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Qiao Y, Huang D, Li Y, Jiang S, Chen X, Chen J, Xiao Y, Chen W. Construction of lignan glycosides biosynthetic network in Escherichia coli using mutltienzyme modules. Microb Cell Fact 2024; 23:193. [PMID: 38970026 PMCID: PMC11225284 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-024-02467-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Due to the complexity of the metabolic pathway network of active ingredients, precise targeted synthesis of any active ingredient on a synthetic network is a huge challenge. Based on a complete analysis of the active ingredient pathway in a species, this goal can be achieved by elucidating the functional differences of each enzyme in the pathway and achieving this goal through different combinations. Lignans are a class of phytoestrogens that are present abundantly in plants and play a role in various physiological activities of plants due to their structural diversity. In addition, lignans offer various medicinal benefits to humans. Despite their value, the low concentration of lignans in plants limits their extraction and utilization. Recently, synthetic biology approaches have been explored for lignan production, but achieving the synthesis of most lignans, especially the more valuable lignan glycosides, across the entire synthetic network remains incomplete. RESULTS By evaluating various gene construction methods and sequences, we determined that the pCDF-Duet-Prx02-PsVAO gene construction was the most effective for the production of (+)-pinoresinol, yielding up to 698.9 mg/L after shake-flask fermentation. Based on the stable production of (+)-pinoresinol, we synthesized downstream metabolites in vivo. By comparing different fermentation methods, including "one-cell, one-pot" and "multicellular one-pot", we determined that the "multicellular one-pot" method was more effective for producing (+)-lariciresinol, (-)-secoisolariciresinol, (-)-matairesinol, and their glycoside products. The "multicellular one-pot" fermentation yielded 434.08 mg/L of (+)-lariciresinol, 96.81 mg/L of (-)-secoisolariciresinol, and 45.14 mg/L of (-)-matairesinol. Subsequently, ultilizing the strict substrate recognition pecificities of UDP-glycosyltransferase (UGT) incorporating the native uridine diphosphate glucose (UDPG) Module for in vivo synthesis of glycoside products resulted in the following yields: (+)-pinoresinol glucoside: 1.71 mg/L, (+)-lariciresinol-4-O-D-glucopyranoside: 1.3 mg/L, (+)-lariciresinol-4'-O-D-glucopyranoside: 836 µg/L, (-)-secoisolariciresinol monoglucoside: 103.77 µg/L, (-)-matairesinol-4-O-D-glucopyranoside: 86.79 µg/L, and (-)-matairesinol-4'-O-D-glucopyranoside: 74.5 µg/L. CONCLUSIONS By using various construction and fermentation methods, we successfully synthesized 10 products of the lignan pathway in Isatis indigotica Fort in Escherichia coli, with eugenol as substrate. Additionally, we obtained a diverse range of lignan products by combining different modules, setting a foundation for future high-yield lignan production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqi Qiao
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, The Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Doudou Huang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Yajing Li
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, The Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Songfan Jiang
- School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Sciences, College of Life Sciences, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai, 200234, China
| | - Junfeng Chen
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, The Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China
| | - Ying Xiao
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, The Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
| | - Wansheng Chen
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, The Ministry of Education (MOE) Key Laboratory for Standardization of Chinese Medicines, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, 201203, China.
- Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200003, China.
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Mwabulili F, Xie Y, Sun S, Ma W, Li Q, Yang Y, Jia H, Li X. Thermo-Alkali-Tolerant Recombinant Laccase from Bacillus swezeyi and Its Degradation Potential against Zearalenone and Aflatoxin B 1. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:13371-13381. [PMID: 38809574 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c01304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
The enzymatic biodegradation of mycotoxins in food and feed has attracted the most interest in recent years. In this paper, the laccase gene from Bacillus swezeyi was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli BL 21(D3). The sequence analysis indicated that the gene consisted of 1533 bp. The purified B. swezeyi laccase was analyzed by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis -12% with an estimated molecular weight of 56.7 kDa. The enzyme is thermo-alkali-tolerant, displaying the optimal degradation of zearalenone (ZEN) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) at pH 8 and 9, with incubation temperatures of 55 and 50 °C, respectively, within 24 h. The degradation potentials of the 50 μg of the enzyme against ZEN (5.0 μg/mL) and AFB1 (2.5 μg/mL) were 99.60 and 96.73%, respectively, within 24 h. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study revealing the recombinant production of laccase from B. swezeyi, its biochemical properties, and potential use in ZEN and AFB1 degradation in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fred Mwabulili
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Mbeya University of Science and Technology, P.O. Box 131, Mbeya 53119, Tanzania
| | - Yanli Xie
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Shumin Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Weibin Ma
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Qian Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Yuhui Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Hang Jia
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
| | - Xiao Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Henan Key Laboratory of Cereal and Oil Food Safety and Nutrition, Henan University of Technology, Zhengzhou, Henan 450001, China
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Zhou X, Xiang Q, Wu Y, Li Y, Peng T, Xu X, Zhou Y, Zhang L, Li J, Du L, Tan G, Wang W. A low-cost and eco-friendly recombinant protein expression system using copper-containing industrial wastewater. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1367583. [PMID: 38585706 PMCID: PMC10995868 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1367583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The development of innovative methods for highly efficient production of recombinant proteins remains a prominent focus of research in the biotechnology field, primarily due to the fact that current commercial protein expression systems rely on expensive chemical inducers, such as isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside (IPTG). In our study, we designed a novel approach for protein expression by creating a plasmid that responds to copper. This specialized plasmid was engineered through the fusion of a copper-sensing element with an optimized multiple cloning site (MCS) sequence. This MCS sequence can be easily customized by inserting the coding sequences of target recombinant proteins. Once the plasmid was generated, it was introduced into an engineered Escherichia coli strain lacking copA and cueO. With this modified E. coli strain, we demonstrated that the presence of copper ions can efficiently trigger the induction of recombinant protein expression, resulting in the production of active proteins. Most importantly, this expression system can directly utilize copper-containing industrial wastewater as an inducer for protein expression while simultaneously removing copper from the wastewater. Thus, this study provides a low-cost and eco-friendly strategy for the large-scale recombinant protein production. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the induction of recombinant proteins using industrial wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaofeng Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Qiyu Xiang
- College of Life Science, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yubei Wu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yongjuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Tiantian Peng
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xianxian Xu
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Yongguang Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Lihe Zhang
- Department of Rheumatology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Jianghui Li
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Linyong Du
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Guoqiang Tan
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Wu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Laboratory Medicine, Ministry of Education of China, School of Laboratory Medicine and Life Science, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
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A targeted metabolomics method for extra- and intracellular metabolite quantification covering the complete monolignol and lignan synthesis pathway. Metab Eng Commun 2022; 15:e00205. [PMID: 36119807 PMCID: PMC9474286 DOI: 10.1016/j.mec.2022.e00205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial synthesis of monolignols and lignans from simple substrates is a promising alternative to plant extraction. Bottlenecks and byproduct formation during heterologous production require targeted metabolomics tools for pathway optimization. In contrast to available fractional methods, we established a comprehensive targeted metabolomics method. It enables the quantification of 17 extra- and intracellular metabolites of the monolignol and lignan pathway, ranging from amino acids to pluviatolide. Several cell disruption methods were compared. Hot water extraction was best suited regarding monolignol and lignan stability as well as extraction efficacy. The method was applied to compare enzymes for alleviating bottlenecks during heterologous monolignol and lignan production in E. coli. Variants of tyrosine ammonia-lyase had a considerable influence on titers of subsequent metabolites. The choice of multicopper oxidase greatly affected the accumulation of lignans. Metabolite titers were monitored during batch fermentation of either monolignol or lignan-producing recombinant E. coli strains, demonstrating the dynamic accumulation of metabolites. The new method enables efficient time-resolved targeted metabolomics of monolignol- and lignan-producing E. coli. It facilitates bottleneck identification and byproduct quantification, making it a valuable tool for further pathway engineering studies. This method will benefit the bioprocess development of biotransformation or fermentation approaches for microbial lignan production. Monolignols and lignans were heterologously produced in Escherichia coli A targeted metabolomics method was developed covering 17 out of 20 metabolites. Hot water extraction is well suited for intracellular monolignol & lignan analysis. Metabolite accumulation identifies bottlenecks and dynamic activity. Assessment of pathway activity enables efficient cell factory engineering.
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Decembrino D, Raffaele A, Knöfel R, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Synthesis of (-)-deoxypodophyllotoxin and (-)-epipodophyllotoxin via a multi-enzyme cascade in E. coli. Microb Cell Fact 2021; 20:183. [PMID: 34544406 PMCID: PMC8454061 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-021-01673-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The aryltetralin lignan (−)−podophyllotoxin is a potent antiviral and anti-neoplastic compound that is mainly found in Podophyllum plant species. Over the years, the commercial demand for this compound rose notably because of the high clinical importance of its semi-synthetic chemotherapeutic derivatives etoposide and teniposide. To satisfy this demand, (−)−podophyllotoxin is conventionally isolated from the roots and rhizomes of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum, which can only grow in few regions and is now endangered by overexploitation and environmental damage. For these reasons, targeting the biosynthesis of (−)−podophyllotoxin precursors or analogues is fundamental for the development of novel, more sustainable supply routes. Results We recently established a four-step multi-enzyme cascade to convert (+)−pinoresinol into (−)−matairesinol in E. coli. Herein, a five-step multi-enzyme biotransformation of (−)−matairesinol to (−)−deoxypodophyllotoxin was proven effective with 98 % yield at a concentration of 78 mg/L. Furthermore, the extension of this cascade to a sixth step leading to (−)−epipodophyllotoxin was evaluated. To this end, seven enzymes were combined in the reconstituted pathway involving inter alia three plant cytochrome P450 monooxygenases, with two of them being functionally expressed in E. coli for the first time. Conclusions Both, (−)−deoxypodophyllotoxin and (−)−epipodophyllotoxin, are direct precursors to etoposide and teniposide. Thus, the reconstitution of biosynthetic reactions of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum as an effective multi-enzyme cascade in E. coli represents a solid step forward towards a more sustainable production of these essential pharmaceuticals. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12934-021-01673-5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Decembrino
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Alessandra Raffaele
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Ronja Knöfel
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Vlada B Urlacher
- Institute of Biochemistry, Heinrich-Heine University Düsseldorf, Universitätsstraße 1, 40225, Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Xiao Y, Shao K, Zhou J, Wang L, Ma X, Wu D, Yang Y, Chen J, Feng J, Qiu S, Lv Z, Zhang L, Zhang P, Chen W. Structure-based engineering of substrate specificity for pinoresinol-lariciresinol reductases. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2828. [PMID: 33990581 PMCID: PMC8121951 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23095-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Pinoresinol-lariciresinol reductases (PLRs) are enzymes involved in the lignan biosynthesis after the initial dimerization of two monolignols, and this represents the entry point for the synthesis of 8-8' lignans and contributes greatly to their structural diversity. Of particular interest has been the determination of how differing substrate specificities are achieved with these enzymes. Here, we present crystal structures of IiPLR1 from Isatis indigotica and pinoresinol reductases (PrRs) AtPrR1 and AtPrR2 from Arabidopsis thaliana, in the apo, substrate-bound and product-bound states. Each structure contains a head-to-tail homodimer, and the catalytic pocket comprises structural elements from both monomers. β4 loop covers the top of the pocket, and residue 98 from the loop governs catalytic specificity. The substrate specificities of IiPLR1 and AtPrR2 can be switched via structure-guided mutagenesis. Our study provides insight into the molecular mechanism underlying the substrate specificity of PLRs/PrRs and suggests an efficient strategy for the large-scale commercial production of the pharmaceutically valuable compound lariciresinol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xiao
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Kai Shao
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jingwen Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology and School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China.,Science Center for Future Foods, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lian Wang
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology and School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xueqi Ma
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Di Wu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology and School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yingbo Yang
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Junfeng Chen
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingxian Feng
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Shi Qiu
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Zongyou Lv
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, School of Pharmacy, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, China.
| | - Peng Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wansheng Chen
- Research and Development Center of Chinese Medicine Resources and Biotechnology, Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China. .,Department of Pharmacy, Changzheng Hospital, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai, China.
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Decembrino D, Girhard M, Urlacher VB. Use of Copper as a Trigger for the in Vivo Activity of E. coli Laccase CueO: A Simple Tool for Biosynthetic Purposes. Chembiochem 2021; 22:1470-1479. [PMID: 33332702 PMCID: PMC8248233 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202000775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Laccases are multi-copper oxidases that catalyze the oxidation of various electron-rich substrates with concomitant reduction of molecular oxygen to water. The multi-copper oxidase/laccase CueO of Escherichia coli is responsible for the oxidation of Cu+ to the less harmful Cu2+ in the periplasm. CueO has a relatively broad substrate spectrum as laccase, and its activity is enhanced by copper excess. The aim of this study was to trigger CueO activity in vivo for the use in biocatalysis. The addition of 5 mM CuSO4 was proven effective in triggering CueO activity at need with minor toxic effects on E. coli cells. Cu-treated E. coli cells were able to convert several phenolic compounds to the corresponding dimers. Finally, the endogenous CueO activity was applied to a four-step cascade, in which coniferyl alcohol was converted to the valuable plant lignan (-)-matairesinol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Decembrino
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
| | - Marco Girhard
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
| | - Vlada B. Urlacher
- Institute of BiochemistryHeinrich-Heine University DüsseldorfUniversitätsstrasse 140225DüsseldorfGermany
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