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Lou J, Ancajas CF, Zhou Y, Lane NS, Reynolds TB, Best MD. Probing Glycerolipid Metabolism using a Caged Clickable Glycerol-3-Phosphate Probe. Chembiochem 2024:e202300853. [PMID: 38705850 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/05/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we present the probe SATE-G3P-N3 as a novel tool for metabolic labeling of glycerolipids (GLs) to investigate lipid metabolism in yeast cells. By introducing a clickable azide handle onto the glycerol backbone, this probe enables general labeling of glycerolipids. Additionally, this probe contains a caged phosphate moiety at the glycerol sn-3 position to not only facilitate probe uptake by masking negative charge but also to bypass the phosphorylation step crucial for initiating phospholipid synthesis, thereby enhancing phospholipid labeling. The metabolic labeling activity of the probe was thoroughly assessed through cellular fluorescence microscopy, mass spectrometry (MS), and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) experiments. Fluorescence microscopy analysis demonstrated successful incorporation of the probe into yeast cells, with labeling predominantly localized at the plasma membrane. LCMS analysis confirmed metabolic labeling of various phospholipid species (PC, PS, PA, PI, and PG) and neutral lipids (MAG, DAG, and TAG), and GL labeling was corroborated by TLC. These results showcased the potential of the SATE-G3P-N3 probe in studying GL metabolism, offering a versatile and valuable approach to explore the intricate dynamics of lipids in yeast cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinchao Lou
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1420 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Christelle F Ancajas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1420 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Yue Zhou
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1311 Cumberland Avenue, Knoxville, TN, 337996, USA
| | - Nicolas S Lane
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1420 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Todd B Reynolds
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1311 Cumberland Avenue, Knoxville, TN, 337996, USA
| | - Michael D Best
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 1420 Circle Drive, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
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2
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Alberti D, Thiaudiere E, Parzy E, Elkhanoufi S, Rakhshan S, Stefania R, Massot P, Mellet P, Aime S, Geninatti Crich S. 4-Amino-TEMPO loaded liposomes as sensitive EPR and OMRI probes for the detection of phospholipase A2 activity. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13725. [PMID: 37608036 PMCID: PMC10444830 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40857-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This work aims at developing a diagnostic method based on Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (EPR) measurements of stable nitroxide radicals released from "EPR silent" liposomes. The liposome destabilisation and consequent radical release is enzymatically triggered by the action of phospholipase A2 (PLA2) present in the biological sample of interest. PLA2 are involved in a broad range of processes, and changes in their activity may be considered as a unique valuable biomarker for early diagnoses. The minimum amount of PLA2 measured "in vitro" was 0.09 U/mL. Moreover, the liposomes were successfully used to perform Overhauser-enhanced Magnetic Resonance Imaging (OMRI) in vitro at 0.2 T. The amount of radicals released by PLA2 driven liposome destabilization was sufficient to generate a well detectable contrast enhancement in the corresponding OMRI image.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Alberti
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Eric Thiaudiere
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, CRMSB, UMR 5536, 33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Elodie Parzy
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, CRMSB, UMR 5536, 33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Sabrina Elkhanoufi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Sahar Rakhshan
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Turin, Italy
| | - Rachele Stefania
- Department of Science and Technological Innovation, University of Eastern Piedmont "Amedeo Avogadro", Alessandria, Italy
| | - Philippe Massot
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, CRMSB, UMR 5536, 33000, Bordeaux, France
| | - Philippe Mellet
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, CRMSB, UMR 5536, 33000, Bordeaux, France
- INSERM, Bordeaux, France
| | - Silvio Aime
- IRCCS SDN SYNLAB, Via Gianturco 113, Naples, Italy
| | - Simonetta Geninatti Crich
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, Via Nizza 52, 10126, Turin, Italy.
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Dai D, Yang J, Yang YW. Supramolecular Assembly with Aggregation-Induced Emission Property for Sensing and Detection. Chemistry 2021; 28:e202103185. [PMID: 34622985 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202103185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The fabrication of new supramolecular materials for real-time detection of analytes including ions, organic pollutants, gases, biomolecules, and drugs is of pivotal importance in industrial manufacture, clinical treatment, and environmental remediation. Incorporating fluorescent molecules with distinct aggregation-induced emission (AIE) effects into supramolecular assemblies has received much attention over the past two decades, owing to the remarkable performance of the AIE-active supramolecular materials in sensing and detection. In this minireview, we summarize the recent progress of superior detection systems on the basis of supramolecular assemblies accompanied with AIE features. We envision that this minireview will be helpful and timely for relevant researchers to stimulate new thinking for constructing new AIE-based supramolecular materials with advanced architectures for effective sensing and detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dihua Dai
- Jilin University, College of Chemistry, CHINA
| | - Jie Yang
- Jilin University, College of Chemistry, CHINA
| | - Ying-Wei Yang
- Jilin University, College of Chemistry, 2699 Qianjin Street, 130012, Changchun, CHINA
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4
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Izquierdo E, Casasampere M, Fabriàs G, Abad JL, Casas J, Delgado A. Synthesis and characterization of bichromophoric 1-deoxyceramides as FRET probes. Org Biomol Chem 2021; 19:2456-2467. [PMID: 33650618 DOI: 10.1039/d1ob00113b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The suitability as FRET probes of two bichromophoric 1-deoxydihydroceramides containing a labelled spisulosine derivative as a sphingoid base and two differently ω-labelled fluorescent palmitic acids has been evaluated. The ceramide synthase (CerS) catalyzed metabolic incorporation of ω-azido palmitic acid into the above labeled spisulosine to render the corresponding ω-azido 1-deoxyceramide has been studied in several cell lines. In addition, the strain-promoted click reaction between this ω-azido 1-deoxyceramide and suitable fluorophores has been optimized to render the target bichromophoric 1-deoxydihydroceramides. These results pave the way for the development of FRET-based assays as a new tool to study sphingolipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Izquierdo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Medicinal Chemistry, Unit of Pharmaceutical Chemistry (Associated Unit to CSIC). Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences. University of Barcelona (UB), Joan XXIII 27-31, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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Rong X, Xu ZY, Yan JW, Meng ZZ, Zhu B, Zhang L. Nile-Red-Based Fluorescence Probe for Selective Detection of Biothiols, Computational Study, and Application in Cell Imaging. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25204718. [PMID: 33066675 PMCID: PMC7587360 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25204718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
A new colorimetric and fluorescence probe NRSH based on Nile-red chromophore for the detection of biothiols has been developed, exhibiting high selectivity towards biothiols over other interfering species. NRSH shows a blue shift in absorption peak upon reacting with biothiols, from 587 nm to 567 nm, which induces an obvious color change from blue to pink and exhibits a 35-fold fluorescence enhancement at 645 nm in red emission range. NRSH displays rapid (<1 min) response for H2S, which is faster than other biothiols (>5 min). The detection limits of probe NRSH towards biothiols are very low (22.05 nM for H2S, 34.04 nM for Cys, 107.28 nM for GSH and 113.65 nM for Hcy). Furthermore, NRSH is low cytotoxic and can be successfully applied as a bioimaging tool for real-time monitoring biothiols in HeLa cells. In addition, fluorescence mechanism of probe NRSH is further understood by theoretical calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiang Rong
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; (X.R.); xuzhongyong-- (Z.-Y.X.); (J.-W.Y.); (Z.-Z.M.)
| | - Zhong-Yong Xu
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; (X.R.); xuzhongyong-- (Z.-Y.X.); (J.-W.Y.); (Z.-Z.M.)
| | - Jin-Wu Yan
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; (X.R.); xuzhongyong-- (Z.-Y.X.); (J.-W.Y.); (Z.-Z.M.)
| | - Zhi-Zhong Meng
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; (X.R.); xuzhongyong-- (Z.-Y.X.); (J.-W.Y.); (Z.-Z.M.)
| | - Bin Zhu
- Analytical and Testing Center, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510640, China
- Correspondence: (B.Z.); (L.Z.); Tel.: +86-(20)-3938-0678 (L.Z.)
| | - Lei Zhang
- MOE International Joint Research Laboratory on Synthetic Biology and Medicines, School of Biology and Biological Engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; (X.R.); xuzhongyong-- (Z.-Y.X.); (J.-W.Y.); (Z.-Z.M.)
- Correspondence: (B.Z.); (L.Z.); Tel.: +86-(20)-3938-0678 (L.Z.)
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Alekseeva AS, Boldyrev IA. Phospholipase A2. Methods for Activity Monitoring. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW), SUPPLEMENT SERIES A: MEMBRANE AND CELL BIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990747820040030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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7
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Hunter CD, Guo T, Daskhan G, Richards MR, Cairo CW. Synthetic Strategies for Modified Glycosphingolipids and Their Design as Probes. Chem Rev 2018; 118:8188-8241. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carmanah D. Hunter
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Tianlin Guo
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Gour Daskhan
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Michele R. Richards
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
| | - Christopher W. Cairo
- Alberta Glycomics Centre, Department of Chemistry, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2G2, Canada
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Joachimiak Ł, Błażewska KM. Phosphorus-Based Probes as Molecular Tools for Proteome Studies: Recent Advances in Probe Development and Applications. J Med Chem 2018; 61:8536-8562. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Joachimiak
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Żeromskiego Street 116, 90-924 Łódź, Poland
| | - Katarzyna M. Błażewska
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Lodz University of Technology, Żeromskiego Street 116, 90-924 Łódź, Poland
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Abstract
A biosensor is a device composed by a biological recognition element and a transducer that delivers selective information about a specific analyte. Technological and scientific advances in the area of biology, bioengineering, catalysts, electrochemistry, nanomaterials, microelectronics, and microfluidics have improved the design and performance of better biosensors. Enzymatic biosensors based on lipases, esterases, and phospholipases are valuable analytical apparatus which have been applied in food industry, oleochemical industry, biodegradable polymers, environmental science, and overall the medical area as diagnostic tools to detect cholesterol and triglyceride levels in blood samples. This chapter reviews recent developments and applications of lipase-, esterase-, and phospholipase-based biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Sandoval
- Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. (CIATEJ), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
| | - Enrique J Herrera-López
- Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. (CIATEJ), Zapopan, Jalisco, Mexico.
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Piel MS, Peters GH, Brask J. Chemoenzymatic synthesis of fluorogenic phospholipids and evaluation in assays of phospholipases A, C and D. Chem Phys Lipids 2017; 202:49-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2016.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2016] [Revised: 12/07/2016] [Accepted: 12/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Activity-based targeting of secretory phospholipase A 2 enzymes: A fatty-acid-binding-protein assisted approach. Chem Phys Lipids 2016; 202:38-48. [PMID: 27894770 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2016] [Revised: 10/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Syntheses and enzymological characterization of fluorogenic substrate probes targeting secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) for detection and quantitative assays are presented. Three fluorogenic phosphatidylcholine analogs PC-1, PC-2, and PC-3 each containing the duo of 7-mercapto-4-methyl-coumarin fluorophore and 2,4-dinitroanaline quencher on either tail were synthesized from (R)-3-amino-1,2-propanediol and R-(-)-2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dioxolane-4-methanol. These small reporter groups are advantageous in preserving natural membrane integrity. Phosphocholine was incorporated into the sn-3 position of the glycerol backbone. Acyl amino group at the sn-1 position in PC-1 and PC-2 is meant to block sPLA1. The sn-1 and sn-2 positions of the glycerol backbone in PC-1 have a quencher terminated 12-carbon chain and fluorophore terminated 11-carbon chain respectively. PC-2 has a quencher terminated 3-carbon chain at the sn-2 and chain terminating fluorescent reporter at the sn-1 positions. PC-3 resembles PC-1 except for an ester instead of amide at the sn-1 position, because of which it is more similar to natural phospholipids than PC-1. It was designed to elucidate the effect of replacing the ester group with amide by comparing its hydrolysis rate with that of PC-1. Design principles apply to synthesis of other labeled phospholipids. Enzymological characterization using bee-venom sPLA2 was performed by a fatty-acid-binding-protein fluorescence assay and by pH-Stat method in which the amount of fatty acid released by hydrolysis is given by the amount of base required to maintain a constant pH of 8.0. Hydrolytic activity toward PC-1 and PC-3 were each about 238±25μmol/mg/min and 537μmol/mg/min on unmodified phospholipid. Ester to amide change did not affect hydrolysis rates. Activity toward PC-2 was about 45-μmol/mg/min. PC-1 and PC-3 show potential for targeted real-time spectrophotometric assay of sPLA2.
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12
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Andersen RJ, Brask J. Synthesis and evaluation of fluorogenic triglycerides as lipase assay substrates. Chem Phys Lipids 2016; 198:72-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Revised: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Belmadi N, Berchel M, Denis C, Berthe W, Sibiril Y, Le Gall T, Haelters JP, Jaffres PA, Montier T. Evaluation of New Fluorescent Lipophosphoramidates for Gene Transfer and Biodistribution Studies after Systemic Administration. Int J Mol Sci 2015; 16:26055-76. [PMID: 26540038 PMCID: PMC4661800 DOI: 10.3390/ijms161125941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2015] [Revised: 10/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The objective of lung gene therapy is to reach the respiratory epithelial cells in order to deliver a functional nucleic acid sequence. To improve the synthetic carrier's efficacy, knowledge of their biodistribution and elimination pathways, as well as cellular barriers faced, depending on the administration route, is necessary. Indeed, the in vivo fate guides the adaptation of their chemical structure and formulation to increase their transfection capacity while maintaining their tolerance. With this goal, lipidic fluorescent probes were synthesized and formulated with cationic lipophosphoramidate KLN47 (KLN: Karine Le Ny). We found that such formulations present constant compaction properties and similar transfection results without inducing additional cytotoxicity. Next, biodistribution profiles of pegylated and unpegylated lipoplexes were compared after systemic injection in mice. Pegylation of complexes led to a prolonged circulation in the bloodstream, whereas their in vivo bioluminescent expression profiles were similar. Moreover, systemic administration of pegylated lipoplexes resulted in a transient liver toxicity. These results indicate that these new fluorescent compounds could be added into lipoplexes in small amounts without perturbing the transfection capacities of the formulations. Such additional properties allow exploration of the in vivo biodistribution profiles of synthetic carriers as well as the expression intensity of the reporter gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nawal Belmadi
- Unité INSERM 1078, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 avenue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
| | - Mathieu Berchel
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- UMR CNRS 6521, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, Faculté des Sciences, 6 avenue Victor Le Gorgeu, 29238 Brest, France.
| | - Caroline Denis
- Unité INSERM 1078, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 avenue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
| | - Wilfried Berthe
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- UMR CNRS 6521, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, Faculté des Sciences, 6 avenue Victor Le Gorgeu, 29238 Brest, France.
| | - Yann Sibiril
- Unité INSERM 1078, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 avenue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
| | - Tony Le Gall
- Unité INSERM 1078, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 avenue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
| | - Jean-Pierre Haelters
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- UMR CNRS 6521, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, Faculté des Sciences, 6 avenue Victor Le Gorgeu, 29238 Brest, France.
| | - Paul-Alain Jaffres
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- UMR CNRS 6521, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, Faculté des Sciences, 6 avenue Victor Le Gorgeu, 29238 Brest, France.
| | - Tristan Montier
- Unité INSERM 1078, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 avenue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- Plateforme SynNanoVect, Biogenouest, SFR 148 ScInBioS, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Faculté de Médecine, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, 29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
- Laboratoire de génétique moléculaire et d'histocompatibilité, CHRU de Brest, 5 Avenue du Maréchal Foch, 29609 Brest cedex, DUMG, Université de Bretagne Occidentale, Université Européenne de Bretagne, 22 rue Camille Desmoulins, CS 93837-29238 Brest cedex 3, France.
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Yang GY, Li C, Fischer M, Cairo CW, Feng Y, Withers SG. A FRET Probe for Cell-Based Imaging of Ganglioside-Processing Enzyme Activity and High-Throughput Screening. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201411747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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15
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Yang GY, Li C, Fischer M, Cairo CW, Feng Y, Withers SG. A FRET Probe for Cell-Based Imaging of Ganglioside-Processing Enzyme Activity and High-Throughput Screening. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:5389-93. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201411747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Revised: 02/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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16
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Vivek HK, Swamy SG, Priya BS, Sethi G, Rangappa KS, Swamy SN. A facile assay to monitor secretory phospholipase A₂ using 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid. Anal Biochem 2014; 461:27-35. [PMID: 24915638 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2014.05.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2014] [Revised: 05/22/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Secretory phospholipases A2 (sPLA2s) are present in snake venoms, serum, and biological fluids of patients with various inflammatory, autoimmune and allergic disorders. Lipid mediators in the inflammatory processes have potential value for controlling phospholipid metabolism through sPLA2 inhibition. Thus, it demands the need for screening of potential leads for sPLA2 inhibition. To date, sPLA2 activity has been assayed using expensive radioactive or chromogenic substrates, thereby limiting a large number of assays. In this study, a simple and sensitive NanoDrop assay was developed using non-fluorogenic and non-chromogenic phospholipid substrate 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) and 8-anilino-1-naphthalenesulfonic acid (ANS) as interfacial hydrophobic probe. The modified assay required a 10ng concentration of sPLA2. ANS, as a strong anion, binds predominantly to cationic group of choline head of DMPC through ion pair formation, imparting hydrophobicity and lipophilicity and resulting in an increase in fluorescence. Triton X-100 imparts correct geometrical space during sPLA2 catalyzing DMPC, releasing lysophospholipid and acidic myristoyl acid, which in turn alters the hydrophobic environment prevailing around ANS-DMPC, which leads to weakening of the electrostatic ion pair interaction between DMPC and ANS ensuing decrease in fluorescence. These characteristic fluorescence changes between DMPC and ANS in response to sPLA2 catalysis are well documented and validated in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamse K Vivek
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Supritha G Swamy
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Babu S Priya
- Department of Studies in Chemistry, University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysore 570006, India
| | - Gautam Sethi
- Department of Pharmacology, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117597, Republic of Singapore
| | | | - S Nanjunda Swamy
- Department of Biotechnology, Sri Jayachamarajendra College of Engineering, Mysore 570006, India.
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Wang X, Liu H, Li J, Ding K, Lv Z, Yang Y, Chen H, Li X. A Fluorogenic Probe with Aggregation-Induced Emission Characteristics for Carboxylesterase Assay through Formation of Supramolecular Microfibers. Chem Asian J 2014; 9:784-9. [DOI: 10.1002/asia.201301326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 11/01/2013] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Li X, Gao X, Shi W, Ma H. Design strategies for water-soluble small molecular chromogenic and fluorogenic probes. Chem Rev 2013; 114:590-659. [PMID: 24024656 DOI: 10.1021/cr300508p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1188] [Impact Index Per Article: 108.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohua Li
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Living Biosystems, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences , Beijing 100190, China
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19
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Bhabak KP, Hauser A, Redmer S, Banhart S, Heuer D, Arenz C. Development of a Novel FRET Probe for the Real-Time Determination of Ceramidase Activity. Chembiochem 2013; 14:1049-52. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201300207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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20
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Synthesis of mixed-chain phosphatidylcholines including coumarin fluorophores for FRET-based kinetic studies of phospholipase A(2) enzymes. Chem Phys Lipids 2013; 172-173:78-85. [PMID: 23727005 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2013.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Revised: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) enzymes catalyze the hydrolysis of the sn-2 ester linkage of glycerophospholipids to produce fatty acids and lysophospholipids. A significant number of mammalian phospholipases comprise a family of secreted PLA2 enzymes, found in specific tissues and cellular locations, exhibiting unique enzymatic properties and distinct biological functions. Development of new real-time spectrofluorimetric PLA2 assays should facilitate the kinetic characterization and mechanistic elucidation of the isozymes in vitro, with the potential applicability to detect and measure catalytic PLA2 activity in tissues and cellular locations. Here we report a new synthesis of double-labeled phosphatidylcholine analogs with chain-terminal reporter groups including coumarin fluorophores for fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based kinetic studies of PLA2 enzymes. The use of coumarin derivatives as fluorescent labels provides reporter groups with substantially decreased size compared to the first generation of donor-acceptor pairs of fluorescent phospholipids. The key advantage of the design is to interfere less with the physicochemical properties of the acyl chains, thereby improving the substrate quality of the synthetic probes. In order to assess the impact of the fluorophore substituents on the catalytic hydrolysis and on the phospholipid packing in the lipid-water interface of the assay, we used the experimentally determined specific activity of bee-venom phospholipase A2 as a model for the secretory PLA2 enzymes. Specifically, the rate of PLA2 hydrolysis of the coumarin labeled phosphatidylcholine analogs was less than three times slower than the natural substrate dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) under the same experimental conditions. Furthermore, variation of the mole fraction of the synthetic phosphatidylcholine vs. that of the natural DPPC substrate showed nearly ideal mixing behavior in the phospholipid-surfactant aggregates of the assay. The synthesis provides a rapid and efficient method for preparation of new synthetic phosphatidylcholines with the desired target structures for enzymatic and physicochemical studies.
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Stender AS, Marchuk K, Liu C, Sander S, Meyer MW, Smith EA, Neupane B, Wang G, Li J, Cheng JX, Huang B, Fang N. Single cell optical imaging and spectroscopy. Chem Rev 2013; 113:2469-527. [PMID: 23410134 PMCID: PMC3624028 DOI: 10.1021/cr300336e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Anthony S. Stender
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Kyle Marchuk
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Suzanne Sander
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Matthew W. Meyer
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Emily A. Smith
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - Bhanu Neupane
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Gufeng Wang
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Junjie Li
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Ji-Xin Cheng
- Weldon School of Biomedical Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
| | - Bo Huang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94158
| | - Ning Fang
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory, U. S. Department of Energy, Ames, IA 50011, USA
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22
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Competitive inhibition of cytosolic Ca2+-dependent phospholipase A2 by acteoside in RBL-2H3 cells. Arch Pharm Res 2012; 35:905-10. [DOI: 10.1007/s12272-012-0516-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Revised: 12/14/2011] [Accepted: 12/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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23
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Zhang Y, Chen W, Feng D, Shi W, Li X, Ma H. A spectroscopic off-on probe for simple and sensitive detection ofcarboxylesterase activity and its application to cell imaging. Analyst 2012; 137:716-21. [DOI: 10.1039/c2an15952j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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24
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Abstract
Recent advances in the field of biology, electronics, and nanotechnology have improved the development of biosensors. A biosensor is a device composed of a biological recognition element and a sensor element. Biosensor applications are becoming increasingly important in areas such as biotechnology, pharmaceutics, food, and environment. Lipases and phospholipases are enzymes which have been used widely in food industry, oleochemical industry, biodegradable polymers, detergents, and other applications. In the medical industry, lipases and phospholipases are used as diagnostic tools to detect triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipids levels in blood samples. Therefore, the development of lipase and phospholipase biosensors is of paramount importance in the clinical area. This chapter introduces the reader into the preliminaries of biosensor and reviews recent developments of lipase and phospholipase biosensors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique J Herrera-López
- Industrial Biotechnology Unit, Centro de Investigación y Asistencia en Tecnología y Diseño del Estado de Jalisco A.C. (CIATEJ), Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico.
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25
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Mawn TM, Popov AV, Beardsley NJ, Stefflova K, Milkevitch M, Zheng G, Delikatny EJ. In vivo detection of phospholipase C by enzyme-activated near-infrared probes. Bioconjug Chem 2011; 22:2434-43. [PMID: 22034913 PMCID: PMC3292874 DOI: 10.1021/bc200242v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
In this article, the characterization of the first near-infrared (NIR) phospholipase-activated molecular beacon is reported, and its utility for in vivo cancer imaging is demonstrated. The probe consists of three elements: a phospholipid (PL) backbone to which the NIR fluorophore, pyropheophorbide a (Pyro), and the NIR Black Hole Quencher 3 (BHQ) were conjugated. Because of the close proximity of BHQ to Pyro, the Pyro-PtdEtn-BHQ probe is self-quenched until enzyme hydrolysis releases the fluorophore. The Pyro-PtdEtn-BHQ probe is highly specific to one isoform of phospholipase C, phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C (PC-PLC), responsible for catabolizing phosphatidylcholine directly to phosphocholine. Incubation of Pyro-PtdEtn-BHQ in vitro with PC-PLC demonstrated a 150-fold increase in fluorescence that could be inhibited by the specific PC-PLC inhibitor tricyclodecan-9-yl xanthogenate (D609) with an IC(50) of 34 ± 8 μM. Since elevations in phosphocholine have been consistently observed by magnetic resonance spectroscopy in a wide array of cancer cells and solid tumors, we assessed the utility of Pyro-PtdEtn-BHQ as a probe for targeted tumor imaging. Injection of Pyro-PtdEtn-BHQ into mice bearing DU145 human prostate tumor xenografts followed by in vivo NIR imaging resulted in a 4-fold increase in tumor radiance over background and a 2 fold increase in the tumor/muscle ratio. Tumor fluorescence enhancement was inhibited with the administration of D609. The ability to image PC-PLC activity in vivo provides a unique and sensitive method of monitoring one of the critical phospholipase signaling pathways activated in cancer, as well as the phospholipase activities that are altered in response to cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa M. Mawn
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Anatoliy V. Popov
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | - Nancy J. Beardsley
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
| | | | | | | | - E. James Delikatny
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
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Berchel M, Haelters JP, Couthon-Gourvès H, Deschamps L, Midoux P, Lehn P, Jaffrès PA. Modular Construction of Fluorescent Lipophosphoramidates by Click Chemistry. European J Org Chem 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201100900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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27
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Abstract
The early detection of many human diseases is crucial if they are to be treated successfully. Therefore, the development of imaging techniques that can facilitate early detection of disease is of high importance. Changes in the levels of enzyme expression are known to occur in many diseases, making their accurate detection at low concentrations an area of considerable active research. Activatable fluorescent probes show immense promise in this area. If properly designed they should exhibit no signal until they interact with their target enzyme, reducing the level of background fluorescence and potentially endowing them with greater sensitivity. The mechanisms of fluorescence changes in activatable probes vary. This review aims to survey the field of activatable probes, focusing on their mechanisms of action as well as illustrating some of the in vitro and in vivo settings in which they have been employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher R Drake
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California San Francisco, 185 Berry Street, Suite 350, Box 0946, San Francisco, CA, 94107, USA
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28
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Song HS, Kim HR, Kim MC, Hwang YH, Sim SS. Lutein is a competitive inhibitor of cytosolic Ca2+-dependent phospholipase A2. J Pharm Pharmacol 2010; 62:1711-6. [DOI: 10.1111/j.2042-7158.2010.01145.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
Objectives
We have investigated the effect of lutein on phospholipase A2 (PLA2) isozymes.
Methods
We measured arachidonic acid release in [3H]arachidonic acid-labelled Raw 264.7 cells and PLA2 activity using 1-palmitoyl-2-[14C]arachidonyl phosphatidylcholine ([14C]AA-PC) and 10-pyrene phosphatidylcholine in vitro.
Key findings
Lutein suppressed the release of arachidonic acid and inhibited Raw 264.7 cell-derived cytosolic Ca2+-dependent PLA2 (cPLA2)-induced hydrolysis of [14C]AA-PC in a dose- and time-dependent manner. In contrast, lutein did not affect secretory Ca2+-dependent PLA2 (sPLA2)-induced hydrolysis of [14C]AA-PC. A Dixon plot showed that the inhibition by lutein on cPLA2 appeared to be competitive with an inhibition constant, Ki, of 13.6 µm.
Conclusions
We suggest that lutein acted as a competitive inhibitor of cPLA2 but did not affect sPLA2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Sun Song
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Hee Rae Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Myung Cheul Kim
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Yeon Hee Hwang
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Korea
| | - Sang Soo Sim
- College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Huksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, Korea
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29
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Song HS, Park SH, Ko MS, Jeong JM, Sohn UD, Sim SS. Morinda citrifolia Inhibits Both Cytosolic Ca-dependent Phospholipase A(2) and Secretory Ca-dependent Phospholipase A(2). THE KOREAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY & PHARMACOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE KOREAN PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE KOREAN SOCIETY OF PHARMACOLOGY 2010; 14:163-7. [PMID: 20631889 DOI: 10.4196/kjpp.2010.14.3.163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2010] [Revised: 06/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of the methanol extracts of Morinda citrifolia containing numerous anthraquinone and iridoid on phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) isozyme. PLA(2) activity was measured using various PLA(2) substrates, including 10-pyrene phosphatidylcholine, 1-palmitoyl-2-[(14)C]arachidonyl phosphatidylcholine ([(14)C]AA-PC), and [(3)H]arachidonic acid (AA). The methanol extracts suppressed melittin-induced [(3)H]AA release in a concentration-dependent manner in RAW 264.7 cells, and inhibited cPLA(2)/sPLA(2)-induced hydrolysis of [(14)C]AA-PC in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. A Dixon plot showed that the inhibition by methanol extracts on cPLA(2) and sPLA(2) appeared to be competitive with inhibition constants (K(i)) of 3.7microg/ml and 12.6microg/ml, respectively. These data suggest that methanol extracts of Morinda citrifolia inhibits both Ca(2+)-dependent PLA(2) such as, cPLA(2) and sPLA(2). Therefore, Morinda citrifolia may possess anti-inflammatory activity secondary to Ca(2+)-dependent PLA(2) inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho Sun Song
- Department of Pathophysiology, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Korea
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30
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Fluorescent small-molecule probes of biochemistry at the plasma membrane. Curr Opin Chem Biol 2010; 14:57-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2009.09.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Accepted: 09/19/2009] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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31
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Dai N, Teo YN, Kool ET. DNA-polyfluorophore excimers as sensitive reporters for esterases and lipases. Chem Commun (Camb) 2010; 46:1221-3. [PMID: 20449256 DOI: 10.1039/b926338a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
DNA-scaffolded oligodeoxyriboside fluorophores (ODFs) were used as the reporters in turn-on sensing of enzymatic bond-cleaving activity. A tetramer ODF of pyrene deoxynucleosides displayed high quenching efficiency when conjugated via ester linkages with a dabcyl quencher, and yielded large signal increases with several enzymes in vitro and in intact human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Dai
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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32
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Chen S, Li X, Ma H. New Approach for Local Structure Analysis of the Tyrosine Domain in Proteins by Using a Site-Specific and Polarity-Sensitive Fluorescent Probe. Chembiochem 2009; 10:1200-7. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.200900003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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33
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Vallejo AA, Fernández MS. FRET between non-substrate probes detects lateral lipid domain formation during phospholipase A2 interfacial catalysis. Arch Biochem Biophys 2008; 480:1-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2008.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2008] [Revised: 09/19/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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34
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Prinz A, Reither G, Diskar M, Schultz C. Fluorescence and bioluminescence procedures for functional proteomics. Proteomics 2008; 8:1179-96. [DOI: 10.1002/pmic.200700802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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35
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Schultz C. Molecular tools for cell and systems biology. HFSP JOURNAL 2007; 1:230-48. [PMID: 19404424 DOI: 10.2976/1.2812442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2007] [Accepted: 10/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The sequencing of the genomes of key organisms and the subsequent identification of genes merely leads us to the next real challenge in modern biology-revealing the precise functions of these genes. Further, detailed knowledge of how the products of these genes behave in space and time is required, including their interactions with other molecules. In order to tackle these considerable tasks, a large and continuously expanding toolbox is required to probe the functions of proteins on a cellular level. Here, the currently available tools are described and future developments are projected. There is no doubt that only the close interplay between the life science disciplines in addition to advances in engineering will be able to meet the challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Schultz
- Gene Expression Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Meyerhofstrasse 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
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