wild-collected samples, experimental crosses of laboratory inbred lines, gene expression analyses, and functional assays, we identified an anthocyanin-activating R2R3-MYB gene, STRIPY, as the causal gene triggering the emergence of the discrete, mediolateral anthocyanin stripe in the M. verbenaceus leaf. Chemical mutagenesis revealed the existence of upstream activators and repressors that form a 'hidden' prepattern along the leaf proximodistal axis, potentiating the unique expression pattern of STRIPY. Population genomics analyses did not reveal signatures of positive selection, indicating that nonadaptive processes may be responsible for the establishment of this novel trait in the wild. This study demonstrates that the origin of phenotypic novelty requires at least two separate phases, potentiation and actualisation. The foliar stripe pattern of M. verbenaceus provides an excellent platform to probe the molecular details of both processes in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy M. LaFountain
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT, USA. 06269-3043
| | - Hayley E. McMahon
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT, USA. 06269-3043
| | - Noah M. Reid
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, 67 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT, USA 06269-3197
| | - Yao-Wu Yuan
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, 75 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT, USA. 06269-3043
- Institute for Systems Genomics, University of Connecticut, 67 North Eagleville Road, Storrs, CT, USA 06269-3197
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2
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Lev‐Yadun S. The phenomenon of red and yellow autumn leaves: Hypotheses, agreements and disagreements. J Evol Biol 2022; 35:1245-1282. [PMID: 35975328 PMCID: PMC9804425 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 07/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Yellow and red autumn leaves are typical of many temperate/boreal woody plants. Since the 19th century, it has been either considered the non-functional outcome of chlorophyll degradation that unmasks the pre-existing yellow and red pigments or that the de novo synthesis of red anthocyanins in autumn leaves indicated that it should have a physiological function, although it was commonly ignored. Defending free amino acids and various other resources released especially following the breakdown of the photosynthetic system, and mobilizing them for storage in other organs before leaf fall, is the cornerstone of both the physiological and anti-herbivory hypotheses about the functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration. The complicated phenomenon of conspicuous autumn leaf colouration has received significant attention since the year 2000, especially because ecologists started paying attention to its anti-herbivory potential. The obvious imperfection of the hypotheses put forth in several papers stimulated many other scientists. Hot debates among physiologists, among ecologists, and between physiologists and ecologists have been common since the year 2000, first because the various functions of yellow and red autumn leaf colouration are non-exclusive, and second because many scientists were trained to focus on a single subject. Here, I will review the debates, especially between the photoprotective and the anti-herbivory hypotheses, and describe both the progress in their understanding and the required progress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev‐Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural SciencesUniversity of HaifaTivonIsrael
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3
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Moraes TS, Rossi ML, Martinelli AP, Dornelas MC. Morphological and anatomical traits during development: Highlighting extrafloral nectaries in Passiflora organensis. Microsc Res Tech 2022; 85:2784-2794. [PMID: 35421272 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.24127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 03/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Passiflora organensis is a small herbaceous vine with characteristic morphological variations throughout its development. The plant bears button-shaped extrafloral nectaries exclusively in adult leaves. Extrafloral nectaries are structures that secrete nectar and play an important role in plant-animal interactions as a strategy for protecting plants against herbivory. In this work, we performed anatomical and ultrastructural studies to characterize P. organensis extrafloral nectaries during their secretory phase. We showed extrafloral nectaries in Passiflora organensis are composed of three distinct regions: nectary epidermis, nectariferous parenchyma, and subnectariferous parenchyma. Our data suggests that all nectary regions constitute a functional unit involved in nectar production and release. The high metabolic activity in the nectary cells is characterized by the juxtaposition of organelles such as mitochondria and plastids together plasmalemma. In addition, calcium oxalate crystals are frequently associated to the nectaries. An increasing concentration of calcium during leaf development and nectary differentiation was observed, corresponding to the calcium deposition as calcium oxalate crystals. This is the first description of extrafloral nectaries in Passiflora organensis that is a promising tropical model species for several studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana S Moraes
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Mônica Lanzoni Rossi
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Adriana P Martinelli
- Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture, University of São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil
| | - Marcelo C Dornelas
- Department of Plant Biology, Institute of Biology, University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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4
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Vogado NO, Cheesman AW, Cernusak LA. Delayed greening during leaf expansion under ambient and elevated CO
2
in tropical tree seedlings. AUSTRAL ECOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1111/aec.13139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nara O. Vogado
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering James Cook University 14‐88 McGregor Road, Smithfield Queensland Cairns Queensland 4970 Australia
| | - Alexander W. Cheesman
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering James Cook University 14‐88 McGregor Road, Smithfield Queensland Cairns Queensland 4970 Australia
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences University of Exeter Exeter UK
| | - Lucas A. Cernusak
- Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science and College of Science and Engineering James Cook University 14‐88 McGregor Road, Smithfield Queensland Cairns Queensland 4970 Australia
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5
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Lev-Yadun S. Avoiding rather than resisting herbivore attacks is often the first line of plant defence. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
A common idea is that resisting or blocking herbivore attacks by structural, chemical and molecular means after they have commenced is the first line of plant defence. However, these are all secondary defences, operating only when all the various methods of avoiding attack have failed. The real first line of plant defence from herbivory and herbivore-transmitted pathogens is avoiding such attacks altogether. Several visual, chemical and ‘statistical’ methods (and commonly their combined effects) have been proposed to allow avoidance of herbivore attacks. The visual types are camouflage, masquerade, aposematic coloration of toxic or physically defended plants (including Müllerian/Batesian mimicry), undermining herbivorous insect camouflage, delayed greening, dazzle and trickery coloration, heterophylly that undermines host identification, leaf movements, and signalling that colourful autumn leaves are soon to be shed. The mimicry types include: herbivore damage, insects and other animals, fungal infestation, dead/dry leaves or branches, animal droppings, and stones and soil. Olfactory-based tactics include odour aposematism by poisonous plants, various repelling volatiles, mimicry of faeces and carrion odours, and mimicry of aphid alarm pheromones. The ‘statistical’ methods are mast fruiting, flowering only once in many years and being rare. In addition to the theoretical aspects, understanding these mechanisms may have considerable potential for agricultural or forestry applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa – Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
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6
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Pena‐Novas I, Archetti M. A comparative analysis of the photoprotection hypothesis for the evolution of autumn colours. J Evol Biol 2020; 33:1669-1676. [DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2020] [Revised: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ines Pena‐Novas
- Department of Biology Pennsylvania State University University Park PA USA
| | - Marco Archetti
- Department of Biology Pennsylvania State University University Park PA USA
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7
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Elias MAM, Anker A, Gawryszewski FM. Microhabitat use and body size drive the evolution of colour patterns in snapping shrimps (Decapoda: Alpheidae: Alpheus). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2019. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blz152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Background matching and disruptive coloration are common strategies used by animals to increase concealment, whereas motion-dazzle may prevent capture after recognition. Studies have related background matching to habitat dependency and survival success, whereas for animals with highly contrasting patterns it has been shown that they are able to explore a broader range of habitats due to disruptive coloration, and possibly via motion-dazzle. However, the effects of these strategies are likely to be influenced by body size and to work better for smaller species. We applied phylogenetic comparative methods to test the hypothesis that smaller snapping shrimps (genus Alpheus) with high-contrast stripes would be able to utilize more microhabitats than non-striped and larger species. We used a published phylogeny of the American species of Alpheus, studies that have described alpheid microhabitats and size, and high-resolution photographs of each species in the phylogeny. Our categorical analysis suggested that generalist snapping shrimps are more likely to have stripes than specialist shrimps, and this effect was stronger in smaller species. Similarly, we found an interacting effect of body size and habitat use on the degree of luminance contrast: smaller generalist species had higher contrast values than average-sized and habitat-specialist species. Therefore, predators, body size and frequency of microhabitats are likely to have influenced the evolution of colour patterns in Alpheus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco A M Elias
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Avenida Esperança, Campus Samambaia, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Arthur Anker
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Avenida Esperança, Campus Samambaia, Goiânia, Goiás, Brazil
| | - Felipe M Gawryszewski
- Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Asa Norte, Campus Darcy Ribeiro, Brasília, Distrito Federal, Brazil
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8
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Protective Role of Leaf Variegation in Pittosporum tobira under Low Temperature: Insights into the Physio-Biochemical and Molecular Mechanisms. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20194857. [PMID: 31574927 PMCID: PMC6801658 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20194857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Leaf variegation has been demonstrated to have adaptive functions such as cold tolerance. Pittosporum tobira is an ornamental plant with natural leaf variegated cultivars grown in temperate regions. Herein, we investigated the role of leaf variegation in low temperature responses by comparing variegated “Variegatum” and non-variegated “Green Pittosporum” cultivars. We found that leaf variegation is associated with impaired chloroplast development in the yellow sector, reduced chlorophyll content, strong accumulation of carotenoids and high levels of ROS. However, the photosynthetic efficiency was not obviously impaired in the variegated leaves. Also, leaf variegation plays low temperature protective function since “Variegatum” displayed strong and efficient ROS-scavenging enzymatic systems to buffer cold (10 °C)-induced damages. Transcriptome analysis under cold conditions revealed 309 differentially expressed genes between both cultivars. Distinctly, the strong cold response observed in “Variegatum” was essentially attributed to the up-regulation of HSP70/90 genes involved in cellular homeostasis; up-regulation of POD genes responsible for cell detoxification and up-regulation of FAD2 genes and subsequent down-regulation of GDSL genes leading to high accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids for cell membrane fluidity. Overall, our results indicated that leaf variegation is associated with changes in physiological, biochemical and molecular components playing low temperature protective function in P. tobira.
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9
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Li G, Meng X, Zhu M, Li Z. Research Progress of Betalain in Response to Adverse Stresses and Evolutionary Relationship Compared with Anthocyanin. Molecules 2019; 24:E3078. [PMID: 31450587 PMCID: PMC6749444 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24173078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Betalains are applicable to many aspects of life, and their properties, characteristics, extraction and biosynthesis process have been thoroughly studied. Although betalains are functionally similar to anthocyanins and can substitute for them to provide pigments for plant color, it is rare to study the roles of betalains in plant responses to adverse environmental conditions. Owing to their antioxidant capability to remove excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) in plants and humans, betalains have attracted much attention due to their bioactivity. In addition, betalains can also act as osmotic substances to regulate osmotic pressure in plants and play important roles in plant responses to adverse environmental conditions. The study of the physiological evolution of betalains is almost complete but remains complicated because the evolutionary relationship between betalains and anthocyanins is still uncertain. In this review, to provide a reference for the in-depth study of betalains compared with anthocyanins, the biochemical properties, biosynthesis process and roles of betalains in response to environmental stress are reviewed, and the relationship between betalains and anthocyanins is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Li
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Key laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoqing Meng
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Key laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mingku Zhu
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Key laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Zongyun Li
- School of Life Science, Jiangsu Key laboratory of Phylogenomics & Comparative Genomics, Jiangsu Normal University, Xuzhou 221116, Jiangsu, China.
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10
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Shelef O, Summerfield L, Lev-Yadun S, Villamarin-Cortez S, Sadeh R, Herrmann I, Rachmilevitch S. Thermal Benefits From White Variegation of Silybum marianum Leaves. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:688. [PMID: 31178888 PMCID: PMC6543541 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Leaves of the spiny winter annual Silybum marianum express white patches (variegation) that can cover significant surface areas, the outcome of air spaces formed between the epidermis and the green chlorenchyma. We asked: (1) what characterizes the white patches in S. marianum and what differs them from green patches? (2) Do white patches differ from green patches in photosynthetic efficiency under lower temperatures? We predicted that the air spaces in white patches have physiological benefits, elevating photosynthetic rates under low temperatures. To test our hypotheses we used both a variegated wild type and entirely green mutants. We grew the plants under moderate temperatures (20°C/10°C d/n) and compared them to plants grown under lower temperatures (15°C/5°C d/n). The developed plants were exposed to different temperatures for 1 h and their photosynthetic activity was measured. In addition, we compared in green vs. white patches, the reflectance spectra, patch structure, chlorophyll and dehydrin content, stomatal structure, plant growth, and leaf temperature. White patches were not significantly different from green patches in their biochemistry and photosynthesis. However, under lower temperatures, variegated wild-type leaves were significantly warmer than all-green mutants - possible explanations for that are discussed These findings support our hypothesis, that white variegation of S. marianum leaves has a physiological role, elevating leaf temperature during cold winter days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oren Shelef
- Department of Natural Resources, Institute of Plant Sciences, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion, Israel
| | - Liron Summerfield
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
| | - Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology and Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa–Oranim, Tivon, Israel
| | | | - Roy Sadeh
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Ittai Herrmann
- The Robert H. Smith Institute of Plant Sciences and Genetics in Agriculture, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Shimon Rachmilevitch
- French Associates Institute for Agriculture and Biotechnology of Drylands, The Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
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11
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Affiliation(s)
- I. C. Cuthill
- School of Biological Sciences University of Bristol Bristol UK
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12
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Weller HI, Westneat MW. Quantitative color profiling of digital images with earth mover's distance using the R package colordistance. PeerJ 2019; 7:e6398. [PMID: 30775177 PMCID: PMC6371918 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.6398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological color may be adaptive or incidental, seasonal or permanent, species- or population-specific, or modified for breeding, defense or camouflage. Although color is a hugely informative aspect of biology, quantitative color comparisons are notoriously difficult. Color comparison is limited by categorization methods, with available tools requiring either subjective classifications, or expensive equipment, software, and expertise. We present an R package for processing images of organisms (or other objects) in order to quantify color profiles, gather color trait data, and compare color palettes on the basis of color similarity and amount. The package treats image pixels as 3D coordinates in a “color space,” producing a multidimensional color histogram for each image. Pairwise distances between histograms are computed using earth mover’s distance, a technique borrowed from computer vision, that compares histograms using transportation costs. Users choose a color space, parameters for generating color histograms, and a pairwise comparison method to produce a color distance matrix for a set of images. The package is intended as a more rigorous alternative to subjective, manual digital image analyses, not as a replacement for more advanced techniques that rely on detailed spectrophotometry methods unavailable to many users. Here, we outline the basic functions of colordistance, provide guidelines for the available color spaces and quantification methods, and compare this toolkit with other available methods. The tools presented for quantitative color analysis may be applied to a broad range of questions in biology and other disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah I Weller
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA.,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Brown University, Providence, RI, USA
| | - Mark W Westneat
- Department of Organismal Biology and Anatomy, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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13
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Ghosh S, Mishra M. Fine nanostructural variation in the wing pattern of a moth Chiasmia eleonora Cramer (1780). J Biosci 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12038-018-9793-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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14
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Xing S, Bonebrake TC, Ashton LA, Kitching RL, Cao M, Sun Z, Ho JC, Nakamura A. Colors of night: climate–morphology relationships of geometrid moths along spatial gradients in southwestern China. Oecologia 2018; 188:537-546. [DOI: 10.1007/s00442-018-4219-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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15
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Song B, Stöcklin J, Armbruster WS, Gao Y, Peng D, Sun H. Reversible colour change in leaves enhances pollinator attraction and reproductive success in Saururus chinensis (Saururaceae). ANNALS OF BOTANY 2018; 121:641-650. [PMID: 29325003 PMCID: PMC5853024 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcx195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Background and Aims Although there has been much experimental work on leaf colour change associated with selection generated by abiotic environmental factors and antagonists, the role of leaf colour change in pollinator attraction has been largely ignored. We tested whether whitening of the apical leaves subtending the inflorescences of Saururus chinensis during flowering enhances pollinator attraction, and whether re-greening of the white leaves after flowering increases carbon assimilation and promotes seed development. Methods White leaves were removed or covered, and the effects of these manipulations on pollinator visitation and subsequent reproductive success were assessed. The net photosynthetic rates of leaves of different colour were measured and their photosynthetic contributions to seed development were evaluated. Key Results Saururus chinensis is able to self-pollinate autonomously, but depends largely on flies for pollination. White leaves had different reflectance spectra from green leaves, and white leaves attracted significantly more pollinators and led to significantly higher fruit and seed set. Although leaf whitening resulted in a reduction in photosynthetic capacity, it translated into only a small decrease in seed mass. When leaves had turned back from white to green after flowering their photosynthetic capacity was similar to that of 'normal' green leaves and promoted seed development. Conclusions The reversible leaf colour change in S. chinensis appears to be adaptive because it enhances pollination success during flowering, with a small photosynthetic cost, while re-greening of these leaves after flowering helps to meet the carbon requirements for seed development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Song
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
| | - Jürg Stöcklin
- Institute of Botany, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - W Scott Armbruster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK
- Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Fairbanks, AK, USA
| | | | - Deli Peng
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
- School of Life Science, Yunnan Normal University, Yunnan, China
| | - Hang Sun
- Key Laboratory for Plant Diversity and Biogeography of East Asia, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Yunnan, China
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16
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Gibson DJ, Adamowicz SJ, Jacobs SR, Smith MA. Host Specificity in Subarctic Aphids. ENVIRONMENTAL ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 47:77-86. [PMID: 29186477 DOI: 10.1093/ee/nvx176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Plants and herbivorous (or parasitic) insects form the majority of macroscopic life. The specificity of interaction between host plant and parasitic insect depends on the adaptations of both the host and the parasite. Over time, these interactions evolve and change as a result of an 'arms race' between host and parasite, and the resulting species-specific adaptations may be maintained, perpetuating these interactions across speciation events. This can lead to specialisation between species or clades. With speciation and species sorting over time, complex interactions evolve. Here, we elucidate a three-tier method to test these interactions using the aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and plants of Churchill (Manitoba, Canada) as a model system. We analyzed these interactions by testing for three patterns in host specificity: monophagy, phylogenetic clustering, and cophylogeny. We defined monophagy strictly as one species feeding exclusively upon a single host plant species (an association likely driven by arms races in morphology, chemical resistance/tolerance, and visual appearance) and observed this in 7 of 22 aphid species. In all the remaining 'polyphagous' cases, there was a strong trend toward monophagy (80% of individuals were found on a single host plant species). Second, we observed two separate examples of phylogenetic clustering where groups of closely related aphid species fed upon individual plant species. Finally, we found no support for cophylogenetic relationships where both aphids and plants cospeciate to form congruent phylogenetic trees (evidence of coadaptation through an ongoing arms race). One explanation for uncovering species-specific interactions in a recently deglaciated, subarctic locality is that the species involved in the associations moved north together. Testing different levels of specificity in the most predominant species-species interactions on the planet will allow us to elucidate these patterns accurately and gives us insight into where to direct future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Gibson
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Churchill Northern Studies Centre, Manitoba, Canada
| | - Sarah J Adamowicz
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
- Biodiversity Institute of Ontario, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shoshanah R Jacobs
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - M Alex Smith
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
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17
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Liu K, Fadzly N, Mansor A, Zakaria R, Ruppert N, Lee CY. The dual defensive strategy of Amorphophallus throughout its ontogeny. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2017; 12:e1371890. [PMID: 28841358 PMCID: PMC5647962 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2017.1371890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Amorphophallus bufo is a rarely studied plant in Malaysian tropical rainforests. We measured the spectral reflectance of different developmental stages of A. bufo (seedlings, juveniles and adults), background soil/ debris and leaves from other neighboring plant species. Results show that the leaves of A. bufo seedling have a similar reflectance curve as the background soil and debris. Adults and juveniles of A. bufo are similar to other neighboring plants' leaf colors. We hypothesize that the cryptic coloration of A. bufo seedlings plays an important role in camouflage and that the numerous black spots on the surface of the petioles and rachises, may serve as a defensive mimicry against herbivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunpeng Liu
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nik Fadzly
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Asyraf Mansor
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
- Centre For Marine & Coastal Studies (CEMACS), Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rahmad Zakaria
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Nadine Ruppert
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Chow Yang Lee
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Penang, Malaysia
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Alcalde-Eon C, García-Estévez I, Rivas-Gonzalo JC, Rodríguez de la Cruz D, Escribano-Bailón MT. Anthocyanins of the anthers as chemotaxonomic markers in the genus Populus L.. Differentiation between Populus nigra, Populus alba and Populus tremula. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2016; 128:35-49. [PMID: 27179685 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 04/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Three main species of Popululs L. (Salicaceae) have been reported to occur in the Iberian Peninsula: Populus nigra L., Populus alba L. and Populus tremula L. The degree of pilosity of the bracts of the male catkins is a key character for their differentiation. The anthers of these poplar species possess anthocyanins that provide them a red colouration. Since these poplars are wind-pollinated and, consequently, do not need to attract pollinators, anthocyanins in the anthers might be acting as photoprotectors, shielding pollen grains from excessive sunlight. In order to verify this hypothesis, the first objective of this study was to establish if there is any relationship between the degree of pilosity of the bracts (related to the physical shading of the pollen grains) and the levels and types of anthocyanins in the anthers of these three species. This study also aimed to check the usefulness of the anthocyanins of the anthers as chemotaxonomic markers, through the study of the differences in the anthocyanin composition between these poplar species. Anthocyanins were identified from the data supplied by HPLC-DAD-MS(n) analyses. Seventeen different compounds, including mono-, di- and triglycosides and anthocyanin-derived pigments (F-A(+) dimers) have been identified. Cyanidin 3-O-glucoside was the major compound in all the samples (>60% of the total content), which may be in accordance with the photoprotective role proposed for them. However, qualitative and quantitative differences were detected among samples. Cyanidin and delphinidin 3-O-sambubiosides have been detected only in the anthers of P. tremula as well as cyanidin 3-O-(2″-O-xyloxyl)rutinoside, making them valuable chemotaxonomic markers for this species. Hierarchical Cluster and Principal Components Analyses (HCA and PCA) carried out with the anthocyanin percent composition data have allowed a separation of the samples that is in accordance with the initial classification of the samples made from the morphological characters of the specimens. Furthermore, these analyses have revealed intraspecific differences among samples that point out to different clones or varieties of a same species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Alcalde-Eon
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles, Unidad de Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Farmacia, University of Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, E 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Ignacio García-Estévez
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles, Unidad de Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Farmacia, University of Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, E 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
| | - Julián C Rivas-Gonzalo
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles, Unidad de Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Farmacia, University of Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, E 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
| | - David Rodríguez de la Cruz
- Departamento de Botánica, Facultad de Biología, University of Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, E 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
| | - María Teresa Escribano-Bailón
- Grupo de Investigación en Polifenoles, Unidad de Nutrición y Bromatología, Facultad de Farmacia, University of Salamanca, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, E 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
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Fadzly N, Zuharah WF, Mansor A, Zakaria R. Cryptic coloration of Macaranga bancana seedlings: A unique strategy for a pioneer species. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1197466. [PMID: 27315145 PMCID: PMC4991318 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1197466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/31/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Macaranga bancana is considered as a successful pioneer plant species. Usually found in disturbed and open areas, most of the current research focused on its relations with ants. One of the unique feature of the plants is that the seedling leaves are red, resembling and almost matching the background. Using a portable spectrometer, we measured the color reflectance of M. bancana seedlings (less than 20 cm in height). We also measured the leaf litter reflectance, adult M. bancana leaves and also seedlings of several other species found in the vicinity of M. bancana seedlings. The reflectances of M. bancana seedlings are very similar to that of the leaf litter background. We suggest that this cryptic coloration is crucial during the early stages of the plant when it still cannot rely on the protection of ants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nik Fadzly
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM Penang, Malaysia
- School of Life Sciences, Huxley Building, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Wan Fatma Zuharah
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM Penang, Malaysia
- School of Life Sciences, Huxley Building, Keele University, Keele, Staffordshire, United Kingdom
| | - Asyraf Mansor
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM Penang, Malaysia
| | - Rahmad Zakaria
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, USM Penang, Malaysia
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Lev-Yadun S. Plants are not sitting ducks waiting for herbivores to eat them. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2016; 11:e1179419. [PMID: 27136296 PMCID: PMC4973770 DOI: 10.1080/15592324.2016.1179419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2016] [Accepted: 04/13/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
There is a common attitude toward plants, accordingly, plants are waiting around to be found and eaten by herbivores. This common approach toward plants is a great underestimation of the huge and variable arsenal of defensive plant strategies. Plants do everything evolution has allowed them to do in order not to be eaten. Therefore, plants are not sitting ducks and many plants outsmart and even exploit many invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores and carnivores for pollination and for seed dispersal, and even carnivores and parasitoids for defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon, Israel
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Kavanagh PH, Shaw RC, Burns KC. Potential aposematism in an insular tree species: are signals dishonest early in ontogeny? Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2016. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrick H. Kavanagh
- School of Biological Sciences; Victoria University of Wellington; P.O. Box 600 Wellington New Zealand
- Department of Human Dimensions of Natural Resources; Colorado State University; Fort Collins CO 80523 USA
| | - Rachael C. Shaw
- School of Biological Sciences; Victoria University of Wellington; P.O. Box 600 Wellington New Zealand
| | - Kevin C. Burns
- School of Biological Sciences; Victoria University of Wellington; P.O. Box 600 Wellington New Zealand
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Carpenter KL, Keidel TS, Pihl MC, Hughes NM. Support for a photoprotective function of winter leaf reddening in nitrogen-deficient individuals of Lonicera japonica. Molecules 2014; 19:17810-28. [PMID: 25372396 PMCID: PMC6271606 DOI: 10.3390/molecules191117810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Plants growing in high-light environments during winter often exhibit leaf reddening due to synthesis of anthocyanin pigments, which are thought to alleviate photooxidative stress associated with low-temperature photoinhibition through light attenuation and/or antioxidant activity. Seasonal high-light stress can be further exacerbated by a limited photosynthetic capacity, such as nitrogen-deficiency. In the present study, we test the following hypotheses using three populations of the semi-evergreen vine Lonicera japonica: (1) nitrogen deficiency corresponds with reduced photosynthetic capacity; (2) individuals with reduced photosynthetic capacity synthesize anthocyanin pigments in leaves during winter; and (3) anthocyanin pigments help alleviate high-light stress by attenuating green light. All populations featured co-occurring winter-green and winter-red leafed individuals on fully-exposed (high-light), south-facing slopes in the Piedmont of North Carolina, USA. Consistent with our hypotheses, red leaves consistently exhibited significantly lower foliar nitrogen than green leaves, as well as lower total chlorophyll, quantum yield efficiency, carboxylation efficiency, and photosynthesis at saturating irradiance (Asat). Light-response curves measured using ambient sunlight versus red-blue LED (i.e., lacking green wavelengths) demonstrated significantly reduced quantum yield efficiency and a higher light compensation point under sunlight relative to red-blue LED in red leaves, but not in green leaves, consistent with a (green) light-attenuating function of anthocyanin pigments. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that intraspecific anthocyanin synthesis corresponds with nitrogen deficiency and reduced photosynthetic capacity within populations, and support a light-attenuating function of anthocyanin pigments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaylyn L Carpenter
- Department of Biology, High Point University, University Station 3591, High Point, NC 27262, USA
| | - Timothy S Keidel
- Department of Biology, High Point University, University Station 3591, High Point, NC 27262, USA
| | - Melissa C Pihl
- Department of Biology, High Point University, University Station 3591, High Point, NC 27262, USA
| | - Nicole M Hughes
- Department of Biology, High Point University, University Station 3591, High Point, NC 27262, USA.
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Hughes NM, Carpenter KL, Keidel TS, Miller CN, Waters MN, Smith WK. Photosynthetic costs and benefits of abaxial versus adaxial anthocyanins in Colocasia esculenta 'Mojito'. PLANTA 2014; 240:971-81. [PMID: 24903360 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-014-2090-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 04/28/2014] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanins in upper (adaxial) leaf tissues provide greater photoprotection than in lower (abaxial) tissues, but also predispose tissues to increased shade acclimation and, consequently, reduced photosynthetic capacity. Abaxial anthocyanins may be a compromise between these costs/benefits. Plants adapted to shaded understory environments often exhibit red/purple anthocyanin pigmentation in lower (abaxial) leaf surfaces, but rarely in upper (adaxial) surfaces. The functional significance of this color pattern in leaves is poorly understood. Here, we test the hypothesis that abaxial anthocyanins protect leaves of understory plants from photo-oxidative stress via light attenuation during periodic exposure to high incident sunlight in the forest understory, without interfering with sunlight capture and photosynthesis during shade conditions. We utilize a cultivar of Colocasia esculenta exhibiting adaxial and abaxial anthocyanin variegation within individual leaves to compare tissues with the following color patterns: green adaxial, green abaxial (GG), green adaxial, red abaxial (GR), red adaxial, green abaxial (RG), and red adaxial, red abaxial (RR). Consistent with a photoprotective function of anthocyanins, tissues exhibited symptoms of increasing photoinhibition in the order (from least to greatest): RR, RG, GR, GG. Anthocyanic tissues also showed symptoms of shade acclimation (higher total chl, lower chl a/b) in the same relative order. Inconsistent with our hypothesis, we did not observe any differences in photosynthetic CO2 uptake under shade conditions between the tissue types. However, GG and GR had significantly (39 %) higher photosynthesis at saturating irradiance (A sat) than RG and RR. Because tissue types did not differ in nitrogen content, these patterns likely reflect differences in resource allocation at the tissue level, with greater nitrogen allocated toward energy processing in GG and GR, and energy capture in RG and RR (consistent with relative sun/shade acclimation). We conclude that abaxial anthocyanins are likely advantageous in understory environments because they provide some photoprotection during high-light exposure, but without the cost of decreased A sat associated with adaxial anthocyanin-induced shade syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Hughes
- Department of Biology, High Point University, University Station 3591, High Point, NC, 27262, USA,
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Early shoot growth termination in Betula pendula is associated with the number of overwintering aphid eggs on boreal birches. Evol Ecol 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-014-9741-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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26
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Strauss SY, Cacho NI. Nowhere to Run, Nowhere to Hide: The Importance of Enemies and Apparency in Adaptation to Harsh Soil Environments. Am Nat 2013; 182:E1-14. [DOI: 10.1086/670754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Lev-Yadun S, Ne'eman G. Bimodal colour pattern of individualPinus halepensis Mill. seeds: a new type of crypsis. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2013. [DOI: 10.1111/bij.12047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment; Faculty of Natural Sciences; University of Haifa - Oranim; Tivon 36006 Israel
| | - Gidi Ne'eman
- Department of Biology & Environment; Faculty of Natural Sciences; University of Haifa - Oranim; Tivon 36006 Israel
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Lev-Yadun S, Keasar T. Prerequisites for evolution: variation and selection in yellow autumn birch leaves. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 195:282-284. [PMID: 22702405 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04186.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
- (Author for correspondence: tel +972 4 983 8827; )
| | - Tamar Keasar
- Department of Biology & Environment, Faculty of Natural Sciences, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
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Sinkkonen A, Somerkoski E, Paaso U, Holopainen JK, Rousi M, Mikola J. Genotypic variation in yellow autumn leaf colours explains aphid load in silver birch. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2012; 195:461-469. [PMID: 22548444 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04156.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
• It has been suggested that autumn-migrating insects drive the evolution of autumn leaf colours. However, evidence of genetic variation in autumn leaf colours in natural tree populations and the link between the genetic variation and herbivore abundances has been lacking. • Here, we measured the size of the whole aphid community and the development of green-yellow leaf colours in six replicate trees of 19 silver birch (Betula pendula) genotypes at the beginning, in the middle and at the end of autumn colouration. We also calculated the difference between green leaf and leaf litter nitrogen (N) and estimated the changes in phloem sap N loading. • Autumn leaf colouration had significant genetic variation. During the last survey, genotypes that expressed the strongest leaf reflectance 2-4 wk earlier had an abundance of egg-laying Euceraphis betulae females. Surprisingly, the aphid community size during the first surveys explained N loss by the litter of different birch genotypes. • Our results are the first evidence at the tree intrapopulation genotypic level that autumn-migrating pests have the potential to drive the evolution of autumn leaf colours. They also stress the importance of recognizing the role of late-season tree-insect interactions in the evolution of herbivory resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Sinkkonen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Niemenkatu 73, FIN-15140 Lahti, Finland
| | - Eeva Somerkoski
- University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Niemenkatu 73, FIN-15140 Lahti, Finland
| | - Ulla Paaso
- University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Niemenkatu 73, FIN-15140 Lahti, Finland
| | - Jarmo K Holopainen
- University of Eastern Finland, Department of Environmental Science, PO Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Matti Rousi
- Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research Unit, PO Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland
| | - Juha Mikola
- University of Helsinki, Department of Environmental Sciences, Niemenkatu 73, FIN-15140 Lahti, Finland
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La Rocca N, Rascio N, Pupillo P. Variegation in Arum italicum leaves. A structural-functional study. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2011; 49:1392-1398. [PMID: 22078376 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2011.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2011] [Accepted: 09/14/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The presence of pale-green flecks on leaves (speckling) is a frequent character among herbaceous species from shady places and is usually due to local loosening of palisade tissue (air space type of variegation). In the winter-green Arum italicum L. (Araceae), dark-green areas of variegated leaf blades are ca. 400 μm thick with a chlorophyll content of 1080 mg m⁻² and a palisade parenchyma consisting of a double layer of oblong cells. Pale-green areas are 25% thinner, have 26% less chlorophyll and contain a single, loose layer of short palisade cells. Full-green leaves generally present only one compact layer of cylindrical palisade cells and the same pigment content as dark-green sectors, but the leaf blade is 13% thinner. A spongy parenchyma with extensive air space is present in all leaf types. Green cells of all tissues have normal chloroplasts. Assays of photosynthetic activities by chlorophyll fluorescence imaging and O₂ exchange measurements showed that variegated pale-green and dark-green sectors as well as full-green leaves have comparable photosynthetic activities on a leaf area basis at saturating illumination. However, full-green leaves require a higher saturating light with respect to variegated sectors, and pale-green sectors support relatively higher photosynthesis rates on a chlorophyll basis. We conclude that i) variegation in this species depends on number and organization of palisade cell layers and can be defined as a "variable palisade" type, and ii) the variegated habit has no limiting effects on the photosynthetic energy budget of A. italicum, consistent with the presence of variegated plants side by side to full-green ones in natural populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicoletta La Rocca
- Department of Biology, University of Padova, Via U. Bassi, 58/B, 35131 Padova, Italy.
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Gerchman Y, Dodek I, Petichov R, Yerushalmi Y, Lerner A, Keasar T. Beyond pollinator attraction: extra-floral displays deter herbivores in a Mediterranean annual plant. Evol Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/s10682-011-9509-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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Lev-Yadun S. The shared and separate roles of aposematic (warning) coloration and the co-evolution hypothesis in defending autumn leaves. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2010; 5:937-939. [PMID: 20495371 PMCID: PMC3115166 DOI: 10.4161/psb.5.8.12034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The potential anti-herbivory functions of colorful (red and yellow) autumn leaves received considerable attention in the last decade. The most studied and discussed is the co-evolutionary hypothesis, according to which autumn coloration signals the quality of defense to insects that migrate to the trees in autumn. In addition to classic aposematism (repellency due to signaling unpalatability, non profitability of consumption, or danger for whatever reasons) that operates immediately, this hypothesis also proposes that the reduced fitness of the insects is in their next generation hatching in the spring from eggs laid on the trees in autumn. Supporters of the co-evolutionary hypothesis either posited that this hypothesis differs from visual aposematism or ignored the issue of aposematism. Interestingly, other authors that cited their papers considered the co-evolutionary hypothesis as visual aposematism. Recently, the overlap between the co-evolutionary hypothesis and visual aposematism was finally recognized, with the exception of yellow autumn leaves not signaling defense to aphids, which are known to be attracted to yellow leaves. However, the detailed relationships between these two hypotheses have not been discussed yet. Here I propose that the co-evolutionary hypothesis generally equals visual aposematism in red and yellow autumn leaves towards all herbivores except for yellow not operating with aphids. The co-evolutionary signaling extends beyond classic aposematism because it may operate later and not only immediately. The possibility that for yellow autumn leaves the co-evolutionary hypothesis may also operate via olfactory aposematism should not be dismissed.
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Abbott KR. Background evolution in camouflage systems: A predator–prey/pollinator-flower game. J Theor Biol 2010; 262:662-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 08/22/2009] [Accepted: 09/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Lev-Yadun S, Ne'eman G, Izhaki I. Unripe red fruits may be aposematic. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2009; 4:836-841. [PMID: 19847110 PMCID: PMC2802811 DOI: 10.4161/psb.4.9.9573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2009] [Accepted: 07/21/2009] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The unripe fruits of certain species are red. Some of these species disperse their seeds by wind (Nerium oleander, Anabasis articulata), others by adhering to animals with their spines (Emex spinosa) or prickles (Hedysarum spinosissimum). Certainly neither type uses red coloration as advertisement to attract the seed dispersing agents. Fleshy-fruited species (Rhamnus alaternus, Rubus sanguineus and Pistacia sp.), which disperse their seeds via frugivores, change fruit color from green to red while still unripe and then to black or dark blue upon ripening. The red color does not seem to function primarily in dispersal (unless red fruits form advertisement flags when there are already black ripe fruits on the plant) because the red unripe fruits of these species are poisonous, spiny, or unpalatable. The unripe red fruits of Nerium oleander are very poisonous, those of Rhamnus alaternus and Anabasis articulata are moderately poisonous, those of Rubus sanguineus are very sour, those of Pistacia sp. contain unpalatable resin and those of Emex spinosa and Hedysarum spinosissimum are prickly. We propose that these unripe red fruits are aposematic, protecting them from herbivory before seed maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Science Education-Biology, Faculty of Science and Science Education, University of Haifa-Oranim, Tivon, Israel.
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Steyn WJ, Wand SJE, Jacobs G, Rosecrance RC, Roberts SC. Evidence for a photoprotective function of low-temperature-induced anthocyanin accumulation in apple and pear peel. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2009; 136:461-72. [PMID: 19493306 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2009.01246.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The light requirement and low-temperature stimulation of anthocyanin synthesis in peel of apple (Malus domestica) and pears (Pyrus communis) and the presence of anthocyanins in immature fruits are not congruent with a visual function in dispersal. We hypothesized that anthocyanins afford photoprotection to peel during low-temperature-induced light stress and that the protection is not a fortuitous side-effect of light absorption by anthocyanin. The extent of photoinhibition at harvest and after light stress treatment in pear cultivars differing in redness decreased with increasing red color on the sun-exposed sides of fruits. Green-shaded sides of the pears showed comparable levels of photoinhibition indicating that pears did not differ in their inherent photosensitivity. Apple and pear peel show considerable short-term fluctuation in redness in response to temperature, with red color increasing rapidly in response to low temperature and just as quickly fading in response to high temperature. Briefly, shading pears and apples during cold conditions for 2 days reduced the accumulation of anthocyanin and increased the photosensitivity of peel. Subsequent shading during warm conditions did not affect the accumulation of anthocyanin or the photosensitivity of peel indicating that the response at low temperature was not due to shade adaptation. The assessment of photosystem II (PSII) efficiency and quenching of chlorophyll fluorescence between 16 and 40 degrees C indicated that 'Forelle' pear peel was particularly sensitive to photostress at low temperature. The photosynthetic system in mature 'Forelle' leaves was comparatively much less sensitive to light stress at low temperature. Results support the view that anthocyanins are adaptable light screens deployed to modulate light absorption in sensitive tissues such as fruit peel in response to environmental triggers such as cold front snaps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem J Steyn
- Department of Horticultural Science, University of Stellenbosch, Matieland, South Africa.
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Lev-Yadun S, Holopainen JK. Why red-dominated autumn leaves in America and yellow-dominated autumn leaves in Northern Europe? THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2009; 183:506-512. [PMID: 19515224 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02904.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Simcha Lev-Yadun
- Department of Science Education - Biology, Faculty of Science and Science Education, University of Haifa - Oranim, Tivon 36006, Israel
| | - Jarmo K Holopainen
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Kuopio, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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Martin Schaefer H, Schaefer V, Vorobyev M. Are fruit colors adapted to consumer vision and birds equally efficient in detecting colorful signals? Am Nat 2009; 169 Suppl 1:S159-69. [PMID: 19426090 DOI: 10.1086/510097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Reproduction in plants often requires animal vectors. Fruit and flower colors are traditionally viewed as an adaptation to facilitate detection for pollinators and seed dispersers. This longstanding hypothesis predicts that fruits are easier to detect against their own leaves compared with those of different species. We tested this hypothesis by analyzing the chromatic contrasts between 130 bird-dispersed fruits and their respective backgrounds according to avian vision. From a bird's view, fruits are not more contrasting to their own background than to those of other plant species. Fruit colors are therefore not adapted toward maximized conspicuousness for avian seed dispersers. However, secondary structures associated with fruit displays increase their contrasts. We used fruit colors to assess whether the ultraviolet and violet types of avian visual systems are equally efficient in detecting color signals. In bright light, the chromatic contrasts between fruit and background are stronger for ultraviolet vision. This advantage is due to the lesser overlap in spectral sensitivities of the blue and ultraviolet cones, which disappears in dim light conditions. We suggest that passerines with ultraviolet cones might primarily use epigamic signals that are less conspicuous to their avian predators (presumably with violet vision). Possible examples for such signals are carotenoid-based signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Martin Schaefer
- Institute of Biology 1, Albert Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg, Hauptstrasse 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany.
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Snell‐Rood E, Papaj D. Patterns of Phenotypic Plasticity in Common and Rare Environments: A Study of Host Use and Color Learning in the Cabbage White ButterflyPieris rapae. Am Nat 2009; 173:615-31. [DOI: 10.1086/597609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Archetti M, Döring TF, Hagen SB, Hughes NM, Leather SR, Lee DW, Lev-Yadun S, Manetas Y, Ougham HJ, Schaberg PG, Thomas H. Unravelling the evolution of autumn colours: an interdisciplinary approach. Trends Ecol Evol 2009; 24:166-73. [PMID: 19178979 DOI: 10.1016/j.tree.2008.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2008] [Revised: 10/16/2008] [Accepted: 10/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Leaf colour change is commonly observed in temperate deciduous forests in autumn. This is not simply a side effect of leaf senescence, and, in the past decade, several hypotheses have emerged to explain the evolution of autumn colours. Yet a lack of crosstalk between plant physiologists and evolutionary ecologists has resulted in slow progress, and so the adaptive value of this colour change remains a mystery. Here we provide an interdisciplinary summary of the current body of knowledge on autumn colours, and discuss unresolved issues and future avenues of research that might help reveal the evolutionary meaning of this spectacle of nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Archetti
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, UK.
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Holopainen JK. Importance of olfactory and visual signals of autumn leaves in the coevolution of aphids and trees. Bioessays 2008; 30:889-96. [PMID: 18693267 DOI: 10.1002/bies.20796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Deciduous trees remobilize the nitrogen in senescing leaves during the process of autumn colouration, which in many species is associated with increased concentrations of anthocyanins. Archetti and Hamilton and Brown observed that autumn colouration is stronger in tree species facing a high diversity of specialist aphids. They proposed a coevolution theory that the bright colours in autumn might provide an honest signal of defence commitment, thus deterring migrant aphids from settling on the leaves. So far, there have been very few experimental results to support the hypothesis, and tree commitment to phenolics-based defences has not shown direct protection against aphids. Predators and parasitoids have been found to be the major controllers of arboreal aphids. Indirect defences involve the emission of attractive volatile compounds that enhance the effectiveness of carnivorous enemies. The indirect defence hypothesis is presented to explain low aphid diversity on tree species that are green during autumn. The hypothesis suggests that green foliage can continue to produce herbivore-inducible plant volatiles and maintain volatile-based indirect plant defences against aphids until leaf abscission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jarmo K Holopainen
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Kuopio, P.O. Box 1627, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
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Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Physiological data suggest that autumn leaf colours of deciduous trees are adaptations to environmental stress. Recently, the evolution of autumn colouration has been linked to tree condition and defence. Most current hypotheses presume that autumn colours vary between tree individuals. This study was designed to test if within-tree variation should be taken into account in experimental and theoretical research on autumn colouration. METHODS Distribution of red autumn leaf colours was compared between partially dead and vigorous specimens of Norway maple (Acer platanoides) in a 3-year study. In August, the amount of reddish foliage was estimated in pairs of partially dead and control trees. Within-tree variation in the distribution of reddish leaves was evaluated. Leaf nitrogen and carbon concentrations were analysed. KEY RESULTS Reddish leaf colours were more frequent in partially dead trees than in control trees. Reddish leaves were evenly distributed in control trees, while patchiness of red leaf pigments was pronounced in partially dead trees. Large patches of red leaves were found beneath or next to dead tree parts. These patches reoccurred every year. Leaf nitrogen concentration was lower in reddish than in green leaves but the phenomenon seemed similar in both partially dead and control trees. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that red leaf colouration and branch condition are interrelated in Norway maple. Early reddish colours may be used as an indication of leaf nitrogen and carbon levels but not as an indication of tree condition. Studies that concentrate on entire trees may not operate at an optimal level to detect the evolutionary mechanisms behind autumnal leaf colour variation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aki Sinkkonen
- University of Helsinki, Department of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Niemenkatu 73, 15140 Lahti, Finland.
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Abstract
As the most visible role of anthocyanins is to impart colors, the adaptive significance of anthocyanins in plant reproductive organs is invariably attributed to the attraction of seed dispersers and pollinators. However, few studies suggested that anthocyanins in vegetative tissue might also function in plant defence, although the evidence for such a function is not particularly strong. Here, we investigated whether anthocyanins contribute to fruit defence against fruit-rot fungi. We found that the risk of fruit-rot in grape varieties infected with Botrytis cinerea decreased with increasing anthocyanin contents. Moreover, anthocyanin contents directly inhibited growth rates of nine fruit-rot fungi on agar plates. Anthocyanins reduced fungal growth by 50% in the concentrations that typically characterise unripe blackberries and by 95% in the concentrations that typify ripe blackberries. We conclude that anthocyanins in fruits not only function to attract animal vectors, but that they also contribute to fruit defence. The antifungal activity of anthocyanins might more widely explain their occurrence in various plant organs such as vegetative tissue and roots.
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Affiliation(s)
- H. Martin Schaefer
- Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, Department of Evolutionary Biology and Animal Ecology, Hauptstr. 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Rentzsch
- Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institut für Lebensmittelchemie, Schleinitzstr. 20, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Breuer
- Department Ecology, State Institute for Viticulture and Enology, Merzhauser Str. 119, 79100 Freiburg, Germany
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Hughes NM, Vogelmann TC, Smith WK. Optical effects of abaxial anthocyanin on absorption of red wavelengths by understorey species: revisiting the back-scatter hypothesis. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2008; 59:3435-42. [PMID: 18653695 PMCID: PMC2529231 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2008] [Revised: 06/17/2008] [Accepted: 06/30/2008] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
A red/purple coloration of lower (abaxial) leaf surfaces is commonly observed in deeply-shaded understorey plants, especially in the tropics. However, the functional significance of red abaxial coloration, including its role in photosynthetic adaptation, remains unclear. The objective of this study was to test the back-scatter hypothesis for abaxial leaf coloration, which posits that red pigments internally reflect/scatter red light transmitted by the upper leaf surface back into the mesophyll, thereby enhancing photon capture in light-limited environments. Abaxially red/non-red variegated leaves of Begonia heracleifolia (Cham. & Schltdl.) were used to compare reflectance spectra and chlorophyll fluorescence profiles of abaxially anthocyanic (red) and acyanic (non-red) tissues under red light. Photosynthetic gas exchange in response to red light was also compared for abaxially red/non-red leaf sections. The results did not support a back-scattering function, as anthocyanic leaf surfaces were not more reflective of red light than acyanic surfaces. Anthocyanic tissues also did not exhibit any increases in the mesophyll absorbance of red light, or increased photosynthetic gas exchange under red light at any intensity, relative to acyanic tissues. These results suggest that abaxial anthocyanins do not significantly enhance the absorption of red light in the species tested, and alternative functions are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole M Hughes
- Department of Biology, Wake Forest University, 136 Winston Hall, Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27106, USA.
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Hatier JHB, Gould KS. Foliar anthocyanins as modulators of stress signals. J Theor Biol 2008; 253:625-7. [PMID: 18514229 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2008.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2008] [Revised: 04/15/2008] [Accepted: 04/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Autumn leaf colouration: a new hypothesis involving plant–ant mutualism via aphids. Naturwissenschaften 2008; 95:671-6. [DOI: 10.1007/s00114-008-0366-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2007] [Revised: 01/14/2008] [Accepted: 02/15/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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