Ca2+-activated Cl- channels

Anoctamin pharmacology

TMEM16 proteins, also known as anoctamins, are a family of ten membrane proteins with various tissue expression and subcellular localization. TMEM16A (anoctamin 1) is a plasma membrane protein that acts as a calcium-activated chloride channel. It is expressed in many types of epithelial cells, smooth muscle cells and some neurons. In airway epithelial cells, TMEM16A expression is particularly enhanced by inflammatory stimuli that also promote goblet cell metaplasia and mucus hypersecretion. Therefore, pharmacological modulation of TMEM16A could be beneficial to improve mucociliary clearance in chronic obstructive respiratory diseases. However, the correct approach to modulate TMEM16A activity (activation or inhibition) is still debated. Pharmacological inhibitors of TMEM16A could also be useful as anti-hypertensive agents given the TMEM16A role in smooth muscle contraction. In contrast to TMEM16A, TMEM16F (anoctamin 6) behaves as a calcium-activated phospholipid scramblase, responsible for the externalization of phosphatidylserine on cell surface. Inhibitors of TMEM16F could be useful as anti-coagulants and anti-viral agents. The role of other anoctamins as therapeutic targets is still unclear since their physiological role is still to be defined.

A Pharmacological Investigation of the TMEM16A Currents in Murine Skeletal Myogenic Precursor Cells

TMEM16A is a Ca2+-activated Cl- channel expressed in various species and tissues. In mammalian skeletal muscle precursors, the activity of these channels is still poorly investigated. Here, we characterized TMEM16A channels and investigated if the pharmacological activation of Piezo1 channels could modulate the TMEM16A currents in mouse myogenic precursors. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings combined with the pharmacological agents Ani9, T16inh-A01 and Yoda1 were used to characterize TMEM16A-mediated currents and the possible modulatory effect of Piezo1 activity on TMEM16A channels. Western blot analysis was also carried out to confirm the expression of TMEM16A and Piezo1 channel proteins. We found that TMEM16A channels were functionally expressed in fusion-competent mouse myogenic precursors. The pharmacological blockage of TMEM16A inhibited myocyte fusion into myotubes. Moreover, the specific Piezo1 agonist Yoda1 positively regulated TMEM16A currents. The findings demonstrate, for the first time, a sarcolemmal TMEM16A channel activity and its involvement at the early stage of mammalian skeletal muscle differentiation. In addition, the results suggest a possible role of mechanosensitive Piezo1 channels in the modulation of TMEM16A currents.

Human pancreatic ductal organoids with controlled polarity provide a novel ex vivo tool to study epithelial cell physiology

Epithelial ion and fluid secretion determine the physiological functions of a broad range of organs, such as the lung, liver, or pancreas. The molecular mechanism of pancreatic ion secretion is challenging to investigate due to the limited access to functional human ductal epithelia. Patient-derived organoids may overcome these limitations, however direct accessibility of the apical membrane is not solved. In addition, due to the vectorial transport of ions and fluid the intraluminal pressure in the organoids is elevated, which may hinder the study of physiological processes. To overcome these, we developed an advanced culturing method for human pancreatic organoids based on the removal of the extracellular matrix that induced an apical-to-basal polarity switch also leading to reversed localization of proteins with polarized expression. The cells in the apical-out organoids had a cuboidal shape, whereas their resting intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration was more consistent compared to the cells in the apical-in organoids. Using this advanced model, we demonstrated the expression and function of two novel ion channels, the Ca²⁺ activated Cl^- channel Anoctamin 1 (ANO1) and the epithelial Na⁺ channel (ENaC), which were not considered in ductal cells yet. Finally, we showed that the available functional assays, such as forskolin-induced swelling, or intracellular Cl^- measurement have improved dynamic range when performed with apical-out organoids. Taken together our data suggest that polarity-switched human pancreatic ductal organoids are suitable models to expand our toolset in basic and translational research.

The pharmacology of the TMEM16A channel: therapeutic opportunities

The TMEM16A Ca²⁺-gated Cl^- channel is involved in a variety of vital physiological functions and may be targeted pharmacologically for therapeutic benefit in diseases such as hypertension, stroke, and cystic fibrosis (CF). The determination of the TMEM16A structure and high-throughput screening efforts, alongside ex vivo and in vivo animal studies and clinical investigations, are hastening our understanding of the physiology and pharmacology of this channel. Here, we offer a critical analysis of recent developments in TMEM16A pharmacology and reflect on the therapeutic opportunities provided by this target.

Polymodal Control of TMEM16x Channels and Scramblases

The TMEM16A/anoctamin-1 calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC) contributes to a range of vital functions, such as the control of vascular tone and epithelial ion transport. The channel is a founding member of a family of 10 proteins (TMEM16x) with varied functions; some members (i.e., TMEM16A and TMEM16B) serve as CaCCs, while others are lipid scramblases, combine channel and scramblase function, or perform additional cellular roles. TMEM16x proteins are typically activated by agonist-induced Ca2+ release evoked by Gq-protein-coupled receptor (GqPCR) activation; thus, TMEM16x proteins link Ca2+-signalling with cell electrical activity and/or lipid transport. Recent studies demonstrate that a range of other cellular factors—including plasmalemmal lipids, pH, hypoxia, ATP and auxiliary proteins—also control the activity of the TMEM16A channel and its paralogues, suggesting that the TMEM16x proteins are effectively polymodal sensors of cellular homeostasis. Here, we review the molecular pathophysiology, structural biology, and mechanisms of regulation of TMEM16x proteins by multiple cellular factors.

Chloride transport modulators as drug candidates

Chloride transport across cell membranes is broadly involved in epithelial fluid transport, cell volume and pH regulation, muscle contraction, membrane excitability, and organellar acidification. The human genome encodes at least 53 chloride-transporting proteins with expression in cell plasma or intracellular membranes, which include chloride channels, exchangers, and cotransporters, some having broad anion specificity. Loss-of-function mutations in chloride transporters cause a wide variety of human diseases, including cystic fibrosis, secretory diarrhea, kidney stones, salt-wasting nephropathy, myotonia, osteopetrosis, hearing loss, and goiter. Although impactful advances have been made in the past decade in drug treatment of cystic fibrosis using small molecule modulators of the defective cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) chloride channel, other chloride channels and solute carrier proteins (SLCs) represent relatively underexplored target classes for drug discovery. New opportunities have emerged for the development of chloride transport modulators as potential therapeutics for secretory diarrheas, constipation, dry eye disorders, kidney stones, polycystic kidney disease, hypertension, and osteoporosis. Approaches to chloride transport-targeted drug discovery are reviewed herein, with focus on chloride channel and exchanger classes in which recent preclinical advances have been made in the identification of small molecule modulators and in proof of concept testing in experimental animal models.

Calcium-Dependent Ion Channels and the Regulation of Arteriolar Myogenic Tone

Arterioles in the peripheral microcirculation regulate blood flow to and within tissues and organs, control capillary blood pressure and microvascular fluid exchange, govern peripheral vascular resistance, and contribute to the regulation of blood pressure. These important microvessels display pressure-dependent myogenic tone, the steady state level of contractile activity of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) that sets resting arteriolar internal diameter such that arterioles can both dilate and constrict to meet the blood flow and pressure needs of the tissues and organs that they perfuse. This perspective will focus on the Ca²⁺-dependent ion channels in the plasma and endoplasmic reticulum membranes of arteriolar VSMCs and endothelial cells (ECs) that regulate arteriolar tone. In VSMCs, Ca²⁺-dependent negative feedback regulation of myogenic tone is mediated by Ca²⁺-activated K⁺ (BK_Ca) channels and also Ca²⁺-dependent inactivation of voltage-gated Ca²⁺ channels (VGCC). Transient receptor potential subfamily M, member 4 channels (TRPM4); Ca²⁺-activated Cl⁻ channels (CaCCs; TMEM16A/ANO1), Ca²⁺-dependent inhibition of voltage-gated K⁺ (K_V) and ATP-sensitive K⁺ (K_ATP) channels; and Ca²⁺-induced-Ca²⁺ release through inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP₃Rs) participate in Ca²⁺-dependent positive-feedback regulation of myogenic tone. Calcium release from VSMC ryanodine receptors (RyRs) provide negative-feedback through Ca²⁺-spark-mediated control of BK_Ca channel activity, or positive-feedback regulation in cooperation with IP₃Rs or CaCCs. In some arterioles, VSMC RyRs are silent. In ECs, transient receptor potential vanilloid subfamily, member 4 (TRPV4) channels produce Ca²⁺ sparklets that activate IP₃Rs and intermediate and small conductance Ca²⁺ activated K⁺ (IK_Ca and sK_Ca) channels causing membrane hyperpolarization that is conducted to overlying VSMCs producing endothelium-dependent hyperpolarization and vasodilation. Endothelial IP₃Rs produce Ca²⁺ pulsars, Ca²⁺ wavelets, Ca²⁺ waves and increased global Ca²⁺ levels activating EC sK_Ca and IK_Ca channels and causing Ca²⁺-dependent production of endothelial vasodilator autacoids such as NO, prostaglandin I₂ and epoxides of arachidonic acid that mediate negative-feedback regulation of myogenic tone. Thus, Ca²⁺-dependent ion channels importantly contribute to many aspects of the regulation of myogenic tone in arterioles in the microcirculation.

Upregulation of TTYH3 promotes epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition through Wnt/β-catenin signaling and inhibits apoptosis in cholangiocarcinoma

PURPOSE

Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) is a highly invasive malignant tumor originating from the bile duct epithelium. Tweety homolog 3 (TTYH3) is a member of the family of calcium-activated chloride channels, which have several biological functions. Here, we aimed to investigate the expression and biological function of TTYH3 in CCA.

METHODS

The mRNA and protein expression levels of TTYH3 were investigated in primary human CCA tissues and normal tissues. The DNA methylation levels of three CpG sites in the TTYH3 promoter region were evaluated using pyrosequencing. The effect of TTYH3 expression on proliferation, apoptosis, migration and invasion were assessed in HUCCT1 and QBC939 cells. Xenograft models were developed to substantiate its role in the development of CCA. Western blot analysis was used to investigate the mechanistic role of TTYH3 in regulating CCA progression.

RESULTS

We found that TTYH3 was highly expressed both at the mRNA and protein levels in CCA (p = 0.0001) and that the expression levels were significantly related to a poor overall survival of the patients (p = 0.0019). The DNA methylation levels of three CpG sites in the TTYH3 promoter region were significantly lower in CCA tissues compared to normal tissues (p < 0.05). In vitro studies indicated that TTYH3 can promote the proliferation, migration and invasion of the CCA cells. TTYH3 overexpression significantly promoted tumor progression and cellular proliferation in vivo as indicated by Ki-67 expression. In addition, we found that exogenous TTYH3 overexpression induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in CCA as indicated by expression changes in E-cadherin, N-cadherin and vimentin. The EMT process was found to occur through the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway, with simultaneous changes in P-GSK3β and β-catenin levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data indicate that DNA hypomethylation-induced overexpression of TTYH3 regulates CCA development and metastasis through the Wnt/β-catenin pathway.

Regulation of Electrolyte Permeability by Herbal Monomers in Edematous Disorders

Edema is a gradual accumulation of fluid in the interstitial tissues or luminal cavities, which is regulated by ion transport pathways and reflects dysfunction of fluid and salt homeostasis. Increasing evidence suggests that some herbal monomers significantly reduce organ/tissue edema. In this review, we briefly summarized the electrolyte permeability involved in pathomechanisms of organ edema, and the benefits of herbal monomers on ionic transport machinery, including Na+-K+-ATPase, Na+ and Cl- channels, Na+-K+-2Cl- co-transporter, etc. Pharmaceutical relevance is implicated in developing advanced strategies to mitigate edematous disorders. In conclusion, the natural herbal monomers regulate electrolyte permeability in many edematous disorders, and further basic and clinical studies are needed.

Slippery When Wet: Airway Surface Liquid Homeostasis and Mucus Hydration

The ability to regulate cell volume is crucial for normal physiology; equally the regulation of extracellular fluid homeostasis is of great importance. Alteration of normal extracellular fluid homeostasis contributes to the development of several diseases including cystic fibrosis. With regard to the airway surface liquid (ASL), which lies apically on top of airway epithelia, ion content, pH, mucin and protein abundance must be tightly regulated. Furthermore, airway epithelia must be able to switch from an absorptive to a secretory state as required. A heterogeneous population of airway epithelial cells regulate ASL solute and solvent composition, and directly secrete large mucin molecules, antimicrobials, proteases and soluble mediators into the airway lumen. This review focuses on how epithelial ion transport influences ASL hydration and ASL pH, with a specific focus on the roles of anion and cation channels and exchangers. The role of ions and pH in mucin expansion is also addressed. With regard to fluid volume regulation, we discuss the roles of nucleotides, adenosine and the short palate lung and nasal epithelial clone 1 (SPLUNC1) as soluble ASL mediators. Together, these mechanisms directly influence ciliary beating and in turn mucociliary clearance to maintain sterility and to detoxify the airways. Whilst all of these components are regulated in normal airways, defective ion transport and/or mucin secretion proves detrimental to lung homeostasis as such we address how defective ion and fluid transport, and a loss of homeostatic mechanisms, contributes to the development of pathophysiologies associated with cystic fibrosis.

Colonic Hypermotility in a Rat Model of Irritable Bowel Syndrome Is Associated with Upregulation of TMEM16A in Myenteric Plexus

BACKGROUND

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a common disease with intestinal dysmotility, whose mechanism remains elusive. TMEM16A is a calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC) involved in intestinal slow-wave generation.

AIMS

To investigate whether TMEM16A is involved in colonic dysmotility in IBS.

METHODS

A rat model of IBS was established by chronic water avoidance stress (WAS). Colonic pathological alterations were evaluated histologically, and intestinal motility was assessed by intestinal transit time (ITT) and fecal water content (FWC). Visceral sensitivity was determined by visceromotor response (VMR) to colorectal distension (CRD). TMEM16A expression was evaluated by RT-PCR, Western blot, and immunofluorescence. Colonic muscle strip contractility was measured by isometric transducers, and the effect of niflumic acid (NFA), a CaCC antagonist, on colonic motility was examined.

RESULTS

After 10 days of WAS exposure, ITT was decreased and FWC was elevated. Furthermore, VMR magnitude of WAS rats in response to CRD was significantly enhanced. Protein and mRNA levels of TMEM16A in colon were considerably increased after WAS. The percentage of TMEM16A-positive neurons in myenteric plexus (MP) of WAS rats was significantly higher than controls. Pharmacological blockade of TMEM16A activity by NFA considerably enhanced ITT, with concentration-dependent declines in FWC and VMR magnitude in NFA-treated rats. Further, spontaneous contraction of colonic strips of NFA-treated rats was significantly ameliorated in a concentration-dependent manner in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Upregulation of TMEM16A in MP neurons may play an important role in chronic stress-induced colonic hypermotility, making CaCC-blocking drugs a putatively effective treatment method for colonic hypermotility in IBS.

Contrasting effects of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate on cloned TMEM16A and TMEM16B channels

Background and Purpose

Ca²⁺‐activated Cl⁻ channels (CaCCs) are gated open by a rise in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i), typically provoked by activation of G_q‐protein coupled receptors (G_qPCR). G_qPCR activation initiates depletion of plasmalemmal phosphatidylinositol 4,5‐bisphosphate (PIP₂). Here, we determined whether PIP₂ acts as a signalling lipid for CaCCs coded by the TMEM16A and TMEM16B genes.

Experimental Approach

Patch‐clamp electrophysiology, in conjunction with genetically encoded systems to control cellular PIP₂ content, was used to define the mechanism of action of PIP₂ on TMEM16A and TMEM16B channels.

Key Results

A water‐soluble PIP₂ analogue (diC8‐PIP₂) activated TMEM16A channels by up to fivefold and inhibited TMEM16B by ~0.2‐fold. The effects of diC8‐PIP₂ on TMEM16A currents were especially pronounced at low [Ca²⁺]_i. In contrast, diC8‐PIP₂ modulation of TMEM16B channels did not vary over a broad [Ca²⁺]_i range but was only detectable at highly depolarized membrane potentials. Modulation of TMEM16A and TMEM16B currents was due to changes in channel gating, while single channel conductance was unaltered. Co‐expression of TMEM16A or TMEM16B with a Danio rerio voltage‐sensitive phosphatase (DrVSP), which degrades PIP₂, led to reduction and enhancement of TMEM16A and TMEM16B currents respectively. These effects were abolished by an inactivating mutation in DrVSP and antagonized by simultaneous co‐expression of a phosphatidylinositol‐4‐phosphate 5‐kinase that catalyses PIP₂ formation.

Conclusions and Implications

PIP₂ acts as a modifier of TMEM16A and TMEM16B channel gating. Drugs interacting with PIP₂ signalling may affect TMEM16A and TMEM16B channel gating and have potential uses in basic science and implications for therapy.

TRPC1 regulates calcium-activated chloride channels in salivary gland cells

Calcium-activated chloride channel (CaCC) plays an important role in modulating epithelial secretion. It has been suggested that in salivary tissues, sustained fluid secretion is dependent on Ca(2+) influx that activates ion channels such as CaCC to initiate Cl(-) efflux. However direct evidence as well as the molecular identity of the Ca(2+) channel responsible for activating CaCC in salivary tissues is not yet identified. Here we provide evidence that in human salivary cells, an outward rectifying Cl(-) current was activated by increasing [Ca(2+)]i, which was inhibited by the addition of pharmacological agents niflumic acid (NFA), an antagonist of CaCC, or T16Ainh-A01, a specific TMEM16a inhibitor. Addition of thapsigargin (Tg), that induces store-depletion and activates TRPC1-mediated Ca(2+) entry, potentiated the Cl(-) current, which was inhibited by the addition of a non-specific TRPC channel blocker SKF96365 or removal of external Ca(2+). Stimulation with Tg also increased plasma membrane expression of TMEM16a protein, which was also dependent on Ca(2+) entry. Importantly, in salivary cells, TRPC1 silencing, but not that of TRPC3, inhibited CaCC especially upon store depletion. Moreover, primary acinar cells isolated from submandibular gland also showed outward rectifying Cl(-) currents upon increasing [Ca(2+)]i. These Cl(-) currents were again potentiated with the addition of Tg, but inhibited in the presence of T16Ainh-A01. Finally, acinar cells isolated from the submandibular glands of TRPC1 knockout mice showed significant inhibition of the outward Cl(-) currents without decreasing TMEM16a expression. Together the data suggests that Ca(2+) entry via the TRPC1 channels is essential for the activation of CaCC.

Airway hydration and COPD

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is one of the prevalent causes of worldwide mortality and encompasses two major clinical phenotypes, i.e., chronic bronchitis (CB) and emphysema. The most common cause of COPD is chronic tobacco inhalation. Research focused on the chronic bronchitic phenotype of COPD has identified several pathological processes that drive disease initiation and progression. For example, the lung's mucociliary clearance (MCC) system performs the critical task of clearing inhaled pathogens and toxic materials from the lung. MCC efficiency is dependent on: (1) the ability of apical plasma membrane ion channels such as the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the epithelial Na(+) channel (ENaC) to maintain airway hydration; (2) ciliary beating; and (3) appropriate rates of mucin secretion. Each of these components is impaired in CB and likely contributes to the mucus stasis/accumulation seen in CB patients. This review highlights the cellular components responsible for maintaining MCC and how this process is disrupted following tobacco exposure and with CB. We shall also discuss existing therapeutic strategies for the treatment of chronic bronchitis and how components of the MCC can be used as biomarkers for the evaluation of tobacco or tobacco-like-product exposure.

Ion channel and lipid scramblase activity associated with expression of TMEM16F/ANO6 isoforms

TMEM16F is a membrane protein with possible dual function as an ion channel and a phospholipid scramblase. The properties of ion channels associated with TMEM16F and the link between ion channel and scramblase activity are a matter of debate. We studied the properties of four isoforms of TMEM16F generated by alternative splicing. Upregulation of three TMEM16F isoforms or silencing of endogenous TMEM16F increased and decreased, respectively, both scramblase and channel activities. Introduction of an activating mutation in TMEM16F sequence caused a marked increase in phosphatidylserine scrambling and in ion transport indicating direct involvement of the protein in both functions. TMEM16F, also known as ANO6, is a membrane protein that has been associated with phospholipid scramblase and ion channel activity. However, the characteristics of TMEM16F-dependent channels, particularly the ion selectivity, are a matter of debate. Furthermore, the direct involvement of TMEM16F in phospholipid scrambling has been questioned. We studied the properties of different TMEM16F variants generated by alternative splicing. Using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings, we found that V1, V2 and V5 variants generated membrane currents activated by very high (micromolar) intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations and positive membrane potentials. These variants showed different degrees of Ca(2+) sensitivity and kinetics of activation but similar ion permeability, characterized by a slight selectivity for Cl(-) over Na(+) . A fourth variant (V3) showing a unique carboxy-terminus was devoid of activity, in agreement with its intracellular localization. We also measured scramblase activity using the binding of annexin V to detect phosphatidylserine on the cell surface. V1, V2 and V5 variants were associated with calcium-dependent phosphatidylserine externalization. Interestingly, introduction of an activating mutation, D409G, produced a marked increase in the apparent Ca(2+) sensitivity of TMEM16F-dependent channels. In parallel, this mutation also enhanced the extent of phosphatidylserine externalization that occurred even under resting conditions. These results support the conclusion that TMEM16F proteins are directly involved in dual activity, as a phospholipid scramblase and as an ion channel.

Etiology of distinct membrane excitability in pre- and posthearing auditory neurons relies on activity of Cl- channel TMEM16A

The developmental rehearsal for the debut of hearing is marked by massive changes in the membrane properties of hair cells (HCs) and spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs). Whereas the underlying mechanisms for the developing HC transition to mature stage are understood in detail, the maturation of SGNs from hyperexcitable prehearing to quiescent posthearing neurons with broad dynamic range is unknown. Here, we demonstrated using pharmacological approaches, caged-Ca(2+) photolysis, and gramicidin patch recordings that the prehearing SGN uses Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) conductance to depolarize the resting membrane potential and to prime the neurons in a hyperexcitable state. Immunostaining of the cochlea preparation revealed the identity and expression of the Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel transmembrane member 16A (TMEM16A) in SGNs. Moreover, null deletion of TMEM16A reduced the Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) currents and action potential firing in SGNs. To determine whether Cl(-) ions and TMEM16A are involved in the transition between pre- and posthearing features of SGNs we measured the intracellular Cl(-) concentration [Cl(-)]i in SGNs. Surprisingly, [Cl(-)]i in SGNs from prehearing mice was ∼90 mM, which was significantly higher than posthearing neurons, ∼20 mM, demonstrating discernible altered roles of Cl(-) channels in the developing neuron. The switch in [Cl(-)]i stems from delayed expression of the development of intracellular Cl(-) regulating mechanisms. Because the Cl(-) channel is the only active ion-selective conductance with a reversal potential that lies within the dynamic range of SGN action potentials, developmental alteration of [Cl(-)]i, and hence the equilibrium potential for Cl(-) (ECl), transforms pre- to posthearing phenotype.

Functions of volume-sensitive and calcium-activated chloride channels

The review describes molecular and functional properties of the volume regulated anion channel and Ca(2+)-dependent Cl(-) channels belonging to the anoctamin family with emphasis on physiological importance of these channels in regulation of cell volume, cell migration, cell proliferation, and programmed cell death. Finally, we discuss the role of Cl(-) channels in various diseases.

Developmental expression of the calcium-activated chloride channels TMEM16A and TMEM16B in the mouse olfactory epithelium

Calcium-activated chloride channels are involved in several physiological processes including olfactory perception. TMEM16A and TMEM16B, members of the transmembrane protein 16 family (TMEM16), are responsible for calcium-activated chloride currents in several cells. Both are present in the olfactory epithelium of adult mice, but little is known about their expression during embryonic development. Using immunohistochemistry we studied their expression in the mouse olfactory epithelium at various stages of prenatal development from embryonic day (E) 12.5 to E18.5 as well as in postnatal mice. At E12.5, TMEM16A immunoreactivity was present at the apical surface of the entire olfactory epithelium, but from E16.5 became restricted to a region near the transition zone with the respiratory epithelium, where localized at the apical part of supporting cells and in their microvilli. In contrast, TMEM16B immunoreactivity was present at E14.5 at the apical surface of the entire olfactory epithelium, increased in subsequent days, and localized to the cilia of mature olfactory sensory neurons. These data suggest different functional roles for TMEM16A and TMEM16B in the developing as well as in the postnatal olfactory epithelium. The presence of TMEM16A at the apical part and in microvilli of supporting cells is consistent with a role in the regulation of the chloride ionic composition of the mucus covering the apical surface of the olfactory epithelium, whereas the localization of TMEM16B to the cilia of mature olfactory sensory neurons is consistent with a role in olfactory signal transduction.