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Glausier JR, Bouchet-Marquis C, Maier M, Banks-Tibbs T, Wu K, Ning J, Melchitzky D, Lewis DA, Freyberg Z. Volume electron microscopy reveals 3D synaptic nanoarchitecture in postmortem human prefrontal cortex. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.26.582174. [PMID: 38463986 PMCID: PMC10925168 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.26.582174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Synaptic function is directly reflected in quantifiable ultrastructural features using electron microscopy (EM) approaches. This coupling of synaptic function and ultrastructure suggests that in vivo synaptic function can be inferred from EM analysis of ex vivo human brain tissue. To investigate this, we employed focused ion beam-scanning electron microscopy (FIB-SEM), a volume EM (VEM) approach, to generate ultrafine-resolution, three-dimensional (3D) micrographic datasets of postmortem human dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), a region with cytoarchitectonic characteristics distinct to human brain. Synaptic, sub-synaptic, and organelle measures were highly consistent with findings from experimental models that are free from antemortem or postmortem effects. Further, 3D neuropil reconstruction revealed a unique, ultrastructurally-complex, spiny dendritic shaft that exhibited features characteristic of heightened synaptic communication, integration, and plasticity. Altogether, our findings provide critical proof-of-concept data demonstrating that ex vivo VEM analysis is an effective approach to infer in vivo synaptic functioning in human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill R. Glausier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | | | - Matthew Maier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Tabitha Banks-Tibbs
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Human Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
- College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Ken Wu
- Materials and Structural Analysis, Thermo Fisher Scientific, Hillsboro, OR
| | - Jiying Ning
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | | | - David A. Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
| | - Zachary Freyberg
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA
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2
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Checcucci C, Wicinski B, Mazzamuto G, Scardigli M, Ramazzotti J, Brady N, Pavone FS, Hof PR, Costantini I, Frasconi P. Deep learning-based localization algorithms on fluorescence human brain 3D reconstruction: a comparative study using stereology as a reference. Sci Rep 2024; 14:14629. [PMID: 38918523 PMCID: PMC11199592 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
3D reconstruction of human brain volumes at high resolution is now possible thanks to advancements in tissue clearing methods and fluorescence microscopy techniques. Analyzing the massive data produced with these approaches requires automatic methods able to perform fast and accurate cell counting and localization. Recent advances in deep learning have enabled the development of various tools for cell segmentation. However, accurate quantification of neurons in the human brain presents specific challenges, such as high pixel intensity variability, autofluorescence, non-specific fluorescence and very large size of data. In this paper, we provide a thorough empirical evaluation of three techniques based on deep learning (StarDist, CellPose and BCFind-v2, an updated version of BCFind) using a recently introduced three-dimensional stereological design as a reference for large-scale insights. As a representative problem in human brain analysis, we focus on a 4 -cm 3 portion of the Broca's area. We aim at helping users in selecting appropriate techniques depending on their research objectives. To this end, we compare methods along various dimensions of analysis, including correctness of the predicted density and localization, computational efficiency, and human annotation effort. Our results suggest that deep learning approaches are very effective, have a high throughput providing each cell 3D location, and obtain results comparable to the estimates of the adopted stereological design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Curzio Checcucci
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, 50100, Firenze, FI, Italy.
| | - Bridget Wicinski
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute and Center for Discovery and Innovation, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10019, USA
| | - Giacomo Mazzamuto
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- National Research Council, National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- Department of Physics, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - Marina Scardigli
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University of Florence, 50100, Firenze, FI, Italy
| | - Josephine Ramazzotti
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - Niamh Brady
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - Francesco S Pavone
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- National Research Council, National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- Department of Physics, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Nash Family Department of Neuroscience, Friedman Brain Institute and Center for Discovery and Innovation, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY, 10019, USA
| | - Irene Costantini
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- National Research Council, National Institute of Optics (CNR-INO), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
- Department of Biology, University of Florence, 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
| | - Paolo Frasconi
- Department of Information Engineering, University of Florence, 50100, Firenze, FI, Italy
- European Laboratory for Non-Linear Spectroscopy (LENS), 50019, Sesto Fiorentino, FI, Italy
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3
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Dienel SJ, Schoonover KE, Lewis DA. Cognitive Dysfunction and Prefrontal Cortical Circuit Alterations in Schizophrenia: Developmental Trajectories. Biol Psychiatry 2022; 92:450-459. [PMID: 35568522 PMCID: PMC9420748 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 02/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Individuals with schizophrenia (SZ) exhibit cognitive performance below expected levels based on familial cognitive aptitude. One such cognitive process, working memory (WM), is robustly impaired in SZ. These WM impairments, which emerge over development during the premorbid and prodromal stages of SZ, appear to reflect alterations in the neural circuitry of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, a microcircuit formed by reciprocal connections between excitatory layer 3 pyramidal neurons and inhibitory parvalbumin basket cells (PVBCs) appears to be a key neural substrate for WM. Postmortem human studies indicate that both layer 3 pyramidal neurons and PVBCs are altered in SZ, suggesting that levels of excitation and inhibition are lower in the microcircuit. Studies in monkeys indicate that features of both cell types exhibit distinctive postnatal developmental trajectories. Together, the results of these studies suggest a model in which 1) genetic and/or early environmental insults to excitatory signaling in layer 3 pyramidal neurons give rise to cognitive impairments during the prodromal phase of SZ and evoke compensatory changes in inhibition that alter the developmental trajectories of PVBCs, and 2) synaptic pruning during adolescence further lowers excitatory activity to a level that exceeds the compensatory capacity of PVBC inhibition, leading to a failure of the normal maturational improvements in WM during the prodromal and early clinical stages of SZ. Findings that support as well as challenge this model are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel J Dienel
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Neuroscience, Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Kirsten E Schoonover
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - David A Lewis
- Translational Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Department of Neuroscience, Dietrich School of Arts and Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.
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Grubisha MJ, Sweet RA, MacDonald ML. Investigating Post-translational Modifications in Neuropsychiatric Disease: The Next Frontier in Human Post-mortem Brain Research. Front Mol Neurosci 2021; 14:689495. [PMID: 34335181 PMCID: PMC8322442 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2021.689495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene expression and translation have been extensively studied in human post-mortem brain tissue from subjects with psychiatric disease. Post-translational modifications (PTMs) have received less attention despite their implication by unbiased genetic studies and importance in regulating neuronal and circuit function. Here we review the rationale for studying PTMs in psychiatric disease, recent findings in human post-mortem tissue, the required controls for these types of studies, and highlight the emerging mass spectrometry approaches transforming this research direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie J. Grubisha
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Robert A. Sweet
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Matthew L. MacDonald
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
- Biomedical Mass Spectrometry Center, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
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Kontou G, Antonoudiou P, Podpolny M, Szulc BR, Arancibia-Carcamo IL, Higgs NF, Lopez-Domenech G, Salinas PC, Mann EO, Kittler JT. Miro1-dependent mitochondrial dynamics in parvalbumin interneurons. eLife 2021; 10:65215. [PMID: 34190042 PMCID: PMC8294849 DOI: 10.7554/elife.65215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The spatiotemporal distribution of mitochondria is crucial for precise ATP provision and calcium buffering required to support neuronal signaling. Fast-spiking GABAergic interneurons expressing parvalbumin (PV+) have a high mitochondrial content reflecting their large energy utilization. The importance for correct trafficking and precise mitochondrial positioning remains poorly elucidated in inhibitory neurons. Miro1 is a Ca²+-sensing adaptor protein that links mitochondria to the trafficking apparatus, for their microtubule-dependent transport along axons and dendrites, in order to meet the metabolic and Ca2+-buffering requirements of the cell. Here, we explore the role of Miro1 in PV+ interneurons and how changes in mitochondrial trafficking could alter network activity in the mouse brain. By employing live and fixed imaging, we found that the impairments in Miro1-directed trafficking in PV+ interneurons altered their mitochondrial distribution and axonal arborization, while PV+ interneuron-mediated inhibition remained intact. These changes were accompanied by an increase in the ex vivo hippocampal γ-oscillation (30–80 Hz) frequency and promoted anxiolysis. Our findings show that precise regulation of mitochondrial dynamics in PV+ interneurons is crucial for proper neuronal signaling and network synchronization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgina Kontou
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Pantelis Antonoudiou
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Marina Podpolny
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Blanka R Szulc
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - I Lorena Arancibia-Carcamo
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Nathalie F Higgs
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Guillermo Lopez-Domenech
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Patricia C Salinas
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edward O Mann
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Oxford Ion Channel Initiative, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Josef T Kittler
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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Glausier JR, Datta D, Fish KN, Chung DW, Melchitzky DS, Lewis DA. Laminar Differences in the Targeting of Dendritic Spines by Cortical Pyramidal Neurons and Interneurons in Human Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex. Neuroscience 2021; 452:181-191. [PMID: 33212224 PMCID: PMC7770119 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 10/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Activation of specific neural circuits in different layers of the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is essential for working memory, a core cognitive function. Recurrent excitation between pyramidal neurons in middle and deep layers of the DLPFC contributes to the laminar-specific activity associated with different working memory subprocesses. Excitation between cortical pyramidal neurons is mediated by glutamatergic synapses on dendritic spines, but whether the relative abundance of spines receiving cortical inputs differs between middle and deep cortical layers in human DLPFC is unknown. Additionally, GABAergic inputs to spines sculpt pyramidal neuron activity. Whether dendritic spines that receive a glutamatergic input from a cortical pyramidal neuron are targeted by GABAergic interneurons in the human DLPFC is unknown. Using triple-label fluorescence confocal microscopy, we found that 1) the density of spines receiving an input from a cortical pyramidal neuron is greater in the middle than in the deep laminar zone, 2) dendritic spines dually innervated by a cortical pyramidal neuron and an interneuron are present in the human DLPFC, and 3) the density of spines dually innervated by a cortical pyramidal neuron and an interneuron is also greater in the middle than in the deep laminar zone. Ultrastructural analyses support the presence of spines that receive a cortical pyramidal neuron synapse and an interneuron synapse in human and monkey DLPFC. These data support the notion that the DLPFC middle laminar zone is particularly endowed with a microcircuit structure that supports the gating, integrating and fine-tuning of synaptic information in recurrent excitatory microcircuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jill R Glausier
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Dibyadeep Datta
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, A210 Langley Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, Sterling Hall of Medicine, 333 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Kenneth N Fish
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, A210 Langley Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Daniel W Chung
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, A210 Langley Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Darlene S Melchitzky
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - David A Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, Translational Neuroscience Program, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Biomedical Science Tower W1654, 3811 O'Hara Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA; Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh, A210 Langley Hall, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA.
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7
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Fluorescence-Based Quantitative Synapse Analysis for Cell Type-Specific Connectomics. eNeuro 2019; 6:ENEURO.0193-19.2019. [PMID: 31548370 PMCID: PMC6873163 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0193-19.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2019] [Revised: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Anatomical methods for determining cell type-specific connectivity are essential to inspire and constrain our understanding of neural circuit function. We developed genetically-encoded reagents for fluorescence-synapse labeling and connectivity analysis in brain tissue, using a fluorogen-activating protein (FAP)-coupled or YFP-coupled, postsynaptically-localized neuroligin-1 (NL-1) targeting sequence (FAP/YFPpost). FAPpost expression did not alter mEPSC or mIPSC properties. Sparse AAV-mediated expression of FAP/YFPpost with the cell-filling, red fluorophore dTomato (dTom) enabled high-throughput, compartment-specific detection of putative synapses across diverse neuron types in mouse somatosensory cortex. We took advantage of the bright, far-red emission of FAPpost puncta for multichannel fluorescence alignment of dendrites, FAPpost puncta, and presynaptic neurites in transgenic mice with saturated labeling of parvalbumin (PV), somatostatin (SST), or vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP)-expressing neurons using Cre-reporter driven expression of YFP. Subtype-specific inhibitory connectivity onto layer 2/3 (L2/3) neocortical pyramidal (Pyr) neurons was assessed using automated puncta detection and neurite apposition. Quantitative and compartment-specific comparisons show that PV inputs are the predominant source of inhibition at both the soma and the dendrites and were particularly concentrated at the primary apical dendrite. SST inputs were interleaved with PV inputs at all secondary-order and higher-order dendritic branches. These fluorescence-based synapse labeling reagents can facilitate large-scale and cell-type specific quantitation of changes in synaptic connectivity across development, learning, and disease states.
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Glausier JR, Konanur A, Lewis DA. Factors Affecting Ultrastructural Quality in the Prefrontal Cortex of the Postmortem Human Brain. J Histochem Cytochem 2019; 67:185-202. [PMID: 30562121 PMCID: PMC6393839 DOI: 10.1369/0022155418819481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Electron microscopy (EM) studies of the postmortem human brain provide a level of resolution essential for understanding brain function in both normal and disease states. However, processes associated with death can impair the cellular and organelle ultrastructural preservation required for quantitative EM studies. Although postmortem interval (PMI), the time between death and preservation of tissue, is thought to be the most influential factor of ultrastructural quality, numerous other factors may also influence tissue preservation. The goal of the present study was to assess the effects of pre- and postmortem factors on multiple components of ultrastructure in the postmortem human prefrontal cortex. Tissue samples from 30 subjects were processed using standard EM histochemistry. The primary dependent measure was number of identifiable neuronal profiles, and secondary measures included presence and/or integrity of synapses, mitochondria, and myelinated axonal fibers. Number of identifiable neuronal profiles was most strongly affected by the interaction of PMI and pH, such that short PMIs and neutral pH values predicted the best preservation. Secondary measures were largely unaffected by pre- and postmortem factors. Together, these data indicate that distinct components of the neuropil are differentially affected by PMI and pH in postmortem human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anisha Konanur
- The Dietrich School of Arts & Sciences, University of Pittsburgh
| | - David A. Lewis
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Pittsburgh
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Palomero-Gallagher N, Zilles K. Cortical layers: Cyto-, myelo-, receptor- and synaptic architecture in human cortical areas. Neuroimage 2017; 197:716-741. [PMID: 28811255 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.08.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 08/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cortical layers have classically been identified by their distinctive and prevailing cell types and sizes, as well as the packing densities of cell bodies or myelinated fibers. The densities of multiple receptors for classical neurotransmitters also vary across the depth of the cortical ribbon, and thus determine the neurochemical properties of cyto- and myeloarchitectonic layers. However, a systematic comparison of the correlations between these histologically definable layers and the laminar distribution of transmitter receptors is currently lacking. We here analyze the densities of 17 different receptors of various transmitter systems in the layers of eight cytoarchitectonically identified, functionally (motor, sensory, multimodal) and hierarchically (primary and secondary sensory, association) distinct areas of the human cerebral cortex. Maxima of receptor densities are found in different layers when comparing different cortical regions, i.e. laminar receptor densities demonstrate differences in receptorarchitecture between isocortical areas, notably between motor and primary sensory cortices, specifically the primary visual and somatosensory cortices, as well as between allocortical and isocortical areas. Moreover, considerable differences are found between cytoarchitectonical and receptor architectonical laminar patterns. Whereas the borders of cyto- and myeloarchitectonic layers are well comparable, the laminar profiles of receptor densities rarely coincide with the histologically defined borders of layers. Instead, highest densities of most receptors are found where the synaptic density is maximal, i.e. in the supragranular layers, particularly in layers II-III. The entorhinal cortex as an example of the allocortex shows a peculiar laminar organization, which largely deviates from that of all the other cortical areas analyzed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Palomero-Gallagher
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, Aachen, Germany.
| | - Karl Zilles
- Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine (INM-1), Research Centre Jülich, Jülich, Germany; Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy, and Psychosomatics, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany; JARA - Translational Brain Medicine, Aachen, Germany.
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