1
|
Junges LH, Müller-Santos M. Exploring the biocatalysis of psilocybin and other tryptamines: Enzymatic pathways, synthetic strategies, and industrial implications. Biotechnol Prog 2024:e3513. [PMID: 39366919 DOI: 10.1002/btpr.3513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2024] [Revised: 09/17/2024] [Accepted: 09/24/2024] [Indexed: 10/06/2024]
Abstract
Tryptamines play diverse roles as neurotransmitters and psychoactive compounds found in various organisms. Psilocybin, a notable tryptamine, has garnered attention for its therapeutic potential in treating mental health disorders like depression and anxiety. Despite its promising applications, current extraction methods for psilocybin are labor-intensive and economically limiting. We suggest biocatalysis as a sustainable alternative, leveraging enzymes to synthesize psilocybin and other tryptamines efficiently. By elucidating psilocybin biosynthesis pathways, researchers aim to advance synthetic methodologies and industrial applications. This review underscores the transformative potential of biocatalysis in enhancing our understanding of tryptamine biosynthesis and facilitating the production of high-purity psilocybin and other tryptamines for therapeutic and research use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucas Henrique Junges
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Müller-Santos
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Nitrogen Fixation Laboratory, Federal University of Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Frinculescu A, Mercer B, Shine T, Ramsey J, Couchman L, Douce D, Frascione N, Abbate V. Assessment of a Single Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer Combined with an Atmospheric Solids Analysis Probe for the On-Site Identification of Amnesty Bin Drugs. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:1480-1489. [PMID: 38837752 PMCID: PMC11228975 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The surging number of people who abuse drugs has a great impact on healthcare and law enforcement systems. Amnesty bin drug analysis helps monitor the "street drug market" and tailor the harm reduction advice. Therefore, rapid and accurate drug analysis methods are crucial for on-site work. An analytical method for the rapid identification of five commonly detected drugs ((3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cocaine, ketamine, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine, and chloromethcathinone)) at various summer festivals in the U.K. was developed and validated employing a single quadrupole mass spectrometer combined with an atmospheric pressure solids analysis probe (ASAP-MS). The results were confirmed on a benchtop gas chromatography-mass spectrometry instrument and included all samples that challenged the conventional spectroscopic techniques routinely employed on-site. Although the selectivity/specificity step of the validation assessment of the MS system proved a challenge, it still produced 93% (N = 279) and 92.5% (N = 87) correct results when tested on- and off-site, respectively. A few "partly correct" results showed some discrepancies between the results, with the MS-only unit missing some low intensity active ingredients (N-ethylpentylone, MDMA) and cutting agents (caffeine, paracetamol, and benzocaine) or detecting some when not present. The incorrect results were mainly based on library coverage. The study proved that the ASAP-MS instrument can successfully complement the spectroscopic techniques used for qualitative drug analysis on- and off-site. Although the validation testing highlighted some areas for improvement concerning selectivity/specificity for structurally similar compounds, this method has the potential to be used in trend monitoring and harm reduction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anca Frinculescu
- Department
of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, United
Kingdom
- TICTAC
Communications Limited, Room 1.159 Jenner Wing, St. George’s University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, United
Kingdom
| | - Benjamin Mercer
- Clinical
Pharmacology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, United Kingdom
| | - Trevor Shine
- TICTAC
Communications Limited, Room 1.159 Jenner Wing, St. George’s University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, United
Kingdom
| | - John Ramsey
- TICTAC
Communications Limited, Room 1.159 Jenner Wing, St. George’s University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, United
Kingdom
| | - Lewis Couchman
- Department
of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, United
Kingdom
- Analytical
Services International, St. George’s
University of London, Cranmer Terrace, London SW17 0RE, United Kingdom
| | - David Douce
- Waters
Corporation, Stamford
Avenue, Wilmslow SK9 4AX, United Kingdom
| | - Nunzianda Frascione
- Department
of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, United
Kingdom
| | - Vincenzo Abbate
- Department
of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, 150 Stamford Street, London SE1 9NH, United
Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Sang M, Feng P, Chi LP, Zhang W. The biosynthetic logic and enzymatic machinery of approved fungi-derived pharmaceuticals and agricultural biopesticides. Nat Prod Rep 2024; 41:565-603. [PMID: 37990930 DOI: 10.1039/d3np00040k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Covering: 2000 to 2023The kingdom Fungi has become a remarkably valuable source of structurally complex natural products (NPs) with diverse bioactivities. Since the revolutionary discovery and application of the antibiotic penicillin from Penicillium, a number of fungi-derived NPs have been developed and approved into pharmaceuticals and pesticide agents using traditional "activity-guided" approaches. Although emerging genome mining algorithms and surrogate expression hosts have brought revolutionary approaches to NP discovery, the time and costs involved in developing these into new drugs can still be prohibitively high. Therefore, it is essential to maximize the utility of existing drugs by rational design and systematic production of new chemical structures based on these drugs by synthetic biology. To this purpose, there have been great advances in characterizing the diversified biosynthetic gene clusters associated with the well-known drugs and in understanding the biosynthesis logic mechanisms and enzymatic transformation processes involved in their production. We describe advances made in the heterogeneous reconstruction of complex NP scaffolds using fungal polyketide synthases (PKSs), non-ribosomal peptide synthetases (NRPSs), PKS/NRPS hybrids, terpenoids, and indole alkaloids and also discuss mechanistic insights into metabolic engineering, pathway reprogramming, and cell factory development. Moreover, we suggest pathways for expanding access to the fungal chemical repertoire by biosynthesis of representative family members via common platform intermediates and through the rational manipulation of natural biosynthetic machineries for drug discovery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moli Sang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
| | - Peiyuan Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
| | - Lu-Ping Chi
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
| | - Wei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, China.
- CAS and Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Experimental Marine Biology, Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Almeida E Silva G, Galvão Wakui V, Kato L, Marquezin CA. Spectroscopic behavior of bufotenine and bufotenine N-oxide: Solvent and pH effects and interaction with biomembrane models. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA. BIOMEMBRANES 2024; 1866:184304. [PMID: 38408695 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2024.184304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
Bufotenine is a fluorescent analog of Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) that has been widely studied due to its psychedelic properties and biological activity. However, little is known about its spectroscopic properties in different media. Thus, we present in this work, for the first time, the spectroscopic behavior of bufotenine and bufotenine N-oxide by means of their fluorescence properties. Both molecules exhibit changes in optical absorption and emission spectra with variations in pH of the medium and in different solvents. Assays in the presence of biomembranes models, like micelles and liposomes, were also performed. In surfactants titration experiments, the spectral shift observed in fluorescence shows the interaction of both molecules with pre-micellar structures and with micelles. Steady state anisotropy measurements show that both bufotenine and bufotenine N-oxide, in the studied concentration range, interact with liposomes without causing changes in the fluidity of the lipid bilayer. These results can be useful in studies that aim at searching for new compounds, inspired by bufotenine and bufotenine N-oxide, with relevant pharmacological activities and also in studies that use these molecules as markers of psychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Vinícius Galvão Wakui
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, CEP 74690-900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Lucília Kato
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal de Goiás, CEP 74690-900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil
| | - Cássia A Marquezin
- Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal de Goiás, CEP 74690-900, Goiânia, GO, Brazil.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hudspeth J, Rogge K, Dörner S, Müll M, Hoffmeister D, Rupp B, Werten S. Methyl transfer in psilocybin biosynthesis. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2709. [PMID: 38548735 PMCID: PMC10978996 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46997-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Psilocybin, the natural hallucinogen produced by Psilocybe ("magic") mushrooms, holds great promise for the treatment of depression and several other mental health conditions. The final step in the psilocybin biosynthetic pathway, dimethylation of the tryptophan-derived intermediate norbaeocystin, is catalysed by PsiM. Here we present atomic resolution (0.9 Å) crystal structures of PsiM trapped at various stages of its reaction cycle, providing detailed insight into the SAM-dependent methylation mechanism. Structural and phylogenetic analyses suggest that PsiM derives from epitranscriptomic N6-methyladenosine writers of the METTL16 family, which is further supported by the observation that bound substrates physicochemically mimic RNA. Inherent limitations of the ancestral monomethyltransferase scaffold hamper the efficiency of psilocybin assembly and leave PsiM incapable of catalysing trimethylation to aeruginascin. The results of our study will support bioengineering efforts aiming to create novel variants of psilocybin with improved therapeutic properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jesse Hudspeth
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Kai Rogge
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Maximilian Müll
- Research Group Biosynthetic Design of Natural Products, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Institute of Pharmacy, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, Germany
- Research Group Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Leibniz Institute of Natural Product Research and Infection Biology, Hans Knöll Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Rupp
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
- k.-k. Hofkristallamt, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Sebastiaan Werten
- Institute of Genetic Epidemiology, Medical University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Pepe M, Hesami M, de la Cerda KA, Perreault ML, Hsiang T, Jones AMP. A journey with psychedelic mushrooms: From historical relevance to biology, cultivation, medicinal uses, biotechnology, and beyond. Biotechnol Adv 2023; 69:108247. [PMID: 37659744 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2023.108247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 09/04/2023]
Abstract
Psychedelic mushrooms containing psilocybin and related tryptamines have long been used for ethnomycological purposes, but emerging evidence points to the potential therapeutic value of these mushrooms to address modern neurological, psychiatric health, and related disorders. As a result, psilocybin containing mushrooms represent a re-emerging frontier for mycological, biochemical, neuroscience, and pharmacology research. This work presents crucial information related to traditional use of psychedelic mushrooms, as well as research trends and knowledge gaps related to their diversity and distribution, technologies for quantification of tryptamines and other tryptophan-derived metabolites, as well as biosynthetic mechanisms for their production within mushrooms. In addition, we explore the current state of knowledge for how psilocybin and related tryptamines are metabolized in humans and their pharmacological effects, including beneficial and hazardous human health implications. Finally, we describe opportunities and challenges for investigating the production of psychedelic mushrooms and metabolic engineering approaches to alter secondary metabolite profiles using biotechnology integrated with machine learning. Ultimately, this critical review of all aspects related to psychedelic mushrooms represents a roadmap for future research efforts that will pave the way to new applications and refined protocols.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Pepe
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Mohsen Hesami
- Department of Plant Agriculture, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Karla A de la Cerda
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | - Melissa L Perreault
- Departments of Biomedical Sciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tom Hsiang
- School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Guelph, Canada
| | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Escamilla R, González-Trujano ME, González Mariscal JM, Torres-Valencia JM, Guzmán-González H, Vega JL, Loizaga-Velder A. A Proposal to Study the Safety and Efficacy of Psilocybe cubensis in Preclinical and Clinical Studies as a Therapeutic Alternative for Major Depressive Disorder. J Psychoactive Drugs 2023; 55:570-580. [PMID: 37594163 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2023.2246459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The pharmacological treatment of depression consists of taking antidepressant drugs for prolonged periods; its modest therapeutic effect can often be associated with significant adverse effects, while its discontinuation can lead to relapses. Psilocybin is today a novel and breakthrough therapy for major depression. It is a natural alkaloid in Psilocybe mushrooms, which are endemic to Mexico. Research on a larger scale is lacking in various populations, including the Mexican people. This proposal contemplates the experimental design of a preclinical (toxicity and pharmacological evaluation of an extract in mice) and clinical study by including the chemical analysis of a species of Psilocybe cubensis mushroom to characterize its main constituents. The clinical study will consider the safety evaluation by exploring tolerated doses of Psilocybe cubensis by measuring pharmacokinetic parameters after oral administration in healthy adults and an open trial on a sample of patients with major depressive disorder to assess the safety and efficacy of fully characterized Psilocybe cubensis in a two-single doses treatment, (with assisted psychotherapy), compared with the traditional care model at the Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz in Mexico City. This report presents the design of a research project with preclinical and clinical experimental components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raul Escamilla
- Servicios Clínicos. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (INPRFM), Mexico city, Mexico
| | | | | | | | - Héctor Guzmán-González
- Servicios Clínicos. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (INPRFM), Mexico city, Mexico
| | - José Luis Vega
- Servicios Clínicos. Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz (INPRFM), Mexico city, Mexico
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Irvine W, Tyler M, Delgoda R. In silico characterization of the psilocybin biosynthesis pathway. Comput Biol Chem 2023; 104:107854. [PMID: 36990027 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2023.107854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 03/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Nearly all mushrooms of the Psilocybe genus contain the natural product psilocybin, which is a psychoactive alkaloid derived from l-tryptophan. Considering their use in ancient times, as well as their psychedelic properties, these mushrooms have re-emerged with psychotherapeutic potential for treating depression, which has triggered increased pharmaceutical interest. However, the psilocybin biosynthesis pathway was only recently defined and, as such, little exists in the way of structural data. Accordingly, the aim of this study was to structurally characterize this pathway by generating homology models for the four Psilocybe cubensis enzymes involved in psilocybin biosynthesis (PsiD, a decarboxylase; PsiH, a monooxygenase; PsiK, a phosphotransferase; PsiM, a methyltransferase). Following initial model generation and alignment with the identified structural templates, repeated refinement of the models was carried out using secondary structure prediction, geometry evaluation, energy minimization, and molecular dynamics simulations in water. The final models were then evaluated using molecular docking interactions with their substrates, i.e., psilocybin precursors (l-tryptophan, tryptamine, 4-hydroxytryptamine, and norbaeocystin/baeocystin), all of which generated feasible binding modes for the expected biotransformation. Further plausibility of the psilocybin → aeruginascin, 4-hydroxytryptamine → norpsilocin, and tryptamine → N,N-dimethyltryptamine conversions, all mediated by the generated model for PsiM, suggests valid routes of formation for these key secondary metabolites. The structural characterization of these enzymes and their binding modes which emerged from this study can lead to a better understanding of psilocybin synthesis, thereby paving the way for the development of novel substrates and selective inhibitors, as well as improved biotechnological manipulation and production of psilocybin in vitro.
Collapse
|
9
|
Jones JA, Spigarelli MG. Harnessing synthetic biology to develop novel psychedelic therapies. Trends Biotechnol 2023; 41:586-587. [PMID: 36567184 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibtech.2022.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Andrew Jones
- PsyBio Therapeutics, Sunrise, FL 33351, USA; Chemical, Paper, and Biomedical Engineering, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| | - Michael G Spigarelli
- PsyBio Therapeutics, Sunrise, FL 33351, USA; Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Plazas E, Faraone N. Indole Alkaloids from Psychoactive Mushrooms: Chemical and Pharmacological Potential as Psychotherapeutic Agents. Biomedicines 2023; 11:461. [PMID: 36830997 PMCID: PMC9953455 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines11020461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuropsychiatric diseases such as depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress represent a substantial long-term challenge for the global health systems because of their rising prevalence, uncertain neuropathology, and lack of effective pharmacological treatments. The approved existing studies constitute a piece of strong evidence whereby psychiatric drugs have shown to have unpleasant side effects and reduction of sustained tolerability, impacting patients' quality of life. Thus, the implementation of innovative strategies and alternative sources of bioactive molecules for the search for neuropsychiatric agents are required to guarantee the success of more effective drug candidates. Psychotherapeutic use of indole alkaloids derived from magic mushrooms has shown great interest and potential as an alternative to the synthetic drugs currently used on the market. The focus on indole alkaloids is linked to their rich history, their use as pharmaceuticals, and their broad range of biological properties, collectively underscoring the indole heterocycle as significant in drug discovery. In this review, we aim to report the physicochemical and pharmacological characteristics of indole alkaloids, particularly those derived from magic mushrooms, highlighting the promising application of such active ingredients as safe and effective therapeutic agents for the treatment of neuropsychiatric disorders.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicoletta Faraone
- Department of Chemistry, Acadia University, Wolfville, NS B4P 2R6, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Affiliation(s)
- David Love
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| | - Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
- 70113 Street, N.W., Suite 750, Washington, DC, 20005-3967, USA
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Serreau R, Amirouche A, Benyamina A, Berteina-Raboin S. A Review of Synthetic Access to Therapeutic Compounds Extracted from Psilocybe. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 16:ph16010040. [PMID: 36678537 PMCID: PMC9867295 DOI: 10.3390/ph16010040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 12/14/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelics are used for various pathologies of the central nervous system and are currently the subject of much research, some of which relates to the compounds contained in various Psilocybe-type hallucinogenic mushrooms. It is difficult, however, to obtain and purify sufficient quantities of these compounds from fungi to carry out biological studies, hence the need to develop simple and efficient synthetic routes. We review here the various syntheses used to obtain these molecules, focusing first on the classic historical syntheses, then the use of more recent metallo-catalyzed couplings and finally the known biocatalytic methods for obtaining these molecules. Other access routes are certainly possible and should be the subject of future research given the therapeutic interest of these compounds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphaël Serreau
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
- Addictologie EPSM Georges DAUMEZON, GHT Loiret, 1 Route de Chanteau, 45400 Fleury les Aubrais, France
| | - Ammar Amirouche
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD-Psychiatrie Comorbidités Addictions, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
| | - Amine Benyamina
- Unité de Recherche PSYCOMADD-Psychiatrie Comorbidités Addictions, APHP Université Paris Saclay, Hôpital Paul-Brousse, 12 Avenue Paul Vaillant Couturier, 94804 Villejuif, France
| | - Sabine Berteina-Raboin
- Institut de Chimie Organique et Analytique (ICOA), Université d’Orléans, UMR-CNRS 7311, BP 6759, Rue de Chartres, CEDEX 2, 45067 Orléans, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-238-494-856
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Strauss D, Ghosh S, Murray Z, Gryzenhout M. Psilocybin containing mushrooms: a rapidly developing biotechnology industry in the psychiatry, biomedical and nutraceutical fields. 3 Biotech 2022; 12:339. [PMID: 36340802 PMCID: PMC9633885 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-022-03355-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Humans have collected and used hallucinogenic mushrooms for ethnic medicinal, recreational, and religious purposes since before recorded history. Currently, the use of these mushrooms is illegal in most countries, but where their use is legal they are applied as self medication. Psilocybin and psilocin, two psychoactive alkaloids, are naturally synthesized by hallucinogenic mushrooms. The chemical structure of these compounds are similar to the neurotransmitter serotonin. Activation of this system by psilocybin and psilocin may produce temporary changes in the brain that induce hallucinations and feelings of euphoria. Adjustment of the serotonin system in this way can moderate symptoms of related mental disorders. This review summarizes relevant and current information regarding the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms and their contained psychoactive compounds, the events that lead to their criminalization and decriminilization, and the state of knowledge of psilocybin, psilocin, and derivatives. Last, research on the psychoactive properties of these mushrooms is placed in perspective to possible applications for human dysfunctions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Strauss
- Department of Genetics, Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9301 South Africa
| | - Soumya Ghosh
- Department of Genetics, Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9301 South Africa
| | - Zurika Murray
- Department of Genetics, Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9301 South Africa
| | - Marieka Gryzenhout
- Department of Genetics, Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9301 South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Xu J. Assessing global fungal threats to humans. MLIFE 2022; 1:223-240. [PMID: 38818220 PMCID: PMC10989982 DOI: 10.1002/mlf2.12036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Fungi are an integral part of the earth's biosphere. They are broadly distributed in all continents and ecosystems and play a diversity of roles. Here, I review our current understanding of fungal threats to humans and describe the major factors that contribute to various threats. Among the 140,000 or so known species out of the estimated six million fungal species on Earth, about 10% directly or indirectly threaten human health and welfare. Major threats include mushroom poisoning, fungal allergies, infections of crop plants, food contamination by mycotoxins, and mycoses in humans. A growing number of factors have been identified to impact various fungal threats, including human demographics, crop distributions, anthropogenic activities, pathogen dispersals, global climate change, and/or the applications of antifungal drugs and agricultural fungicides. However, while models have been developed for analyzing various processes of individual threats and threat managements, current data are primarily descriptive and incomplete, and there are significant obstacles to integration of the diverse factors into accurate quantitative assessments of fungal threats. With increasing technological advances and concerted efforts to track the spatial and temporal data on climate and environmental variables; mycotoxins in the feed and food supply chains; fungal population dynamics in crop fields, human and animal populations, and the environment; human population demographics; and the prevalence and severities of fungal allergies and diseases, our ability to accurately assess fungal threats will improve. Such improvements should help us develop holistic strategies to manage fungal threats in the future.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jianping Xu
- Department of Biology and Institute of Infectious Diseases ResearchMcMaster UniversityHamiltonOntarioCanada
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Yao S, Wei C, Lin H, Zhang P, Liu Y, Deng Y, Huang Q, Xie B. Cystathionine Gamma-Lyase Regulate Psilocybin Biosynthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis Mushroom via Amino Acid Metabolism Pathways. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:870. [PMID: 36012858 PMCID: PMC9410116 DOI: 10.3390/jof8080870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
As a potential medicine for the treatment of depression, psilocybin has gradually attracted attention. To elucidate the molecular mechanism regulating psilocybin synthesis in Gymnopilus dilepis, ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) was used to detect the changes in psilocybin content after S-adenosyl-l-homocysteine (SAH) treatment and the changes of psilocybin content in different parts (stipe and pileus), and RNA-Seq was used to explore the mechanism of psilocybin content changes. In this study, the psilocybin content in G. dilepis mycelia treated with SAH was significantly lower than that in the control group, and the content of psilocybin in the stipe was significantly higher than that in the pileus. Transcriptome analysis revealed that differential expression genes (DEGs) were associated with cysteine and methionine metabolism. In particular, the transcription levels of genes encoding Cystathionine gamma-lyase (CTH) in different treatments and different parts were positively correlated with psilocybin content. In addition, we found that the exogenous addition of CTH activity inhibitor (DL-propargylglycine, PAG) could reduce the content of psilocybin and L-serine, and the content of psilocybin and L-serine returned to normal levels after L-cysteine supplementation, suggesting that psilocybin synthesis may be positively correlated with L-cysteine or CTH, and L-cysteine regulates the synthesis of psilocybin by affecting L-serine and 4-hydroxy-L-tryptophan. In conclusion, this study revealed a new molecular mechanism that affects psilocybin biosynthesis, which can provide a theoretical basis for improving psilocybin synthesis and the possibility for the development of biomedicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sen Yao
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Chuanzheng Wei
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Hui Lin
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Peng Zhang
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Yuanyuan Liu
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Youjin Deng
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Qianhui Huang
- College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China
| | - Baogui Xie
- Mycological Research Center, College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Lenz C, Dörner S, Trottmann F, Hertweck C, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Assessment of Bioactivity-Modulating Pseudo-Ring Formation in Psilocin and Related Tryptamines. Chembiochem 2022; 23:e202200183. [PMID: 35483009 PMCID: PMC9401598 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202200183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin (1) is the major alkaloid found in psychedelic mushrooms and acts as a prodrug to psilocin (2, 4‐hydroxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine), a potent psychedelic that exerts remarkable alteration of human consciousness. In contrast, the positional isomer bufotenin (7, 5‐hydroxy‐N,N‐dimethyltryptamine) differs significantly in its reported pharmacology. A series of experiments was designed to explore chemical differences between 2 and 7 and specifically to test the hypothesis that the C‐4 hydroxy group of 2 significantly influences the observed physical and chemical properties through pseudo‐ring formation via an intramolecular hydrogen bond (IMHB). NMR spectroscopy, accompanied by quantum chemical calculations, was employed to compare hydrogen bond behavior in 4‐ and 5‐hydroxylated tryptamines. The results provide evidence for a pseudo‐ring in 2 and that sidechain/hydroxyl interactions in 4‐hydroxytryptamines influence their oxidation kinetics. We conclude that the propensity to form IMHBs leads to a higher number of uncharged species that easily cross the blood‐brain barrier, compared to 7 and other 5‐hydroxytryptamines, which cannot form IMHBs. Our work helps understand a fundamental aspect of the pharmacology of 2 and should support efforts to introduce it (via the prodrug 1) as an urgently needed therapeutic against major depressive disorder.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, GERMANY
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena: Friedrich-Schiller-Universitat Jena, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
| | - Felix Trottmann
- Leibniz-Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knöll-Institut: Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Biomolecular Chemistry, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Leibniz-Institut für Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knöll-Institut: Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Biomolecular Chemistry, GERMANY
| | - Alexander Sherwood
- Usona Institute, Chemistry, 2800 Woods Hollow Road, 53711, Madison, UNITED STATES
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Leibniz-Institut fur Naturstoff-Forschung und Infektionsbiologie eV Hans-Knoll-Institut, Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Kn�ll-Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, GERMANY
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Della-Felice F, de Andrade Bartolomeu A, Pilli RA. The phosphate ester group in secondary metabolites. Nat Prod Rep 2022; 39:1066-1107. [PMID: 35420073 DOI: 10.1039/d1np00078k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2000 to mid-2021The phosphate ester is a versatile, widespread functional group involved in a plethora of biological activities. Its presence in secondary metabolites, however, is relatively rare compared to other functionalities and thus is part of a rather unexplored chemical space. Herein, the chemistry of secondary metabolites containing the phosphate ester group is discussed. The text emphasizes their structural diversity, biological and pharmacological profiles, and synthetic approaches employed in the phosphorylation step during total synthesis campaigns, covering the literature from 2000 to mid-2021.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Franco Della-Felice
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil.,Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ), Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Av. Països Catalans 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain.
| | | | - Ronaldo Aloise Pilli
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, CEP 13083-970 Campinas, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Van Court R, Wiseman M, Meyer K, Ballhorn D, Amses K, Slot J, Dentinger B, Garibay-Orijel R, Uehling J. Diversity, biology, and history of psilocybin-containing fungi: Suggestions for research and technological development. Fungal Biol 2022; 126:308-319. [DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2022.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
|
19
|
Lenz C, Dörner S, Sherwood A, Hoffmeister D. Structure Elucidation and Spectroscopic Analysis of Chromophores Produced by Oxidative Psilocin Dimerization. Chemistry 2021; 27:12166-12171. [PMID: 34062028 PMCID: PMC8457229 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202101382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Psilocin (1) is the dephosphorylated and psychotropic metabolite of the mushroom natural product psilocybin. Oxidation of the phenolic hydroxy group at the C-4 position of 1 results in formation of oligomeric indoloquinoid chromophores responsible for the iconic blueing of bruised psilocybin-producing mushrooms. Based on previous NMR experiments, the hypothesis included that the 5,5'-coupled quinone dimer of 1 was the primary product responsible for the blue color. To test this hypothesis, ring-methylated 1 derivatives were synthesized to provide stable analogs of 1 dimers that could be completely characterized. The chemically oxidized derivatives were spectroscopically analyzed and compared to computationally derived absorbance spectra. Experimental evidence did not support the original hypothesis. Rather, the blue color was shown to stem from the quinoid 7,7'-coupled dimer of 1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| | | | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical MicrobiologyHans-Knöll-InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-UniversitätBeutenbergstrasse 11a07745JenaGermany
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
McKernan K, Kane LT, Crawford S, Chin CS, Trippe A, McLaughlin S. A draft reference assembly of the Psilocybe cubensis genome. F1000Res 2021; 10:281. [PMID: 34322225 PMCID: PMC8220353 DOI: 10.12688/f1000research.51613.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
We describe the use of high-fidelity single molecule sequencing to assemble the genome of the psychoactive
Psilocybe cubensis mushroom. The genome is 46.6Mb, 46% GC, and in 32 contigs with an N50 of 3.3Mb. The BUSCO completeness scores are 97.6% with 1.2% duplicates. The Psilocybin synthesis cluster exists in a single 3.2Mb contig. The dataset is available from NCBI BioProject with accessions
PRJNA687911 and
PRJNA700437.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Liam T Kane
- R&D, Medicinal Genomics, Beverly, Mass, 01915, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Al-Salihi SAA, Bull ID, Al-Salhi R, Gates PJ, Salih KSM, Bailey AM, Foster GD. Further Biochemical Profiling of Hypholoma fasciculare Metabolome Reveals Its Chemogenetic Diversity. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 9:567384. [PMID: 34109161 PMCID: PMC8181146 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2021.567384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural products with novel chemistry are urgently needed to battle the continued increase in microbial drug resistance. Mushroom-forming fungi are underutilized as a source of novel antibiotics in the literature due to their challenging culture preparation and genetic intractability. However, modern fungal molecular and synthetic biology tools have renewed interest in exploring mushroom fungi for novel therapeutic agents. The aims of this study were to investigate the secondary metabolites of nine basidiomycetes, screen their biological and chemical properties, and then investigate the genetic pathways associated with their production. Of the nine fungi selected, Hypholoma fasciculare was revealed to be a highly active antagonistic species, with antimicrobial activity against three different microorganisms: Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genomic comparisons and chromatographic studies were employed to characterize more than 15 biosynthetic gene clusters and resulted in the identification of 3,5-dichloromethoxy benzoic acid as a potential antibacterial compound. The biosynthetic gene cluster for this product is also predicted. This study reinforces the potential of mushroom-forming fungi as an underexplored reservoir of bioactive natural products. Access to genomic data, and chemical-based frameworks, will assist the development and application of novel molecules with applications in both the pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian D. Bull
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Raghad Al-Salhi
- Chemistry Department, University of Mustansiriyah, Baghdad, Iraq
| | - Paul J. Gates
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | | | - Andy M. Bailey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Gary D. Foster
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
The Therapeutic Potential of Psilocybin. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26102948. [PMID: 34063505 PMCID: PMC8156539 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26102948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 04/18/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The psychedelic effects of some plants and fungi have been known and deliberately exploited by humans for thousands of years. Fungi, particularly mushrooms, are the principal source of naturally occurring psychedelics. The mushroom extract, psilocybin has historically been used as a psychedelic agent for religious and spiritual ceremonies, as well as a therapeutic option for neuropsychiatric conditions. Psychedelic use was largely associated with the "hippie" counterculture movement, which, in turn, resulted in a growing, and still lingering, negative stigmatization for psychedelics. As a result, in 1970, the U.S. government rescheduled psychedelics as Schedule 1 drugs, ultimately ending scientific research on psychedelics. This prohibition on psychedelic drug research significantly delayed advances in medical knowledge on the therapeutic uses of agents such as psilocybin. A 2004 pilot study from the University of California, Los Angeles, exploring the potential of psilocybin treatment in patients with advanced-stage cancer managed to reignite interest and significantly renewed efforts in psilocybin research, heralding a new age in exploration for psychedelic therapy. Since then, significant advances have been made in characterizing the chemical properties of psilocybin as well as its therapeutic uses. This review will explore the potential of psilocybin in the treatment of neuropsychiatry-related conditions, examining recent advances as well as current research. This is not a systematic review.
Collapse
|
23
|
Lenz C, Sherwood A, Kargbo R, Hoffmeister D. Taking Different Roads: l-Tryptophan as the Origin of Psilocybe Natural Products. Chempluschem 2020; 86:28-35. [PMID: 33237633 DOI: 10.1002/cplu.202000581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Psychotropic fungi of the genus Psilocybe, colloquially referred to as "magic mushrooms", are best known for their l-tryptophan-derived major natural product, psilocybin. Yet, recent research has revealed a more diverse secondary metabolism that originates from this amino acid. In this minireview, the focus is laid on l-tryptophan and the various Psilocybe natural products and their metabolic routes are highlighted. Psilocybin and its congeners, the heterogeneous blue-colored psilocyl oligomers, alongside β-carbolines and N,N-dimethyl-l-tryptophan, are presented as well as current knowledge on their biosynthesis is provided. The multidisciplinary character of natural product research is demonstrated, and pharmacological, medicinal, ecological, biochemical, and evolutionary aspects are included.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Claudius Lenz
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | | | - Robert Kargbo
- The Usona Institute, 2800 Woods Hollow Road, Madison, 53711, WI, USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans-Knöll-Institute, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Jones NS, Comparin JH. Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019. Forensic Sci Int Synerg 2020; 2:608-669. [PMID: 33385148 PMCID: PMC7770462 DOI: 10.1016/j.fsisyn.2020.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA
| | - Jeffrey H. Comparin
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Milne N, Thomsen P, Mølgaard Knudsen N, Rubaszka P, Kristensen M, Borodina I. Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the de novo production of psilocybin and related tryptamine derivatives. Metab Eng 2020; 60:25-36. [PMID: 32224264 PMCID: PMC7232020 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2019.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 12/12/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin is a tryptamine-derived psychoactive alkaloid found mainly in the fungal genus Psilocybe, among others, and is the active ingredient in so-called “magic mushrooms”. Although its notoriety originates from its psychotropic properties and popular use as a recreational drug, clinical trials have recently recognized psilocybin as a promising candidate for the treatment of various psychological and neurological afflictions. In this work, we demonstrate the de novo biosynthetic production of psilocybin and related tryptamine derivatives in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by expression of a heterologous biosynthesis pathway sourced from Psilocybe cubensis. Additionally, we achieve improved product titers by supplementing the pathway with a novel cytochrome P450 reductase from P. cubensis. Further rational engineering resulted in a final production strain producing 627 ± 140 mg/L of psilocybin and 580 ± 276 mg/L of the dephosphorylated degradation product psilocin in triplicate controlled fed-batch fermentations in minimal synthetic media. Pathway intermediates baeocystin, nor norbaeocystin as well the dephosphorylated baeocystin degradation product norpsilocin were also detected in strains engineered for psilocybin production. We also demonstrate the biosynthetic production of natural tryptamine derivative aeruginascin as well as the production of a new-to-nature tryptamine derivative N-acetyl-4-hydroxytryptamine. These results lay the foundation for the biotechnological production of psilocybin in a controlled environment for pharmaceutical applications, and provide a starting point for the biosynthetic production of other tryptamine derivatives of therapeutic relevance. De novo production of psilocybin in S. cerevisiae. Expression of a novel cytochrome P450 reductase from P. cubensis significantly boosts production. Rational metabolic engineering results in 627 mg/L psilocybin production. Production of natural and new-to-nature tryptamine derivatives demonstrated including norbaeocystin, baeocystin, and aeruginascin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Milne
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - P Thomsen
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - N Mølgaard Knudsen
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - P Rubaszka
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - M Kristensen
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - I Borodina
- The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Blei F, Dörner S, Fricke J, Baldeweg F, Trottmann F, Komor A, Meyer F, Hertweck C, Hoffmeister D. Simultaneous Production of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in "Magic" Mushrooms. Chemistry 2019; 26:729-734. [PMID: 31729089 PMCID: PMC7003923 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201904363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The psychotropic effects of Psilocybe “magic” mushrooms are caused by the l‐tryptophan‐derived alkaloid psilocybin. Despite their significance, the secondary metabolome of these fungi is poorly understood in general. Our analysis of four Psilocybe species identified harmane, harmine, and a range of other l‐tryptophan‐derived β‐carbolines as their natural products, which was confirmed by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Stable‐isotope labeling with 13C11‐l‐tryptophan verified the β‐carbolines as biosynthetic products of these fungi. In addition, MALDI‐MS imaging showed that β‐carbolines accumulate toward the hyphal apices. As potent inhibitors of monoamine oxidases, β‐carbolines are neuroactive compounds and interfere with psilocybin degradation. Therefore, our findings represent an unprecedented scenario of natural product pathways that diverge from the same building block and produce dissimilar compounds, yet contribute directly or indirectly to the same pharmacological effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Felix Blei
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich Schiller University, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Sebastian Dörner
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich Schiller University, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich Schiller University, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Florian Baldeweg
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich Schiller University, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Felix Trottmann
- Department Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Anna Komor
- Department Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Florian Meyer
- Transfer Group Anti-Infectives, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product, Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Christian Hertweck
- Department Biomolecular Chemistry, Leibniz Institute for Natural, Product Research and Infection Biology-Hans Knöll Institute, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany.,Faculty of Biological Sciences, Friedrich Schiller University, Jena, 07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Hans Knöll Institute, Friedrich Schiller University, Beutenbergstrasse 11a, 07745, Jena, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Fricke J, Sherwood A, Kargbo R, Orry A, Blei F, Naschberger A, Rupp B, Hoffmeister D. Enzymatic Route toward 6‐Methylated Baeocystin and Psilocybin. Chembiochem 2019; 20:2824-2829. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janis Fricke
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | | | - Robert Kargbo
- The Usona Institute 2800 Woods Hollow Road Madison WI 53711 USA
| | - Andrew Orry
- Molsoft L.L.C. 11199 Sorrento Valley Road San Diego CA 92121 USA
| | - Felix Blei
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| | - Andreas Naschberger
- Department of Genetic EpidemiologyMedizinische Universität Innsbruck Schöpfstrasse 41 6020 Innsbruck Austria
| | - Bernhard Rupp
- Department of Genetic EpidemiologyMedizinische Universität Innsbruck Schöpfstrasse 41 6020 Innsbruck Austria
- Hofkristallamt 991 Audrey Place Vista CA 92084 USA
| | - Dirk Hoffmeister
- Department Pharmaceutical Microbiology at the Hans Knöll InstituteFriedrich-Schiller-Universität Beutenbergstrasse 11a 07745 Jena Germany
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Adams AM, Kaplan NA, Wei Z, Brinton JD, Monnier CS, Enacopol AL, Ramelot TA, Jones JA. In vivo production of psilocybin in E. coli. Metab Eng 2019; 56:111-119. [PMID: 31550507 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymben.2019.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 09/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Psilocybin, the prodrug of the psychoactive molecule psilocin, has demonstrated promising results in clinical trials for the treatment of addiction, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder. The development of a psilocybin production platform in a highly engineerable microbe could lead to rapid advances towards the bioproduction of psilocybin for use in ongoing clinical trials. Here, we present the development of a modular biosynthetic production platform in the model microbe, Escherichia coli. Efforts to optimize and improve pathway performance using multiple genetic optimization techniques were evaluated, resulting in a 32-fold improvement in psilocybin titer. Further enhancements to this genetically superior strain were achieved through fermentation optimization, ultimately resulting in a fed-batch fermentation study, with a production titer of 1.16 g/L of psilocybin. This is the highest psilocybin titer achieved to date from a recombinant organism and a significant step towards demonstrating the feasibility of industrial production of biologically-derived psilocybin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra M Adams
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Nicholas A Kaplan
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Zhangyue Wei
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - John D Brinton
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Chantal S Monnier
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Alexis L Enacopol
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - Theresa A Ramelot
- Miami University, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| | - J Andrew Jones
- Miami University, Department of Chemical, Paper, And Biomedical Engineering, Oxford, OH, 45056, USA.
| |
Collapse
|