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Ghadin N, Yusof NAM, Syarul Nataqain B, Raston NHA, Low CF. Selection and characterization of ssDNA aptamer targeting Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus capsid protein: A potential capture agent in gold-nanoparticle-based aptasensor for viral protein detection. JOURNAL OF FISH DISEASES 2024; 47:e13892. [PMID: 38014615 DOI: 10.1111/jfd.13892] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
The giant freshwater prawn holds a significant position as a valuable crustacean species cultivated in the aquaculture industry, particularly well-known and demanded among the Southeast Asian countries. Aquaculture production of this species has been impacted by Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) infection, which particularly affects the larvae and post-larvae stages of the prawn. The infection has been recorded to cause mortality rates of up to 100% among the affected prawns. A simple, fast, and easy to deploy on-site detection or diagnostic method is crucial for early detection of MrNV to control the disease outbreak. In the present study, novel single-stranded DNA aptamers targeting the MrNV capsid protein were identified using the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) approach. The aptamer was then conjugated with the citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and the sensitivity of this AuNP-based aptasensor for the detection of MrNV capsid protein was evaluated. Findings revealed that the aptamer candidate, APT-MrNV-CP-1 was enriched throughout the SELEX cycle 4, 9, and 12 with the sequence percentage of 1.76%, 9.09%, and 12.42%, respectively. The conjugation of APT-MrNV-CP-1 with citrate-capped AuNPs exhibited the highest sensitivity in detecting the MrNV capsid protein, where the presence of 62.5 nM of the viral capsid protein led to a significant agglomeration of the AuNPs. This study demonstrated the practicality of an AuNP-based aptasensor for disease diagnosis, particularly for detecting MrNV infection in giant freshwater prawns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norazli Ghadin
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nur Afiqah Md Yusof
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Nurul Hanun Ahmad Raston
- Department of Biological Sciences and Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chen Fei Low
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
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Alenton RRR, Mai HN, Dhar AK. Engineering a replication-incompetent viral vector for the delivery of therapeutic RNA in crustaceans. PNAS NEXUS 2023; 2:pgad278. [PMID: 37693213 PMCID: PMC10485883 DOI: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgad278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Viral disease pandemics are a major cause of economic losses in crustacean farming worldwide. While RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapeutics have shown promise at a laboratory scale, without an effective oral delivery platform, RNA-based therapy will not reach its potential against controlling viral diseases in crustaceans. Using a reverse-engineered shrimp RNA virus, Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV), we have developed a shrimp viral vector for delivering an engineered RNA cargo. By replacing the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) protein-coding region of MrNV with a cargo RNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) as a proof-of-concept, we generated a replication-incompetent mutant MrNV(ΔRdRp) carrying the GFP RNA cargo resulting in MrNV(ΔRdRp)-GFP. Upon incorporating MrNV(ΔRdRp)-GFP in the diet of the marine Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei), MrNV(ΔRdRp) particles were visualized in hemocytes demonstrating successful vector internalization. Fluorescence imaging of hemocytes showed the expression of GFP protein and the MrNV capsid RNA (RNA2) as well as the incorporated GFP RNA cargo. Detection of cargo RNA in hepatopancreas and pleopods indicated the systemic spread of the viral vector. The quantitative load of both the MrNV RNA2 and GFP RNA progressively diminished within 8 days postadministration of the viral vector, which indicated a lack of MrNV(ΔRdRp)-GFP replication in shrimp. In addition, no pathological hallmarks of the wild-type MrNV infection were detected using histopathology in the target tissue of treated shrimp. The data unequivocally demonstrated the successful engineering of a replication-incompetent viral vector for RNA delivery, paving the way for the oral delivery of antiviral therapeutics in farmed crustaceans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rod Russel R Alenton
- Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory, School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Hung N Mai
- Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory, School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Arun K Dhar
- Aquaculture Pathology Laboratory, School of Animal and Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
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Tan JS, Jaffar Ali MNB, Gan BK, Tan WS. Next-generation viral nanoparticles for targeted delivery of therapeutics: Fundamentals, methods, biomedical applications, and challenges. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2023; 20:955-978. [PMID: 37339432 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2023.2228202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/22/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Viral nanoparticles (VNPs) are virus-based nanocarriers that have been studied extensively and intensively for biomedical applications. However, their clinical translation is relatively low compared to the predominating lipid-based nanoparticles. Therefore, this article describes the fundamentals, challenges, and solutions of the VNP-based platform, which will leverage the development of next-generation VNPs. AREAS COVERED Different types of VNPs and their biomedical applications are reviewed comprehensively. Strategies and approaches for cargo loading and targeted delivery of VNPs are examined thoroughly. The latest developments in controlled release of cargoes from VNPs and their mechanisms are highlighted too. The challenges faced by VNPs in biomedical applications are identified, and solutions are provided to overcome them. EXPERT OPINION In the development of next-generation VNPs for gene therapy, bioimaging and therapeutic deliveries, focus must be given to reduce their immunogenicity, and increase their stability in the circulatory system. Modular virus-like particles (VLPs) which are produced separately from their cargoes or ligands before all the components are coupled can speed up clinical trials and commercialization. In addition, removal of contaminants from VNPs, cargo delivery across the blood brain barrier (BBB), and targeting of VNPs to organelles intracellularly are challenges that will preoccupy researchers in this decade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Sen Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Muhamad Norizwan Bin Jaffar Ali
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Bee Koon Gan
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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Kumar K, Tan WS, Arshad SS, Ho KL. Virus-like Particles of Nodavirus Displaying the Receptor Binding Domain of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein: A Potential VLP-Based COVID-19 Vaccine. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054398. [PMID: 36901827 PMCID: PMC10001971 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2022] [Revised: 02/06/2023] [Accepted: 02/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), various vaccines have been developed for emergency use. The efficacy of the initial vaccines based on the ancestral strain of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a point of contention due to the emergence of new variants of concern (VOCs). Therefore, continuous innovation of new vaccines is required to target upcoming VOCs. The receptor binding domain (RBD) of the virus spike (S) glycoprotein has been extensively used in vaccine development due to its role in host cell attachment and penetration. In this study, the RBDs of the Beta (β) and Delta (δ) variants were fused to the truncated Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus capsid protein without the protruding domain (CΔ116-MrNV-CP). Immunization of BALB/c mice with the virus-like particles (VLPs) self-assembled from the recombinant CP showed that, with AddaVax as an adjuvant, a significantly high level of humoral response was elicited. Specifically, mice injected with equimolar of adjuvanted CΔ116-MrNV-CP fused with the RBD of the β- and δ-variants increased T helper (Th) cell production with a CD8+/CD4+ ratio of 0.42. This formulation also induced proliferation of macrophages and lymphocytes. Overall, this study demonstrated that the nodavirus truncated CP fused with the SARS-CoV-2 RBD has potential to be developed as a VLP-based COVID-19 vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiven Kumar
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Siti Suri Arshad
- Department of Veterinary Pathology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-9769-2729
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Hajebi S, Yousefiasl S, Rahimmanesh I, Dahim A, Ahmadi S, Kadumudi FB, Rahgozar N, Amani S, Kumar A, Kamrani E, Rabiee M, Borzacchiello A, Wang X, Rabiee N, Dolatshahi-Pirouz A, Makvandi P. Genetically Engineered Viral Vectors and Organic-Based Non-Viral Nanocarriers for Drug Delivery Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2201583. [PMID: 35916145 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202201583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Conventional drug delivery systems are challenged by concerns related to systemic toxicity, repetitive doses, drug concentrations fluctuation, and adverse effects. Various drug delivery systems are developed to overcome these limitations. Nanomaterials are employed in a variety of biomedical applications such as therapeutics delivery, cancer therapy, and tissue engineering. Physiochemical nanoparticle assembly techniques involve the application of solvents and potentially harmful chemicals, commonly at high temperatures. Genetically engineered organisms have the potential to be used as promising candidates for greener, efficient, and more adaptable platforms for the synthesis and assembly of nanomaterials. Genetically engineered carriers are precisely designed and constructed in shape and size, enabling precise control over drug attachment sites. The high accuracy of these novel advanced materials, biocompatibility, and stimuli-responsiveness, elucidate their emerging application in controlled drug delivery. The current article represents the research progress in developing various genetically engineered carriers. Organic-based nanoparticles including cellulose, collagen, silk-like polymers, elastin-like protein, silk-elastin-like protein, and inorganic-based nanoparticles are discussed in detail. Afterward, viral-based carriers are classified, and their potential for targeted therapeutics delivery is highlighted. Finally, the challenges and prospects of these delivery systems are concluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh Hajebi
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, 51335-1996, Iran
- Institute of Polymeric Materials, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, 51335-1996, Iran
| | - Satar Yousefiasl
- School of Dentistry, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, 6517838736, Iran
| | - Ilnaz Rahimmanesh
- Applied Physiology Research Center, Isfahan Cardiovascular Research Institute, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences, Isfahan, 8174673461, Iran
| | - Alireza Dahim
- Department of Anesthesia, Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahvaz, 61357-15794, Iran
| | - Sepideh Ahmadi
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Zabol, Sistan and Baluchestan, Zabol, 98613-35856, Iran
| | - Firoz Babu Kadumudi
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark
| | - Nikta Rahgozar
- Department of Chemistry, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, 15875-4413, Iran
| | - Sanaz Amani
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Sahand University of Technology, Tabriz, 51335-1996, Iran
| | - Arun Kumar
- Chitkara College of Pharmacy, Chitkara University, Himachal Pradesh, 174 103, India
| | - Ehsan Kamrani
- Harvard-MIT Health Science and Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Mohammad Rabiee
- Biomaterials Group, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, 15875-4413, Iran
| | - Assunta Borzacchiello
- Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials, National Research Council, IPCB-CNR, Naples, 80125, Italy
| | - Xiangdong Wang
- Department of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University Shanghai Medical College, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Navid Rabiee
- School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology (POSTECH), 77 Cheongam-ro, Nam-gu, Pohang, Gyeongbuk, 37673, South Korea
| | | | - Pooyan Makvandi
- Centre for Materials Interfaces, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Pontedera, Pisa, 56025, Italy
- The Quzhou Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Quzhou People's Hospital, Quzhou, Zhejiang, 324000, China
- School of Chemistry, Damghan University, Damghan, 36716-41167, Iran
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Weerachatyanukul W, Pooljun C, Hirono I, Kondo H, Chotwiwatthanakun C, Jariyapong P. Infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus-like particle (IHHNV-VLP) induces peroxiredoxin expression and activity in Fenneropenaeus merguiensis. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2022; 121:53-61. [PMID: 34922018 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2021.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Virus like particles (VLPs) are non-infectious nanoparticles containing repetitive, high density viral epitopes on the surface and can prevent viral infections in aquatic animals. Here, we evaluated the immuno-stimulation effect of infectious hypodermal and hematopoietic necrosis virus like particle (IHHNV-VLP) using a next generation sequencing in Fenneropenaeus merguiensis to identify the important immune-related genes that may prevent viral infection. The in situ target of IHHNV was predominantly found in gill tissue following IHHNV-VLP administration in juvenile shrimp. Comparative transcriptome analysis in the injected gills showed that there were 326 unigenes expressed differently than the mock-injected samples. One of the most differential genes between the two animal groups was the antioxidative gene, peroxiredoxin (FmPrx), that was up-regulated after 6 h post-VLP injection. Phylogenetic tree analysis showed that this gene could be found among many shrimp species and was closely clustered among Prx families. The expression of FmPrx was also detected in all tissues examined, thus suggesting the multi-functional roles of this gene in many tissues. Administration of IHHNV-VLP in vivo led to a significant increase in peroxidase activity in gill tissue-approximately two-fold versus control animals; the WSSV copy number was significantly reduced. These data suggest that IHHNV-VLP exerts an immune-stimulating effect by enhancing the level of immune-related genes including FmPrx and its corresponding peroxidase activity, which are a well-known part of the shrimp innate immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wattana Weerachatyanukul
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Rama VI Road, Bangkok, 10400, Thailand
| | - Chettupon Pooljun
- Akkhraratchakumari Veterinary College, Walailak University, Thasala District, Nakhonsrithammarat, 80160, Thailand; Center of Excellence for Aquaculture Technology and Innovation, Walailak University, Thasala District, Nakhonsrithammarat, 80161, Thailand
| | - Ikuo Hirono
- Laboratory of Genome Science, Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Konan 4-5-7, Minato, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | - Hidehiro Kondo
- Laboratory of Genome Science, Graduate School of Marine Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Marine Science and Technology, Konan 4-5-7, Minato, Tokyo, 108-8477, Japan
| | | | - Pitchanee Jariyapong
- Center of Excellence for Aquaculture Technology and Innovation, Walailak University, Thasala District, Nakhonsrithammarat, 80161, Thailand; Department of Medical Science, School of Medicine, Walailak University, Thasala District, Nakhonsrithammarat, 80160, Thailand.
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Regulation of Proteolytic Activity to Improve the Recovery of Macrobrachium rosenbergii Nodavirus Capsid Protein. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168725. [PMID: 34445426 PMCID: PMC8395934 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 07/29/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The causative agent of white tail disease (WTD) in the giant freshwater prawn is Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV). The recombinant capsid protein (CP) of MrNV was previously expressed in Escherichia coli, and it self-assembled into icosahedral virus-like particles (VLPs) with a diameter of approximately 30 nm. Extensive studies on the MrNV CP VLPs have attracted widespread attention in their potential applications as biological nano-containers for targeted drug delivery and antigen display scaffolds for vaccine developments. Despite their advantageous features, the recombinant MrNV CP VLPs produced in E. coli are seriously affected by protease degradations, which significantly affect the yield and stability of the VLPs. Therefore, the aim of this study is to enhance the stability of MrNV CP by modulating the protease degradation activity. Edman degradation amino acid sequencing revealed that the proteolytic cleavage occurred at arginine 26 of the MrNV CP. The potential proteases responsible for the degradation were predicted in silico using the Peptidecutter, Expasy. To circumvent proteolysis, specific protease inhibitors (PMSF, AEBSF and E-64) were tested to reduce the degradation rates. Modulation of proteolytic activity demonstrated that a cysteine protease was responsible for the MrNV CP degradation. The addition of E-64, a cysteine protease inhibitor, remarkably improved the yield of MrNV CP by 2.3-fold compared to the control. This innovative approach generates an economical method to improve the scalability of MrNV CP VLPs using individual protease inhibitors, enabling the protein to retain their structural integrity and stability for prominent downstream applications including drug delivery and vaccine development.
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Ninyio NN, Ho KL, Yong CY, Chee HY, Hamid M, Ong HK, Mariatulqabtiah AR, Tan WS. Chimeric Virus-Like Particles of Prawn Nodavirus Displaying Hepatitis B Virus Immunodominant Region: Biophysical Properties and Cytokine Response. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041922. [PMID: 33672018 PMCID: PMC7919259 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis B is a major global health challenge. In the absence of an effective treatment for the disease, hepatitis B vaccines provide protection against the viral infection. However, some individuals do not have positive immune responses after being vaccinated with the hepatitis B vaccines available in the market. Thus, it is important to develop a more protective vaccine. Previously, we showed that hepatitis B virus (HBV) ‘a’ determinant (aD) displayed on the prawn nodavirus capsid (Nc) and expressed in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells (namely, Nc-aD-Sf9) self-assembled into virus-like particles (VLPs). Immunisation of BALB/c mice with the Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs showed significant induction of humoral, cellular and memory B-cell immunity. In the present study, the biophysical properties of the Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs were studied using dynamic light scattering (DLS) and circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to determine the antigenicity of the Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs, and multiplex ELISA was employed to quantify the cytokine response induced by the VLPs administered intramuscularly into BALB/c mice (n = 8). CD spectroscopy of Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs showed that the secondary structure of the VLPs predominantly consisted of beta (β)-sheets (44.8%), and they were thermally stable up to ~52 °C. ELISA revealed that the aD epitope of the VLPs was significantly antigenic to anti-HBV surface antigen (HBsAg) antibodies. In addition, multiplex ELISA of serum samples from the vaccinated mice showed a significant induction (p < 0.001) of IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-10, and IL-12p70. This cytokine profile is indicative of natural killer cell, macrophage, dendritic cell and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activities, which suggests a prophylactic innate and adaptive cellular immune response mediated by Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs. Interestingly, Nc-aD-Sf9 induced a more robust release of the aforementioned cytokines than that of Nc-aD VLPs produced in Escherichia coli and a commercially used hepatitis B vaccine. Overall, Nc-aD-Sf9 VLPs are thermally stable and significantly antigenic, demonstrating their potential as an HBV vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Nyakaat Ninyio
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kaduna State University, P.M.B. 2339, Tafawa Balewa Way, Kaduna 800241, Nigeria
| | - Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (K.L.H.); (H.K.O.)
| | - Chean Yeah Yong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
| | - Hui Yee Chee
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Muhajir Hamid
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
| | - Hui Kian Ong
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (K.L.H.); (H.K.O.)
| | - Abdul Razak Mariatulqabtiah
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia;
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
- Laboratory of Vaccine and Biomolecules, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Selangor 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-9769-6715; Fax: +603-9769-7590
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9
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Chen-Fei L, Chou-Min C, Jiun-Yan L. Feasibility of vaccination against Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus infection in giant freshwater prawn. FISH & SHELLFISH IMMUNOLOGY 2020; 104:431-438. [PMID: 32580003 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsi.2020.06.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 06/17/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The giant freshwater prawn/giant river prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii is one of the high market value crustaceans cultured worldwide. The intensified aquaculture of the species has led to the outbreak of infectious diseases, prominently, the white tail disease (WTD). It is caused by the infection of Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV), which was classified in the family of Nodaviridae. To-date, there are no effective prophylactic and therapeutic agents available against MrNV infection. Vaccination is known to be the most effective prophylactic agent in disease prevention. However, vaccine development against virus infection in crustaceans is equivocal. The feasibility of vaccination in conferring immune protection in crustaceans against infectious diseases is disputable. The argument lies in the fact that crustaceans do not possess adaptive immunity, which is the main immune component that functions to establish immunological memory upon vaccination. Nevertheless, an increasing number of literatures has been documented, which concerns the development of vaccines against infectious diseases in crustaceans. The current review deliberates different approaches in vaccine development against MrNV, which were documented in the past years. It is noteworthy that the live-attenuated MrNV vaccine has not been experimented by far. Thus, the potential of live-attenuated MrNV vaccine in conferring long-term immune protection through the establishment of innate immune memory is currently being discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Low Chen-Fei
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Chong Chou-Min
- Laboratory of Marine Biotechnology, Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Loh Jiun-Yan
- Faculty of Applied Sciences, UCSI University, 56000 Cheras, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Ninyio NN, Ho KL, Ong HK, Yong CY, Chee HY, Hamid M, Tan WS. Immunological Analysis of the Hepatitis B Virus "a" Determinant Displayed on Chimeric Virus-Like Particles of Macrobrachium rosenbergii Nodavirus Capsid Protein Produced in Sf9 Cells. Vaccines (Basel) 2020; 8:vaccines8020275. [PMID: 32512923 PMCID: PMC7350026 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8020275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimeric virus-like particles (VLPs) have been widely exploited for various purposes including their use as vaccine candidates, particularly due to their ability to induce stronger immune responses than VLPs consisting of single viral proteins. In the present study, VLPs of the Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) capsid protein (Nc) displaying the hepatitis B virus “a” determinant (aD) were produced in Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) insect cells. BALB/c mice immunised with the purified chimeric Nc-aD VLPs elicited a sustained titre of anti-aD antibody, which was significantly higher than that elicited by a commercially available hepatitis B vaccine and Escherichia coli-produced Nc-aD VLPs. Immunophenotyping showed that the Sf9-produced Nc-aD VLPs induced proliferation of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes and NK1.1 natural killer cells. Furthermore, enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT)analysis showed the presence of antibody-secreting memory B cells in the mice splenocytes stimulated with the synthetic aD peptide. The significant humoral, natural killer cell and memory B cell immune responses induced by the Sf9-produced Nc-aD VLPs suggest that they present good prospects for use as a hepatitis B vaccine candidate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel Nyakaat Ninyio
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kaduna State University, P.M.B. 2339, Tafawa Balewa Way, Kaduna 800241, Nigeria
| | - Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (K.L.H.); (H.K.O.)
| | - Hui Kian Ong
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (K.L.H.); (H.K.O.)
| | - Chean Yeah Yong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
| | - Hui Yee Chee
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia;
| | - Muhajir Hamid
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia; (N.N.N.); (C.Y.Y.); (M.H.)
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang 43400, Malaysia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +603-9769-6715; Fax: +603-9769-7590
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Venkataraman S, Reddy VS, Khurana SMP. Biomedical Applications of Viral Nanoparticles in Vaccine Therapy. Nanobiomedicine (Rij) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-32-9898-9_9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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12
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Chong LC, Ganesan H, Yong CY, Tan WS, Ho KL. Expression, purification and characterization of the dimeric protruding domain of Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus capsid protein expressed in Escherichia coli. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0211740. [PMID: 30707739 PMCID: PMC6358098 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0211740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) is the causative agent of white tail disease (WTD) which seriously impedes the production of the giant freshwater prawn and has a major economic impact. MrNV contains two segmented RNA molecules, which encode the RNA dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) and the capsid protein (MrNV-CP) containing 371 amino acid residues. MrNV-CP comprises of the Shell (S) and the Protruding (P) domains, ranging from amino acid residues 1–252 and 253–371, respectively. The P-domain assembles into dimeric protruding spikes, and it is believed to be involved in host cell attachment and internalization. In this study, the recombinant P-domain of MrNV-CP was successfully cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli, purified with an immobilized metal affinity chromatography (IMAC) and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) up to ~90% purity. Characterization of the purified recombinant P-domain with SEC revealed that it formed dimers, and dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis demonstrated that the hydrodynamic diameter of the dimers was ~6 nm. Circular dichroism (CD) analysis showed that the P-domain contained 67.9% of beta-sheets, but without alpha-helical structures. This is in good agreement with the cryo-electron microscopic analysis of MrNV which demonstrated that the P-domain contains only beta-stranded structures. Our findings of this study provide essential information for the production of the P-domain of MrNV-CP that will aid future studies particularly studies that will shed light on anti-viral drug discovery and provide an understanding of virus-host interactions and the viral pathogenicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Chuin Chong
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Hagilaa Ganesan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chean Yeah Yong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- * E-mail:
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13
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Ho KL, Gabrielsen M, Beh PL, Kueh CL, Thong QX, Streetley J, Tan WS, Bhella D. Structure of the Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus: A new genus within the Nodaviridae? PLoS Biol 2018; 16:e3000038. [PMID: 30346944 PMCID: PMC6211762 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) is a pathogen of freshwater prawns that poses a threat to food security and causes significant economic losses in the aquaculture industries of many developing nations. A detailed understanding of the MrNV virion structure will inform the development of strategies to control outbreaks. The MrNV capsid has also been engineered to display heterologous antigens, and thus knowledge of its atomic resolution structure will benefit efforts to develop tools based on this platform. Here, we present an atomic-resolution model of the MrNV capsid protein (CP), calculated by cryogenic electron microscopy (cryoEM) of MrNV virus-like particles (VLPs) produced in insect cells, and three-dimensional (3D) image reconstruction at 3.3 Å resolution. CryoEM of MrNV virions purified from infected freshwater prawn post-larvae yielded a 6.6 Å resolution structure, confirming the biological relevance of the VLP structure. Our data revealed that unlike other known nodavirus structures, which have been shown to assemble capsids having trimeric spikes, MrNV assembles a T = 3 capsid with dimeric spikes. We also found a number of surprising similarities between the MrNV capsid structure and that of the Tombusviridae: 1) an extensive network of N-terminal arms (NTAs) lines the capsid interior, forming long-range interactions to lace together asymmetric units; 2) the capsid shell is stabilised by 3 pairs of Ca2+ ions in each asymmetric unit; 3) the protruding spike domain exhibits a very similar fold to that seen in the spikes of the tombusviruses. These structural similarities raise questions concerning the taxonomic classification of MrNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mads Gabrielsen
- CRUK Beatson Institute, Garscube Campus, Glasgow, Scotland United Kingdom
| | - Poay Ling Beh
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chare Li Kueh
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Qiu Xian Thong
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - James Streetley
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Campus, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, UPM Serdang, Selangor Malaysia
| | - David Bhella
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Garscube Campus, Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom
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14
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Thong QX, Wong CL, Ooi MK, Kueh CL, Ho KL, Alitheen NB, Tan WS. Peptide inhibitors of Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus. J Gen Virol 2018; 99:1227-1238. [PMID: 30041713 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNv) causes white tail disease (WTD) in giant freshwater prawns, which leads to devastating economic losses in the aquaculture industry. Despite extensive research on MrNv, there is still no antiviral agent to treat WTD. Thus, the main aim of this study was to identify potential anti-MrNv molecules. A 12-mer phage-displayed peptide library was biopanned against the MrNv virus-like particle (VLP). After four rounds of biopanning, two dominant phages harbouring the amino acid sequences HTKQIPRHIYSA and VSRHQSWHPHDL were selected. An equilibrium binding assay in solution was performed to determine the relative dissociation constant (KDrel) of the interaction between the MrNv VLP and the selected fusion phages. Phage-HTKQIPRHIYSA has a KDrel value of 92.4±22.8 nM, and phage-VSRHQSWHPHDL has a KDrel value of 12.7±3.8 nM. An in-cell elisa was used to determine the inhibitory effect of the synthetic peptides towards the entry of MrNv VLP into Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf9) cells. Peptides HTKQIPRHIYSA and VSRHQSWHPHDL inhibited the entry of the MrNv VLP into Sf9 cells with IC50 values of 30.4±3.6 and 26.5±8.8 µM, respectively. Combination of both peptides showed a significantly higher inhibitory effect with an IC50 of 4.9±0.4 µM. An MTT assay revealed that the viability of MrNv-infected cells increased to about 97 % in the presence of both peptides. A real-time RT-PCR assay showed that simultaneous application of both peptides significantly reduced the number of MrNv per infected cell, from 97±9 to 11±4. These peptides are lead compounds which can be further developed into potent anti-MrNv agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu Xian Thong
- 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chuan Loo Wong
- 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Man Kwan Ooi
- 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.,†Present address: Virus-Host Interaction Research Group, Infectious Disease Laboratory, Jeffrey Cheah School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Monash University Malaysia, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, Bandar Sunway, 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chare Li Kueh
- 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kok Lian Ho
- 2Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Noorjahan Banu Alitheen
- 3Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.,4Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- 1Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.,4Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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15
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Yong CY, Yeap SK, Omar AR, Tan WS. Advances in the study of nodavirus. PeerJ 2017; 5:e3841. [PMID: 28970971 PMCID: PMC5622607 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.3841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 09/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Nodaviruses are small bipartite RNA viruses which belong to the family of Nodaviridae. They are categorized into alpha-nodavirus, which infects insects, and beta-nodavirus, which infects fishes. Another distinct group of nodavirus infects shrimps and prawns, which has been proposed to be categorized as gamma-nodavirus. Our current review focuses mainly on recent studies performed on nodaviruses. Nodavirus can be transmitted vertically and horizontally. Recent outbreaks have been reported in China, Indonesia, Singapore and India, affecting the aquaculture industry. It also decreased mullet stock in the Caspian Sea. Histopathology and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are used to examine the presence of nodaviruses in infected fishes and prawns. For classification, virus isolation followed by nucleotide sequencing are required. In contrast to partial sequence identification, profiling the whole transcriptome using next generation sequencing (NGS) offers a more comprehensive comparison and characterization of the virus. For rapid diagnosis of nodavirus, assays targeting the viral RNA based on reverse-transcription PCR (RT-PCR) such as microfluidic chips, reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) and RT-LAMP coupled with lateral flow dipstick (RT-LAMP-LFD) have been developed. Besides viral RNA detections, diagnosis based on immunological assays such as enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), immunodot and Western blotting have also been reported. In addition, immune responses of fish and prawn are also discussed. Overall, in fish, innate immunity, cellular type I interferon immunity and humoral immunity cooperatively prevent nodavirus infections, whereas prawns and shrimps adopt different immune mechanisms against nodavirus infections, through upregulation of superoxide anion, prophenoloxidase, superoxide dismutase (SOD), crustin, peroxinectin, anti-lipopolysaccharides and heat shock proteins (HSP). Potential vaccines for fishes and prawns based on inactivated viruses, recombinant proteins or DNA, either delivered through injection, oral feeding or immersion, are also discussed in detail. Lastly, a comprehensive review on nodavirus virus-like particles (VLPs) is presented. In recent years, studies on prawn nodavirus are mainly focused on Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV). Recombinant MrNV VLPs have been produced in prokaryotic and eukaryotic expression systems. Their roles as a nucleic acid delivery vehicle, a platform for vaccine development, a molecular tool for mechanism study and in solving the structures of MrNV are intensively discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chean Yeah Yong
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | | | - Abdul Rahman Omar
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Institute of Bioscience, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.,Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
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16
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Ho KL, Kueh CL, Beh PL, Tan WS, Bhella D. Cryo-Electron Microscopy Structure of the Macrobrachium rosenbergii Nodavirus Capsid at 7 Angstroms Resolution. Sci Rep 2017; 7:2083. [PMID: 28522842 PMCID: PMC5437026 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-02292-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
White tail disease in the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii causes significant economic losses in shrimp farms and hatcheries and poses a threat to food-security in many developing countries. Outbreaks of Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV), the causative agent of white tail disease (WTD) are associated with up to 100% mortality rates. There are no interventions available to treat or prevent MrNV disease however. Here we show the structure of MrNV virus-like particles (VLPs) produced by recombinant expression of the capsid protein, using cryogenic electron microscopy. Our data show that MrNV VLPs package nucleic acids in a manner reminiscent of other known nodavirus structures. The structure of the capsid however shows striking differences from insect and fish infecting nodaviruses, which have been shown to assemble trimer-clustered T = 3 icosahedral virus particles. MrNV particles have pronounced dimeric blade-shaped spikes extending up to 6 nm from the outer surface of the capsid shell. Our structural analysis supports the assertion that MrNV may belong to a new genus of the Nodaviridae. Moreover, our study provides the first structural view of an important pathogen affecting aquaculture industries across the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kok Lian Ho
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Chare Li Kueh
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Poay Ling Beh
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Wen Siang Tan
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, 43400 UPM, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - David Bhella
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Sir Michael Stoker Building, Garscube Campus, 464 Bearsden Road, Glasgow, G61 1QH, Scotland, UK.
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