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Owolabi JO, Adefule KA, Shallie PD, Fabiyi OS, Olatunji SY, Olanrewaju JA, Ajibade TP, Oyewumi S, Ogunnaike PO. Experimental study of pre- and postnatal caffeine exposure and its observable effects on selected neurotransmitters and behavioural attributes at puberty : Caffeine exposure and its observable effects on selected neurotranmitters and behaviour. Metab Brain Dis 2021; 36:2029-2046. [PMID: 34460045 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-021-00829-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Caffeine is globally consumed as a stimulant in beverages. It is also ingested in purified forms as power and tablets. Concerns have been raised about the potential consequences of intrauterine and early life caffeine exposure on brain health. This study modeled caffeine exposure during pregnancy and early postanal life until puberty, and the potential consequences. Caffeine powder was dissolved in distilled water. Thirty-two (n = 32) pregnant mice (Mus musculus) (dams) were divided into four groups- A, B, C and D. Group A animals served as a control, receiving placebo. Caffeine doses in mg/kg body weight were administered as follows: Group B, 10 mg/kg; Group C, 50 mg/kg; Group D, 120 mg/kg. Prenatal caffeine exposure [phase I] lasted throughout pregnancy. Half the number of offspring (pups) were sacrificed at birth; the rest were recruited into phase II and the experiment continued till day 35, marking puberty. Brain samples were processed following sacrifice. γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine (ACh), and serotonin (5Ht) neurotransmitters were assayed in homogenates to evaluate functional neurochemistry. Anxiety and memory as neurobehavioural attributes were observed using the elevated plus and Barnes' mazes respectively. Continuous caffeine exposure produced positive effects on short and long-term memory parameters; the pattern interestingly was irregular and appeared more effective with the lowest experimental dose. Anxiety test results showed no attributable significant aberrations. Caffeine exposure persistently altered the neurochemistry of selected neurotransmitters including ACh and 5Ht, including when exposure lasted only during pregnancy. ACh significantly increased in group BC+ to 0.3475μgg-1 relative to control's 0.2508μgg-1; pre-and continuous postnatal exposure in Group B increased 5Ht to 0.2203 μgg-1 and 0.2213 μgg-1 respectively relative to control's 0.1863 μgg-1. From the current investigation, caffeine exposure in pregnancy had persistent effects on brain functional attributes including neurotransmitters activities, memory and anxiety. Caffeine in moderate doses affected memory positively but produced negative effects at the higher dosage including increased anxiety tendencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua O Owolabi
- Department of Anatomy, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria.
- Department of Anatomy, Univerity of Global Health Equity, Kigali, Rwanda.
| | - Kehinde A Adefule
- Department of Anatomy, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria
| | - Philemon D Shallie
- Department of Anatomy, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
- Department of Anatomy, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria
| | - Oluseyi S Fabiyi
- Department of Anatomy, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
| | | | | | | | - Samson Oyewumi
- Department of Anatomy, Babcock University, Ilishan-Remo, Nigeria
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Rogers PJ, Larke A, Mayhew H, Tupper S. Coffee but Not Caffeine Consumption Reduces the Reward Value of Coffee. J Caffeine Adenosine Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1089/caff.2020.0010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Rogers
- Nutrition and Behaviour Unit, School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Annabel Larke
- Nutrition and Behaviour Unit, School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Hope Mayhew
- Nutrition and Behaviour Unit, School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Sophie Tupper
- Nutrition and Behaviour Unit, School of Psychological Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Turnbull D, Rodricks JV, Mariano GF. Neurobehavioral hazard identification and characterization for caffeine. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 74:81-92. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2015] [Revised: 12/01/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Relationship Between Coffee Use and Depression and Anxiety in a Population of Adult Polysubstance Abusers. J Addict Med 2014; 8:438-42. [DOI: 10.1097/adm.0000000000000077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Caffeine and cognitive performance: persistent methodological challenges in caffeine research. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2014; 124:117-22. [PMID: 24892519 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2014.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 05/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Human cognitive performance is widely perceived to be enhanced by caffeine at usual dietary doses. However, the evidence for and against this belief continues to be vigorously contested. Controversy has centred on caffeine withdrawal and withdrawal reversal as potential sources of experimental confounding. In response, some researchers have enlisted "caffeine-naïve" experimental participants (persons alleged to consume little or no caffeine) assuming that they are not subject to withdrawal. This mini-review examines relevant research to illustrate general methodological challenges that have been the cause of enduring confusion in caffeine research. At issue are the processes of caffeine withdrawal and withdrawal reversal, the definition of caffeine-naïve, the population representativeness of participants deemed to be caffeine-naïve, and confounding due to caffeine tolerance. Attention to these processes is necessary if premature conclusions are to be avoided, and if caffeine's complex effects and the mechanisms responsible for those effects are to be illuminated. Strategies are described for future caffeine research aimed at minimising confounding from withdrawal and withdrawal reversal.
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Rogers PJ. Caffeine and Alertness: In Defense of Withdrawal Reversal. JOURNAL OF CAFFEINE RESEARCH 2014. [DOI: 10.1089/jcr.2014.0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Rogers
- School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Meredith SE, Juliano LM, Hughes JR, Griffiths RR. Caffeine Use Disorder: A Comprehensive Review and Research Agenda. JOURNAL OF CAFFEINE RESEARCH 2013; 3:114-130. [PMID: 24761279 DOI: 10.1089/jcr.2013.0016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Caffeine is the most commonly used drug in the world. Although consumption of low to moderate doses of caffeine is generally safe, an increasing number of clinical studies are showing that some caffeine users become dependent on the drug and are unable to reduce consumption despite knowledge of recurrent health problems associated with continued use. Thus, the World Health Organization and some health care professionals recognize caffeine dependence as a clinical disorder. In this comprehensive literature review, we summarize published research on the biological evidence for caffeine dependence; we provide a systematic review of the prevalence of caffeine dependence and rates of endorsement of clinically meaningful indicators of distress and functional impairment among habitual caffeine users; we discuss the diagnostic criteria for Caffeine Use Disorder-a condition for further study included in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed.); and we outline a research agenda to help guide future clinical, epidemiological, and genetic investigations of caffeine dependence. Numerous controlled laboratory investigations reviewed in this article show that caffeine produces behavioral and physiological effects similar to other drugs of dependence. Moreover, several recent clinical studies indicate that caffeine dependence is a clinically meaningful disorder that affects a nontrivial proportion of caffeine users. Nevertheless, more research is needed to determine the reliability, validity, and prevalence of this clinically important health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven E Meredith
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Laura M Juliano
- Department of Psychology, American University , Washington, District of Columbia
| | - John R Hughes
- Department of Psychology, University of Vermont , Burlington, Vermont. ; Department of Psychiatry, University of Vermont , Burlington, Vermont
| | - Roland R Griffiths
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland. ; Department of Neuroscience, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine , Baltimore, Maryland
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Rogers PJ, Heatherley SV, Mullings EL, Smith JE. Faster but not smarter: effects of caffeine and caffeine withdrawal on alertness and performance. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2013; 226:229-40. [PMID: 23108937 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-012-2889-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2012] [Accepted: 10/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Despite 100 years of psychopharmacological research, the extent to which caffeine consumption benefits human functioning remains unclear. OBJECTIVES To measure the effects of overnight caffeine abstinence and caffeine administration as a function of level of habitual caffeine consumption. METHODS Medium-high (n = 212) and non-low (n = 157) caffeine consumers completed self-report measures and computer-based tasks before (starting at 10:30 AM) and after double-blind treatment with either caffeine (100 mg, then 150 mg) or placebo. The first treatment was given at 11:15 AM and the second at 12:45 PM, with post-treatment measures repeated twice between 1:45 PM and 3:30 PM. RESULTS Caffeine withdrawal was associated with some detrimental effects at 10:30 AM, and more severe effects, including greater sleepiness, lower mental alertness, and poorer performance on simple reaction time, choice reaction time and recognition memory tasks, later in the afternoon. Caffeine improved these measures in medium-high consumers but, apart from decreasing sleepiness, had little effect on them in non-low consumers. The failure of caffeine to increase mental alertness and improve mental performance in non-low consumers was related to a substantial caffeine-induced increase in anxiety/jitteriness that offset the benefit of decreased sleepiness. Caffeine enhanced physical performance (faster tapping speed and faster simple and choice reaction times) in both medium-high and non-low consumers. CONCLUSIONS While caffeine benefits motor performance and tolerance develops to its tendency to increase anxiety/jitteriness, tolerance to its effects on sleepiness means that frequent consumption fails to enhance mental alertness and mental performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Rogers
- School of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TU, UK.
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Abstract
1 The effect of caffeine alkaloid base (300 mg) on whole night sleep was investigated by electrophysiological techniques in six late middle age subjects (mean age 56 years), comparison being made with decaffeinated coffee and with no drink prior to sleep, using each condition five times in a balanced order on non-consecutive nights. 2 After caffeine the mean total sleep time decreased on average by 2 h, the mean sleep latency increased to 66 minutes. The number of awakenings increased and the mean total intervening wakefulness was more than doubled after caffeine. 3 In the first 3 h of sleep a decreased amount of stage 3 + 4 was observed, accompanied by an increased amount of stage 2 and of intervening wakefulness, without a significant change in the amount of rapid eye movement sleep. 4 The change in sleep pattern observed suggests an increased capability for arousal and decreased ability to develop or sustain deeper stages of non-rapid eye movement sleep after caffeine.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Březinová
- Sleep Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
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MARTIN DON, MARTIN MAGGIE. Nutritional Counseling: A Humanistic Approach to Psychological and Physical Health. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/j.2164-4918.1982.tb00803.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Lara DR, Antoniolli E, Frozi J, Schneider R, Ottoni GL. Distinct Personality Traits Associated with Intake of Coffee, Tea, and Cola Drinks and Smoking. JOURNAL OF CAFFEINE RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1089/jcr.2011.0006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Diogo R. Lara
- Faculdade de Biociências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Antoniolli
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Julia Frozi
- Faculdade de Biociências, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Ricardo Schneider
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
| | - Gustavo L. Ottoni
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Ciências Básicas da Saúde, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil
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Kale PP, Addepalli V, Bafna PA, Prabhavalkar KS. Caffeine-induced Augmentation of Antidepressant Therapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecm.2010.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rogers PJ, Hohoff C, Heatherley SV, Mullings EL, Maxfield PJ, Evershed RP, Deckert J, Nutt DJ. Association of the anxiogenic and alerting effects of caffeine with ADORA2A and ADORA1 polymorphisms and habitual level of caffeine consumption. Neuropsychopharmacology 2010; 35:1973-83. [PMID: 20520601 PMCID: PMC3055635 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2010.71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Caffeine, a widely consumed adenosine A(1) and A(2A) receptor antagonist, is valued as a psychostimulant, but it is also anxiogenic. An association between a variant within the ADORA2A gene (rs5751876) and caffeine-induced anxiety has been reported for individuals who habitually consume little caffeine. This study investigated whether this single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) might also affect habitual caffeine intake, and whether habitual intake might moderate the anxiogenic effect of caffeine. Participants were 162 non-/low (NL) and 217 medium/high (MH) caffeine consumers. In a randomized, double-blind, parallel groups design they rated anxiety, alertness, and headache before and after 100 mg caffeine and again after another 150 mg caffeine given 90 min later, or after placebo on both occasions. Caffeine intake was prohibited for 16 h before the first dose of caffeine/placebo. Results showed greater susceptibility to caffeine-induced anxiety, but not lower habitual caffeine intake (indeed coffee intake was higher), in the rs5751876 TT genotype group, and a reduced anxiety response in MH vs NL participants irrespective of genotype. Apart from the almost completely linked ADORA2A SNP rs3761422, no other of eight ADORA2A and seven ADORA1 SNPs studied were found to be clearly associated with effects of caffeine on anxiety, alertness, or headache. Placebo administration in MH participants decreased alertness and increased headache. Caffeine did not increase alertness in NL participants. With frequent consumption, substantial tolerance develops to the anxiogenic effect of caffeine, even in genetically susceptible individuals, but no net benefit for alertness is gained, as caffeine abstinence reduces alertness and consumption merely returns it to baseline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Rogers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK.
| | - Christa Hohoff
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Susan V Heatherley
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | - Emma L Mullings
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK
| | | | | | - Jürgen Deckert
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - David J Nutt
- Department of Neuropsychopharmacology and Molecular Imaging, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, London, UK
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Calabrese EJ. Addiction and Dose Response: The Psychomotor Stimulant Theory of Addiction Reveals That Hormetic Dose Responses Are Dominant. Crit Rev Toxicol 2008; 38:599-617. [DOI: 10.1080/10408440802026315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Reich MS, Dietrich MS, Finlayson AJR, Fischer EF, Martin PR. Coffee and cigarette consumption and perceived effects in recovering alcoholics participating in Alcoholics Anonymous in Nashville, Tennessee, USA. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2008; 32:1799-806. [PMID: 18657129 DOI: 10.1111/j.1530-0277.2008.00751.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) members represent an important and relatively understudied population for improving our understanding of alcohol dependence recovery as over 1 million Americans participate in the program. Further insight into coffee and cigarette use by these individuals is necessary given AA members' apparent widespread consumption and the recognized health consequences and psychopharmacological actions of these substances. METHODS Volunteers were sought from all open-AA meetings in Nashville, TN during the summer of 2007 to complete a questionnaire (n = 289, completion rate = 94.1%) including timeline followback for coffee, cigarette, and alcohol consumption; the Alcoholics Anonymous Affiliation Scale; coffee consumption and effects questions; the Fagerstrom Test for Nicotine Dependence (FTND); and the Smoking Effects Questionnaire. RESULTS Mean (+/-SD) age of onset of alcohol consumption was 15.4 +/- 4.2 years and mean lifetime alcohol consumption was 1026.0 +/- 772.8 kg ethanol. Median declared alcohol abstinence was 2.1 years (range: 0 days to 41.1 years) and median lifetime AA attendance was 1000.0 meetings (range: 4 to 44,209 meetings); average AA affiliation score was 7.6 +/- 1.5. Most (88.5%) individuals consumed coffee and approximately 33% of coffee consumers drank more than 4 cups per day (M = 3.9 +/- 3.9). The most common self-reported reasons for coffee consumption and coffee-associated behavioral changes were related to stimulatory effects. More than half (56.9%) of individuals in AA smoked cigarettes. Of those who smoked, 78.7% consumed at least half a pack of cigarettes per day (M = 21.8 +/- 12.3). Smokers' FTND scores were 5.8 +/- 2.4; over 60% of smokers were highly or very highly dependent. Reduced negative affect was the most important subjective effect of smoking. CONCLUSIONS A greater proportion of AA participants drink coffee and smoke cigarettes in larger per capita amounts than observed in general U.S. populations. The effects of these products as described by AA participants suggest significant stimulation and negative affect reduction. Fundamental knowledge of the quantitative and qualitative aspects of coffee and cigarette consumption among AA members will enable future research to discern their impact on alcohol abstinence and recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael S Reich
- Vanderbilt Addiction Center, Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee 37232-8650, USA
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Rogers PJ, Smith JE, Heatherley SV, Pleydell-Pearce CW. Time for tea: mood, blood pressure and cognitive performance effects of caffeine and theanine administered alone and together. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008; 195:569-77. [PMID: 17891480 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-007-0938-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2007] [Accepted: 09/03/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although both contain behaviourally significant concentrations of caffeine, tea is commonly perceived to be a less stimulating drink than coffee. At least part of the explanation for this may be that theanine, which is present in tea but not coffee, has relaxing effects. There is also some evidence that theanine affects cognitive performance, and it has been found to reduce blood pressure in hypertensive rats. OBJECTIVES To study the subjective, behavioural and blood pressure effects of theanine and caffeine administered alone and together, in doses relevant to the daily tea consumption of regular tea drinkers. MATERIALS AND METHODS In a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled study, healthy adult participants (n = 48) received either 250-mg caffeine, 200-mg theanine, both or neither of these. They completed ratings of mood, including anxiety, and alertness, and had their blood pressure measured before and starting 40 min after drug administration. Anxiety was also assessed using a visual probe task. RESULTS Caffeine increased self-rated alertness and jitteriness and blood pressure. Theanine antagonised the effect of caffeine on blood pressure but did not significantly affect jitteriness, alertness or other aspects of mood. Theanine also slowed overall reaction time on the visual probe task. CONCLUSIONS Theanine is a physiologically and behaviourally active compound and, while it is unclear how its effects might explain perceived differences between tea and coffee, evidence suggests that it may be useful for reducing raised blood pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Rogers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 12a Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1TU, UK.
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Whalen DJ, Silk JS, Semel M, Forbes EE, Ryan ND, Axelson DA, Birmaher B, Dahl RE. Caffeine consumption, sleep, and affect in the natural environments of depressed youth and healthy controls. J Pediatr Psychol 2007; 33:358-67. [PMID: 17947257 DOI: 10.1093/jpepsy/jsm086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sleep problems are a cardinal symptom of depression in children and adolescents and caffeine use is a prevalent and problematic issue in youth; yet little is known about caffeine use and its effects on sleep in youth with depression. We examined caffeine use and its relation to sleep and affect in youth's natural environments. METHODS Thirty youth with major depressive disorder (MDD) and 23 control youth reported on caffeine use, sleep, and affect in their natural environment using ecological momentary assessment at baseline and over 8 weeks, while MDD youth received treatment. RESULTS Youth with MDD reported more caffeine use and sleep problems relative to healthy youth. Youth with MDD reported more anxiety on days they consumed caffeine. Caffeine use among youth with MDD decreased across treatment, but sleep complaints remained elevated. CONCLUSIONS Findings suggest that both sleep quality and caffeine use are altered in pediatric depression; that caffeine use, but not sleep problems, improves with treatment; and that caffeine may exacerbate daily anxiety among youth with depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana J Whalen
- Department of Psychology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
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Satel S. Is caffeine addictive?--a review of the literature. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2007; 32:493-502. [PMID: 17127537 DOI: 10.1080/00952990600918965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The common-sense use of the term addiction is that regular consumption is irresistible and that it creates problems. Caffeine use does not fit this profile. Its intake does no harm to the individual or to society and its users are not compelled to consume it. Though cessation of regular use may result in symptoms such as headache and lethargy, these are easily and reliably reversed by ingestion of caffeine. Some have argued that continued caffeine use is an attempt to suppress low grade withdrawal symptoms such as sleepiness and lethargy. In some moderate users, this is possible; however, in experimental contexts, the phenomenon is too inconsistent to constitute a reliably valid syndrome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Satel
- Oasis Clinic, American Enterprise Institute.
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Bchir F, Dogui M, Ben Fradj R, Arnaud MJ, Saguem S. Differences in pharmacokinetic and electroencephalographic responses to caffeine in sleep-sensitive and non-sensitive subjects. C R Biol 2006; 329:512-9. [PMID: 16797457 DOI: 10.1016/j.crvi.2006.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2005] [Revised: 01/23/2006] [Accepted: 01/24/2006] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated pharmacokinetic and electroencephalographic responses to caffeine (140 mg) in two groups of healthy volunteers reporting, or not, caffeine-related sleep disturbances. Significant differences in caffeine consumption and smoking habits were observed between the two groups. Plasma samples were taken from each subject before (T0) and after caffeine intake at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 24 h. Three pharmacokinetic parameters: half-life (t1/2), maximum time (Tmax) and maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) were calculated from caffeine plasma concentration measurements determined by reversed phase HPLC analysis. Caffeine-sensitive subjects showed significantly greater half-life values when calculated on 24 h after the administration than tolerant subjects (p<0.05). Since the elimination kinetics were similar on the first 6 h after caffeine administration, the increased caffeine clearance observed overnight, when smoking was resumed in the control group, may indicate a short delay for the induction of hepatic cytochrome, reported here for the first time. Electrophysiological responses to caffeine, including vigilance and cortical activity, were assessed by ambulatory electroencephalographic (EEG) recorded during a period of 6 h before and after caffeine consumption. Following caffeine intake, the caffeine-intolerant subjects presented an increase in vigilance levels with faster peak alpha, beta frequency and lower delta and theta power when compared to tolerant subjects. Pharmacokinetic parameters and EEG data showed significant differences between sleep-sensitive and control subjects. These variations may be, in part, explained by cigarette smoking and the higher caffeine intake observed in the subjects of the control groups while caffeine sleep-sensitive subjects have a significantly lower caffeine intake, as already reported in previous studies on patients with sleep disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatma Bchir
- Metabolic Biophysics and Applied Pharmacology Laboratory, Department of Biophysics, Medicine Faculty of Sousse, 4002 Sousse, Tunisia.
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Heatherley SV, Hancock KMF, Rogers PJ. Psychostimulant and other effects of caffeine in 9- to 11-year-old children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2006; 47:135-42. [PMID: 16423144 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01457.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent research on adults suggests that "beneficial" psychostimulant effects of caffeine are found only in the context of caffeine deprivation; that is, caffeine improves psychomotor and cognitive performance in habitual caffeine consumers following caffeine withdrawal. Furthermore, no net benefit is gained because performance is merely restored to "baseline" levels. The effects of caffeine in children is an under-researched area, with only a handful of studies being carried out in the US where children's consumption of caffeine appears to be lower on average than in the UK. METHOD Twenty-six children aged between 9 and 11 years completed a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Habitual caffeine consumers (mean daily caffeine intake = 109 mg) and non/low-consumers (12 mg) were tested on two separate days following overnight caffeine abstinence. On each day measures of cognitive performance (a number search task), and self-rated mood and physical symptoms, including alertness and headache, were taken before and after administration of 50 mg of caffeine, or placebo. RESULTS At baseline (before treatment), the habitual consumers showed poorer performance on the cognitive test than did the non/low-consumers, although no significant differences in mood or physical symptoms were found between the two groups. There were significant habit by treatment (caffeine vs. placebo) interactions for accuracy of performance and headache, and a significant main effect of treatment for alertness. Post hoc comparisons showed that caffeine administration improved the consumers' accuracy on the cognitive test (to near the level displayed by the non/low-consumers at baseline), but that it had no significant effect on the non/low-consumers' performance. In the consumers, caffeine prevented an increase in headache that occurred after placebo, and it increased alertness relative to placebo. Again, however, caffeine did not significantly affect levels of headache or alertness in the non/low-consumers. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that, like adults, children probably derive little or no benefit from habitual caffeine intake, although negative symptoms associated with overnight caffeine withdrawal are avoided or rapidly reversed by subsequent caffeine consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan V Heatherley
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1TN, UK
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Mobini S, Elliman TD, Yeomans MR. Changes in the pleasantness of caffeine-associated flavours consumed at home. Food Qual Prefer 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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James JE, Rogers PJ. Effects of caffeine on performance and mood: withdrawal reversal is the most plausible explanation. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 182:1-8. [PMID: 16001109 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-005-0084-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 156] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2005] [Accepted: 05/23/2005] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although it is widely believed that caffeine can enhance human performance and mood, the validity of this belief has been questioned, giving rise to debate. The central question is whether superior performance and mood after caffeine represent net benefits, or whether differences between caffeine and control conditions are due to reversal of adverse withdrawal effects. OBJECTIVES To provide a focussed review of relevant experimental studies with the aim of clarifying current understanding regarding the effects of caffeine on human performance and mood. METHODS To avoid the shortcomings of standard placebo-controlled studies, which are ambiguous due to failure to control for the confounding influence of withdrawal reversal, three main experimental approaches have been employed: studies that compare consumers and low/non-consumers, pre-treatment and ad lib consumption studies, and long-term withdrawal studies. RESULTS Of the three approaches, only long-term withdrawal studies are capable of unambiguously revealing the net effects of caffeine. Overall, there is little evidence of caffeine having beneficial effects on performance or mood under conditions of long-term caffeine use vs abstinence. Although modest acute effects may occur following initial use, tolerance to these effects appears to develop in the context of habitual use of the drug. CONCLUSIONS Appropriately controlled studies show that the effects of caffeine on performance and mood, widely perceived to be net beneficial psychostimulant effects, are almost wholly attributable to reversal of adverse withdrawal effects associated with short periods of abstinence from the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E James
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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James JE, Gregg ME, Kane M, Harte F. Dietary caffeine, performance and mood: enhancing and restorative effects after controlling for withdrawal reversal. Neuropsychobiology 2005; 52:1-10. [PMID: 15942257 DOI: 10.1159/000086172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine whether sustained (i.e. dietary) use of caffeine has net effects on performance and mood compared with sustained abstinence, and whether dietary caffeine restores performance and mood adversely affected by sleep restriction. Participants (n = 96) alternated weekly between ingesting placebo and caffeine (1.75 mg/kg) three times daily for 4 consecutive weeks, while either rested or sleep restricted. Performance involved either a single task requiring sustained vigilance or a varied battery of brief psychomotor and cognitive tasks, and mood was assessed using the Profile of Mood States. Caffeine had no significant net enhancing effects for either performance or mood when participants were rested, and produced no net restorative effects when performance and mood were degraded by sleep restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E James
- National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB. Cognitive and mood improvements of caffeine in habitual consumers and habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 179:813-25. [PMID: 15678363 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-004-2104-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 200] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2004] [Accepted: 11/03/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The cognitive and mood effects of caffeine are well documented. However, the majority of studies in this area involve caffeine-deprived, habitual caffeine users. It is therefore unclear whether any beneficial findings are due to the positive effects of caffeine or to the alleviation of caffeine withdrawal. OBJECTIVES The present placebo-controlled, double-blind, balanced crossover study investigated the acute cognitive and mood effects of caffeine in habitual users and habitual non-users of caffeine. METHOD Following overnight caffeine withdrawal, 24 habitual caffeine consumers (mean=217 mg/day) and 24 habitual non-consumers (20 mg/day) received a 150 ml drink containing either 75 or 150 mg of caffeine or a matching placebo, at intervals of > or =48 h. Cognitive and mood assessments were undertaken at baseline and 30 min post-drink. These included the Cognitive Drug Research computerised test battery, two serial subtraction tasks, a sentence verification task and subjective visual analogue mood scales. RESULTS There were no baseline differences between the groups' mood or performance. Following caffeine, there were significant improvements in simple reaction time, digit vigilance reaction time, numeric working memory reaction time and sentence verification accuracy, irrespective of group. Self-rated mental fatigue was reduced and ratings of alertness were significantly improved by caffeine independent of group. There were also group effects for rapid visual information processing false alarms and spatial memory accuracy with habitual consumers outperforming non-consumers. There was a single significant interaction of group and treatment effects on jittery ratings. Separate analyses of each groups' responses to caffeine revealed overlapping but differential responses to caffeine. Caffeine tended to benefit consumers' mood more while improving performance more in the non-consumers. CONCLUSIONS These results do not support a withdrawal alleviation model. Differences in the patterns of responses to caffeine by habitual consumers and habitual non-consumers may go some way to explaining why some individuals become caffeine consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Crystal F Haskell
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, Division of Psychology, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 8ST, UK
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Rogers PJ, Heatherley SV, Hayward RC, Seers HE, Hill J, Kane M. Effects of caffeine and caffeine withdrawal on mood and cognitive performance degraded by sleep restriction. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2005; 179:742-52. [PMID: 15887055 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-004-2097-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2004] [Accepted: 10/14/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE It has been suggested that caffeine is most likely to benefit mood and performance when alertness is low. OBJECTIVES To measure the effects of caffeine on psychomotor and cognitive performance, mood, blood pressure and heart rate in sleep-restricted participants. To do this in a group of participants who had also been previously deprived of caffeine for 3 weeks, thereby potentially removing the confounding effects of acute caffeine withdrawal. METHODS Participants were moderate to moderate-high caffeine consumers who were provided with either decaffeinated tea and/or coffee for 3 weeks (LTW) or regular tea and/or coffee for 3 weeks (overnight caffeine-withdrawn participants, ONW). Then, following overnight caffeine abstinence, they were tested on a battery of tasks assessing mood, cognitive performance, etc. before and after receiving caffeine (1.2 mg/kg) or on another day after receiving placebo. RESULTS Final analyses were based on 17 long-term caffeine-withdrawn participants (LTW) and 17 ONW participants whose salivary caffeine levels on each test day confirmed probable compliance with the instructions concerning restrictions on consumption of caffeine-containing drinks. Acute caffeine withdrawal (ONW) had a number of negative effects, including impairment of cognitive performance, increased headache, and reduced alertness and clear-headedness. Caffeine (versus placebo) did not significantly improve cognitive performance in LTW participants, although it prevented further deterioration of performance in ONW participants. Caffeine increased tapping speed (but tended to impair hand steadiness), increased blood pressure, and had some effects on mood in both groups. CONCLUSIONS The findings provide strong support for the withdrawal reversal hypothesis. In particular, cognitive performance was found to be affected adversely by acute caffeine withdrawal and, even in the context of alertness lowered by sleep restriction, cognitive performance was not improved by caffeine in the absence of these withdrawal effects. Different patterns of effects (or lack of effects) of caffeine and caffeine withdrawal were found for other variables, but overall these results also suggest that there is little benefit to be gained from caffeine consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Rogers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1TN, UK.
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Juliano LM, Griffiths RR. A critical review of caffeine withdrawal: empirical validation of symptoms and signs, incidence, severity, and associated features. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 176:1-29. [PMID: 15448977 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-004-2000-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 309] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2004] [Accepted: 07/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Although reports of caffeine withdrawal in the medical literature date back more than 170 years, the most rigorous experimental investigations of the phenomenon have been conducted only recently. OBJECTIVES The purpose of this paper is to provide a comprehensive review and analysis of the literature regarding human caffeine withdrawal to empirically validate specific symptoms and signs, and to appraise important features of the syndrome. METHODS A literature search identified 57 experimental and 9 survey studies on caffeine withdrawal that met inclusion criteria. The methodological features of each study were examined to assess the validity of the effects. RESULTS Of 49 symptom categories identified, the following 10 fulfilled validity criteria: headache, fatigue, decreased energy/activeness, decreased alertness, drowsiness, decreased contentedness, depressed mood, difficulty concentrating, irritability, and foggy/not clearheaded. In addition, flu-like symptoms, nausea/vomiting, and muscle pain/stiffness were judged likely to represent valid symptom categories. In experimental studies, the incidence of headache was 50% and the incidence of clinically significant distress or functional impairment was 13%. Typically, onset of symptoms occurred 12-24 h after abstinence, with peak intensity at 20-51 h, and for a duration of 2-9 days. In general, the incidence or severity of symptoms increased with increases in daily dose; abstinence from doses as low as 100 mg/day produced symptoms. Research is reviewed indicating that expectancies are not a prime determinant of caffeine withdrawal and that avoidance of withdrawal symptoms plays a central role in habitual caffeine consumption. CONCLUSIONS The caffeine-withdrawal syndrome has been well characterized and there is sufficient empirical evidence to warrant inclusion of caffeine withdrawal as a disorder in the DSM and revision of diagnostic criteria in the ICD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Juliano
- Department of Psychology, American University, 4400 Massachusetts Avenue, Washington, DC 20016, USA
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Abstract
Prolonged use of caffeine can lead to physical dependence evidenced by characteristic withdrawal symptoms during abstinence. Debate exists as to whether mood enhancement by caffeine represents a net effect or merely the restoration of abstinence-induced mood decrements. One aim of this study was to determine the net effects on mood of dietary caffeine compared with prolonged abstinence. In addition, the study aimed to determine whether caffeine restores mood degraded by a non-caffeine source, namely, sleep restriction. A double-blind placebo-controlled cross-over design was employed in which 48 male and female volunteers alternated weekly between ingesting placebo and caffeine (1.75 mg/kg) three times daily for 4 consecutive weeks, while being either rested or sleep restricted. Mood was assessed using a computerized version of the profile of mood states (POMS), giving scores for overall mood and six mood dimensions. Gender had small effects on mood, whereas all mood dimensions were markedly adversely affected by sleep restriction. Caffeine had no significant net enhancing effects on mood when participants were rested, and produced no net restorative effects when mood was degraded by sleep restriction. On the contrary, caffeine-induced decrements in mood were observed during both conditions of rest and sleep restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack E James
- Department of Psychology, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
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Alsene K, Deckert J, Sand P, de Wit H. Association between A2a receptor gene polymorphisms and caffeine-induced anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology 2003; 28:1694-702. [PMID: 12825092 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1300232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The adenosine receptor system, which mediates the psychoactive effects of caffeine, is also thought to be involved in the regulation of anxiety. In this study, we examined the association between variations in anxiogenic responses to caffeine and polymorphisms in the A1 and A2a adenosine receptor genes. Healthy, infrequent caffeine users (N=94) recorded their subjective mood states following a 150 mg oral dose of caffeine freebase or placebo in a double-blind study. We found a significant association between self-reported anxiety after caffeine administration and two linked polymorphisms on the A2a receptor gene, the 1976C>T and 2592C>Tins polymorphisms. Individuals with the 1976T/T and the 2592Tins/Tins genotypes reported greater increases in anxiety after caffeine administration than the other genotypic groups. The study shows that an adenosine receptor gene polymorphism that has been associated with Panic Disorder is also associated with anxiogenic responses to an acute dose of caffeine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Alsene
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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Rogers PJ, Martin J, Smith C, Heatherley SV, Smit HJ. Absence of reinforcing, mood and psychomotor performance effects of caffeine in habitual non-consumers of caffeine. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2003; 167:54-62. [PMID: 12601503 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-002-1360-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2002] [Accepted: 11/14/2002] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The extent to which the measured (and felt) psychostimulant effects of caffeine represent a real benefit of caffeine consumption or merely withdrawal reversal is unclear. Results showing positive psychostimulant effects of acute caffeine administration in habitual non-consumers of caffeine would provide evidence for a net benefit of caffeine unconfounded by withdrawal. OBJECTIVES To compare the mood, alerting, psychomotor and reinforcing effects of caffeine in caffeine non-consumers and acutely (overnight) withdrawn caffeine consumers. METHODS In experiment 1, these participants consumed two differently flavoured drinks, one containing 100 mg caffeine and the other containing no caffeine. Each drink was consumed on 4 separate days in semi-random order, and self-ratings of mood and alertness were completed before and after drink consumption. On day 9, both drinks contained 50 mg caffeine and drink preference (choice) and intake were assessed. In experiment 2, mood, alertness and performance on a long-duration simple reaction time task were assessed before and after administration of 100 mg or placebo in a single test session. RESULTS Prior to receiving caffeine, the (overnight withdrawn) caffeine consumers were less alert and more tense than the non-consumers. Caffeine only had significant reinforcing, mood and psychomotor performance effects in the caffeine consumers. The reinforcing effect of caffeine was evident from an effect on drink intake, but drink choice was unaffected. Caffeine increased self-rated alertness of both caffeine consumers and non-consumers; however, for some of the non-consumers this was associated with a worsening of performance. CONCLUSIONS These results support the hypothesis that the psychostimulant and related effects of caffeine are due largely to withdrawal reversal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Rogers
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Bristol, 8 Woodland Road, BS8 1TN, Bristol, UK.
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Reeves RR, Struve FA, Patrick G. Topographic quantitative EEG response to acute caffeine withdrawal: a comprehensive analysis of multiple quantitative variables. CLINICAL EEG (ELECTROENCEPHALOGRAPHY) 2002; 33:178-88. [PMID: 12449850 DOI: 10.1177/155005940203300409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Most previous studies of the neurophysiological effects of caffeine have focused on the effects of caffeine ingestion, and few studies have examined the effects of caffeine withdrawal. This open study evaluated the quantitative EEG (QEEG) changes occurring during a 4-day period of abstinence in subjects who habitually consume 300 mg or more of caffeine daily. Thirteen subjects underwent QEEG studies during their usual caffeine consumption (baseline) and on days 1, 2, and 4 of a 4-day period of caffeine abstinence. Ten of the subjects underwent a second QEEG on day 4 that consisted of a period of recording after reinstitution of caffeine. A comprehensive analysis of multiple quantitative variables was performed for each study during the abstinence period and compared to the variables obtained at baseline for each subject. Changes occurring during caffeine abstinence included: 1) increases in theta absolute power over all cortical areas, 2) increases in delta absolute power over the frontal cortex, 3) decreases in the mean frequency of both the alpha and beta rhythm, 4) increase in theta relative power and decrease in beta relative power, and 5) significant changes in interhemispheric coherence. Most of these changes tended to return to pre-abstinence baseline levels rapidly after resumption of caffeine consumption. The caffeine withdrawal state affects a number of neurophysiological variables. Further investigation of the neurophysiological aspects of caffeine withdrawal using placebo controlled double blind assessment methods is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roy R Reeves
- G.V. (Sonny) Montgomery VA Medical Center, 1500 E. Woodrow Wilson Drive, Jackson, MS 39216, USA.
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Abstract
The literature suggests that the following effects on behavior of adult humans may occur when individuals consume moderate amounts of caffeine. (1) Caffeine increases alertness and reduces fatigue. This may be especially important in low arousal situations (e.g. working at night). (2) Caffeine improves performance on vigilance tasks and simple tasks that require sustained response. Again, these effects are often clearest when alertness is reduced, although there is evidence that benefits may still occur when the person is unimpaired. (3) Effects on more complex tasks are difficult to assess and probably involve interactions between the caffeine and other variables which increase alertness (e.g. personality and time of day). (4) In contrast to the effects of caffeine consumption, withdrawal of caffeine has few effects on performance. There is often an increase in negative mood following withdrawal of caffeine, but such effects may largely reflect the expectancies of the volunteers and the failure to conduct "blind" studies. (5) Regular caffeine usage appears to be beneficial, with higher users having better mental functioning. (6) Most people are very good at controlling their caffeine consumption to maximise the above positive effects. For example, the pattern of consumption over the day shows that caffeine is often consumed to increase alertness. Indeed, many people do not consume much caffeine later in the day since it is important not to be alert when one goes to sleep. In contrast to effects found from normal caffeine intake, there are reports that have demonstrated negative effects when very large amounts are given or sensitive groups (e.g. patients with anxiety disorders) were studied. In this context caffeine has been shown to increase anxiety and impair sleep. There is also some evidence that fine motor control may be impaired as a function of the increase in anxiety. Overall, the global picture that emerges depends on whether one focuses on effects that are likely to be present when caffeine is consumed in moderation by the majority of the population or on the effects found in extreme conditions. The evidence clearly shows that levels of caffeine consumed by most people have largely positive effects on behavior. Excessive consumption can lead to problems, especially in sensitive individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Smith
- Center for Occupational and Health Psychology, School of Psychology, Cardiff University, UK.
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Grandjean AC, Reimers KJ, Bannick KE, Haven MC. The effect of caffeinated, non-caffeinated, caloric and non-caloric beverages on hydration. J Am Coll Nutr 2000; 19:591-600. [PMID: 11022872 DOI: 10.1080/07315724.2000.10718956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the effect of various combinations of beverages on hydration status in healthy free-living adult males. METHODS In a counterbalanced, crossover manner, 18 healthy adult males ages 24 to 39, on four separate occasions, consumed water or water plus varying combinations of beverages. Clinical guidelines were used to determine the fluid allowance for each subject. The beverages were carbonated, caffeinated caloric and non-caloric colas and coffee. Ten of the 18 subjects consumed water and carbonated, non-caffeinated, citrus soft drink during a fifth trial. Body weight, urine and blood assays were measured before and after each treatment. RESULTS Slight body weight loss was observed on all treatments, with an average of 0.30% for all treatments. No differences (p>0.05) among treatments were found for body weight changes or any of the biochemical assays. Biochemical assays conducted on first voids and 24-hour urines included electrolytes, creatine, osmolality and specific gravity. Blood samples were analyzed for hemoglobin, hematocrit. electrolytes, osmolality, urea nitrogen, creatinine and protein. CONCLUSIONS This preliminary study found no significant differences in the effect of various combinations of beverages on hydration status of healthy adult males. Advising people to disregard caffeinated beverages as part of the daily fluid intake is not substantiated by the results of this study. The across-treatment weight loss observed, when combined with data on fluid-disease relationships, suggests that optimal fluid intake may be higher than common recommendations. Further research is needed to confirm these results and to explore optimal fluid intake for healthy individuals.
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Dews PB, Curtis GL, Hanford KJ, O'Brien CP. The frequency of caffeine withdrawal in a population-based survey and in a controlled, blinded pilot experiment. J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 39:1221-32. [PMID: 10586387 DOI: 10.1177/00912709922012024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Reports of symptoms when regular caffeine consumption is stopped have appeared in the medical literature, but the frequency and significance of this phenomenon have remained controversial. The objective of this study was to collect information on the prevalence and severity of caffeine withdrawal in the general population and determine the incidence and type of symptoms reported on blind abrupt and gradual caffeine cessation among coffee drinkers reporting past episodes of caffeine-withdrawal symptoms. A community-based telephone survey was followed by a stratified, randomized, double-blind controlled study. Participants included 11,112 persons spontaneously calling to inquire about studies not related to caffeine and 57 regular caffeine users selected from among the callers because of self-reported caffeine-withdrawal symptoms. Gradual or abrupt withdrawal from caffeine was compared to continuation of the same caffeine level. In a survey of 11,112 persons, 61% reported daily caffeine consumption, and 11% of the caffeine consumers reported symptoms upon stopping caffeine. Among the regular caffeine users, only 0.9% of males and 5.5% of females reported symptoms significant enough to interfere with normal activities when they abruptly stopped caffeine. A group of those reporting withdrawal symptoms were randomly assigned to three subsamples. In the group subjected to abrupt withdrawal (N = 18), 6 (33.3%) reported symptoms (e.g., headaches and tiredness). Including decreases in functional ratings, a total of 7 of the 18 (38.8%) could be considered to have experienced caffeine withdrawal. The gradual withdrawal group (N = 20) reported minimal if any caffeine withdrawal symptoms. A third group (N = 18) was kept on a level dose of caffeine for comparison. When participants are unaware of the caffeine-withdrawal focus of the study, these results suggest that both the frequency and severity of caffeine-withdrawal symptoms are much lower than found in some previous reports and that clinically significant symptoms may be uncommon events among the general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- P B Dews
- Harvard Medical School, New England Regional Primate Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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Abstract
Caffeine is the most widely used psychoactive substance and has been considered occasionally as a drug of abuse. The present paper reviews available data on caffeine dependence, tolerance, reinforcement and withdrawal. After sudden caffeine cessation, withdrawal symptoms develop in a small portion of the population but are moderate and transient. Tolerance to caffeine-induced stimulation of locomotor activity has been shown in animals. In humans, tolerance to some subjective effects of caffeine seems to occur, but most of the time complete tolerance to many effects of caffeine on the central nervous system does not occur. In animals, caffeine can act as a reinforcer, but only in a more limited range of conditions than with classical drugs of dependence. In humans, the reinforcing stimuli functions of caffeine are limited to low or rather moderate doses while high doses are usually avoided. The classical drugs of abuse lead to quite specific increases in cerebral functional activity and dopamine release in the shell of the nucleus accumbens, the key structure for reward, motivation and addiction. However, caffeine doses that reflect the daily human consumption, do not induce a release of dopamine in the shell of the nucleus accumbens but lead to a release of dopamine in the prefrontal cortex, which is consistent with caffeine reinforcing properties. Moreover, caffeine increases glucose utilization in the shell of the nucleus accumbens only at rather high doses that stimulate most brain structures, non-specifically, and likely reflect the side effects linked to high caffeine ingestion. That dose is also 5-10-fold higher than the one necessary to stimulate the caudate nucleus, which mediates motor activity and the structures regulating the sleep-wake cycle, the two functions the most sensitive to caffeine. In conclusion, it appears that although caffeine fulfils some of the criteria for drug dependence and shares with amphetamines and cocaine a certain specificity of action on the cerebral dopaminergic system, the methylxanthine does not act on the dopaminergic structures related to reward, motivation and addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Nehlig
- INSERM U 398, Faculté de Médecine, Strasbourg, France.
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Bach PH, Berndt WO, Delzell E, Dubach U, Finn WF, Fox JM, Hess R, Michielsen P, Sandler DP, Trump B, Williams G. A safety assessment of fixed combinations of acetaminophen and acetylsalicylic acid, coformulated with caffeine. Ren Fail 1998; 20:749-62. [PMID: 9834974 DOI: 10.3109/08860229809045173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Overuse and abuse of phenacetin-containing mixed analgesics has contributed to end-stage renal disease. Combination analgesics, especially those coformulated with caffeine, have been implicated as imparting a greater risk of analgesic-associated nephropathy (AAN) than single or coformulated analgesics without caffeine. This has led to a recommendation that the sale of "two plus caffeine" analgesic mixtures be reclassified from over-the-counter to prescription only availability. There is a rational basis for coformulating acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and acetaminophen (paracetamol) as this reduces the dose of each, without altering efficacy. The coformulation of caffeine with these analgesics has a significant adjuvant effect and increases analgesic efficacy 1.4-1.6-fold. Currently available animal and human data do not support the notion that the nephrotoxic risk from coformulated ASA and acetaminophen is higher than the risk from either ASA or acetaminophen alone, in equivalent analgesic doses. There are no epidemiological data that implicate caffeine in AAN, and only limited evidence that links excessive acetaminophen usage to renal disease. There is no evidence that caffeine increases analgesics papillotoxicity directly. The presence of caffeine in mixtures of analgesics are no more addictive than other sources of caffeine. There is no evidence to suggest that adding caffeine to analgesic mixtures enhances the potential for promoting analgesic misuse in the general population. Thus distinct therapeutic benefits of ASA, acetaminophen and caffeine appear to outweigh any known risk. It is doubtful if preventing the availability of these products will significantly affect the role of analgesic abuse/overuse in end-stage renal disease. Better risk management would come from a focused educational program, developed in a close collaboration between industry, healthcare professionals and consumer organizations, such a program must warn against the potential dangers of analgesic and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug misuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- P H Bach
- Biomedical Research Centre, Sheffield Hallam University, Omaha, NE, USA.
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Rogers PJ, Dernoncourt C. Regular caffeine consumption: a balance of adverse and beneficial effects for mood and psychomotor performance. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1998; 59:1039-45. [PMID: 9586865 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-3057(97)00515-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
It has often been pointed out that caffeine is the most widely "used" psychoactive substance in the world, and accordingly, there is a very large amount of research available on the effects of caffeine on body and mind. In particular, a psychostimulant action of caffeine is generally accepted as well established; for example, caffeine has been found to quicken reaction time and enhance vigilance performance, and to increase self-rated alertness and improve mood. There is, however, a real difficulty in determining the net effects of caffeine. In a typical experiment the subjects have a history of regular caffeine consumption, and they are tested on caffeine and a placebo after a period of caffeine deprivation (often overnight). The problem with relying solely on this approach is that it leaves open the question as to whether the results obtained are due to beneficial effects of caffeine or to deleterious effects of caffeine deprivation. The present article briefly reviews this evidence on the psychostimulant effects of caffeine, and presents some new data testing the hypothesis that caffeine may enhance cognitive performance to a greater extent in older adults than in young adults. No age-related differences in the effects of caffeine on psychomotor performance were found. We conclude that overall there is little unequivocal evidence to show that regular caffeine use is likely to substantially benefit mood or performance. Indeed, one of the significant factors motivating caffeine consumption appears to be "withdrawal relief."
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Rogers
- Consumer Sciences Department, Institute of Food Research, Reading Laboratory, UK
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Miller LS, Miller SE. Caffeine enhances initial but not extended learning of a proprioceptive-based discrimination task in nonsmoking moderate users. Percept Mot Skills 1996; 82:891-8. [PMID: 8774028 DOI: 10.2466/pms.1996.82.3.891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effects of caffeine on fine motor performance and learning using a multiple-force discrimination task. 93 college-aged subjects performed this task on which multiple measurements were made in an operant response paradigm. Quantitative measures of accuracy of response, duration of response, latency of response, force, and variability of force were examined. Significant interactions for caffeine dose by session on accuracy of response and latency of response indicated that caffeine enhanced the initial learning of a proprioceptive motor task but did not improve performance beyond that of normal practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-3013, USA. LSMILLER/
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Abstract
Forty normal subjects (mean age 36) had their caffeine intake estimated by keeping a diary (n=40) and also by analysing provided samples of tea and coffee (n=28). A test dose of caffeine (500 mg) was given and a series of salivary samples analysed to estimate pharmacokinetic measures of the rate of caffeine metabolism. They then underwent 48 h of placebo substitution using double-blind procedures. A wide range of physiological, psychological and subjective measures were taken on successive days during withdrawal and resumption of caffeine. On withdrawal, 27 subjects reported tiredness and 18 developed headache. Electroencephalograph, skin conductance and blood pressure changes were apparent. Sleep improved on withdrawal but subjects reported feeling less alert and more tired. The higher the usual caffeine intake, the greater the unpleasant feelings on withdrawal and the more marked the reversal of feelings on resumption. The faster the metabolism of caffeine, the less the drop in anxiety during withdrawal and the less its return on resumption. These correlations were, however, rather weak and sporadic.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lader
- Division of Clinical Psychopharmacology, Institute of Psychiatry, De Crespigny Park, London SE5 8AF
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45
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Barraclough MS, Beech JR. Effects of caffeine on functional asymmetry in a Posner letter-recognition task. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1995; 52:731-5. [PMID: 8587912 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(95)00166-t] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
A Posner task was used to investigate whether caffeine, in common with other drugs, has an asymmetric effect on cerebral functioning. Subjects consumed decaffeinated coffee either with or without added caffeine at 2 mg/kg body weight. They were then required to identify letter-pairs as the same or different. Same was defined as two identical letters irrespective of case (AA, Aa); different was defined as two different letters irrespective of case (AB, Ab). Main effects of stimulus type were found for both accuracy and speed of response. In the noncaffeine condition pattern-matching was faster by the right hemisphere and phonologic matching was faster by the left hemisphere. These results replicate much previous work, but under caffeine, a previously unreported reversal in the balance of hemispheric processing efficiency was found. An explanation is offered in terms of the disruption of the normal, optimum, rate of cerebral processing for each hemisphere.
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46
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Bourin M, Le Melledo JM, Malinge M. [Experimental and clinical pharmacology of psychostimulants]. CANADIAN JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY. REVUE CANADIENNE DE PSYCHIATRIE 1995; 40:401-10. [PMID: 8548720 DOI: 10.1177/070674379504000707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine the fact that, after 50 years, the introduction of amphetamines for therapeutic purposes, psychostimulants such as methylphenidate have proved to be effective medications used in the treatment of childhood hyperactivity, yet misunderstood. METHOD A review of the literature is undertaken on the use of psychostimulants in children and adults. RESULTS Studies evaluating their helpfulness in adults are for the most part outdated and nonexploratory. CONCLUSION their rehabilitation could prove to be useful for young and older adults, on condition that their target syndromes are studied more thoroughly.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Bourin
- Département de pharmacologie, Faculté de médecine, Nantes, France
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47
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Mitchell SH, de Wit H, Zacny JP. Caffeine withdrawal symptoms and self-administration following caffeine deprivation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1995; 51:941-5. [PMID: 7675881 DOI: 10.1016/0091-3057(94)00426-j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the effects of complete or partial caffeine deprivation on withdrawal symptomatology and self-administration of coffee in caffeine-dependent coffee drinkers. Nine habitual coffee drinkers abstained from dietary sources of caffeine for 33.5 h. Caffeine deprivation was manipulated by administering capsules containing 0%, 50%, or 100% of each subject's daily caffeine intake (complete, partial, and no deprivation conditions). Caffeine withdrawal symptomatology was measured using self-report questionnaires. Caffeine self-administration was measured using: i) the amount of coffee subjects earned on a series of concurrent random-ratio schedules that yielded coffee and money reinforcers; ii) the amount of earned coffee they consumed. Saliva samples revealed that subjects complied with the caffeine abstinence instructions. Caffeine withdrawal symptoms occurred reliably following complete caffeine deprivation, though not in the partial deprivation condition. Caffeine self-administration was not related to deprivation condition. We conclude that caffeine withdrawal symptomatology is not necessarily associated with increased caffeine consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Mitchell
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Chicago, IL, USA
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48
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Miller LS, Lombardo TW, Fowler SC. Caffeine and time of day effects on a force discrimination task in humans. Physiol Behav 1995; 57:1117-25. [PMID: 7652032 DOI: 10.1016/0031-9384(95)00024-d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The effects of caffeine (0 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg, 3 mg/kg) and time of day (TOD) on human performance were studied using a multiple forceband discrimination task (MFDT) and subjective ratings. Self-rated measures of energy level were affected by TOD and caffeine, while mood was affected by TOD. Energy level decreased throughout the day and was offset by caffeine which increased energy level independent of TOD. Self-reported anxiety was not affected by TOD or caffeine. Mood was affected by TOD in a complex cubic trend with late morning and late evening peaks 12 h apart. MFDT performance was affected by TOD, caffeine dosage, and their interaction. Trend analyses showed varying patterns of TOD effects across peak force variability, response latency, response duration, and correct responding. Results support and extend previous findings of TOD influences on the MFDT and support the utility of multicomponent proprioceptive tasks for examining drug effects on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Miller
- Department of Psychology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602-3013, USA
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49
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Abstract
The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of low doses (75 mg and 150 mg) of caffeine on mood and cognition in healthy people, with minimal abstinence of 1 h from caffeine. Improvements were obtained in cognition for attention, problem solving and delayed recall, but not immediate recall or working memory, but performance in the placebo condition was close to the maximum, giving little margin for improvement. For mood, there were statistically significant increase in clearheadedness, happiness and calmness and decreases in tenseness. These mood and performance-enhancing effects of caffeine cannot be seen as representing an alleviation of deficits induced by caffeine abstinence, because there was only minimal deprivation from caffeine.
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50
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Streufert S, Pogash R, Miller J, Gingrich D, Landis R, Lonardi L, Severs W, Roache JD. Effects of caffeine deprivation on complex human functioning. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1995; 118:377-84. [PMID: 7568623 DOI: 10.1007/bf02245937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Twenty-five managers who reported an average daily caffeine consumption of 575 mg participated in two complex simulations. A double-blind cross-over design was employed to assess the effects of normal caffeine consumption versus caffeine deprivation upon seven validated measures of managerial effectiveness. Data from a Caffeine Withdrawal Questionnaire indicated discomfort upon deprivation. Systolic blood pressure increased during "normal" caffeine consumption levels but fell quickly and remained lower during deprivation. Several measures of managerial performance indicated decreased effectiveness upon caffeine deprivation. In contrast to prior research from simpler task settings, cognitive effectiveness (during complex task performance) was diminished. However, a measure of strategic performance which requires a relatively high level of cognitive effort showed no impact of caffeine deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Streufert
- Department of Behavioral Science, Pennsylvania State University, College of Medicine, Hershey 17033, USA
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