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Korczak DJ, Lo RF, Rizeq J, Crosbie J, Charach A, Anagnostou E, Birken CS, Monga S, Kelley E, Nicolson R, Arnold PD, Maguire JL, Schachar RJ, Georgiades S, Burton CL, Cost KT. The trajectory of depression and anxiety among children and adolescents over two years of the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychiatry Res 2024; 339:116101. [PMID: 39068897 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2024.116101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Longitudinal research examining children's mental health (MH) over the course of the COVID-19 pandemic is scarce. We examined trajectories of depression and anxiety over two pandemic years among children with and without MH disorders. Parents and children 2-18 years completed surveys at seven timepoints (April 2020 to June 2022). Parents completed validated measures of depression and anxiety for children 8-18 years, and validated measures of emotional/behavioural symptoms for children 2-7 years old; children ≥10 years completed validated measures of depression and anxiety. Latent growth curve analysis determined depression and anxiety trajectories, accounting for demographics, child and parent MH. Data were available on 1315 unique children (1259 parent-reports; 550 child-reports). Trajectories were stable across the study period, however individual variation in trajectories was statistically significant. Of included covariates, only initial symptom level predicted symptom trajectories. Among participants with pre-COVID data, a significant increase in depression symptoms relative to pre-pandemic levels was observed; children and adolescents experienced elevated and sustained levels of depression and anxiety during the two-year period. Findings have direct policy implications in the prioritization and of maintenance of educational, recreational, and social activities with added MH supports in the face of future events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daphne J Korczak
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - Ronda F Lo
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada
| | - Jala Rizeq
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada
| | - Jennifer Crosbie
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Alice Charach
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Evdokia Anagnostou
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Holland Bloorview Kids Rehabilitation Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Catherine S Birken
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Division of Paediatric Medicine, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Suneeta Monga
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Elizabeth Kelley
- Departments of Psychology, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Queen's University, Kingston, ON, Canada
| | - Rob Nicolson
- Department of Psychiatry, Western University, London, ON, Canada
| | - Paul D Arnold
- Mathison Centre for Mental Health Research & Education, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, AB, Canada; Departments of Psychiatry and Medical Genetics, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Jonathon L Maguire
- Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; MAP Centre for Urban Health Solutions, Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, Unity Health Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Russell J Schachar
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Stelios Georgiades
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
| | - Christie L Burton
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada
| | - Katherine Tombeau Cost
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Department of Psychiatry, Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, ON, Canada
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Liu P, Tan JXY. ERP correlates of self-referential processing moderate the association between pubertal status and disordered eating in preadolescence. Psychophysiology 2024; 61:e14534. [PMID: 38342692 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/13/2024]
Abstract
Preadolescence is a critical period for the onset of puberty and eating-related psychopathology. More advanced pubertal status is associated with elevated eating pathology. However, it was unclear whether this association was moderated by self-referential processing, an important, modifiable cognitive risk for various forms of psychopathology, including eating problems. Further, no study has examined the neural correlates of self-referential processing in relation to eating pathology. To address these gaps, we examined how the association between pubertal status and disordered eating was moderated by self-referential processing in a community sample of 115 nine-to-12-year-old preadolescents (66 girls; mean age/SD = 10.98/1.18 years; 87.5% White). Youths reported their pubertal status and disordered eating behaviors and completed an ERP version of the Self-Referent Encoding Task (SRET) to assess self-referential processing. A Principal Component Analysis of the ERP data identified an anterior late positive potential (LPP) in both the positive and negative SRET conditions. The LPP in the positive condition moderated the positive association between pubertal status and disordered eating behaviors, such that this association was significant for youths with a smaller LPP toward positive self-referential cues, but non-significant for those showing a larger LPP toward positive self-referential cues. These results suggest that a deeper processing of positive self-referential information, indicated by a potentiated LPP, may weaken the negative impact of pubertal status on disordered eating. Our findings also suggest that enhancing positive self-referential processing may be a useful tool in preventing the development of eating pathology in preadolescents, especially for those with more advanced pubertal status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Liu
- Department of Psychology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Jaron X Y Tan
- Department of Psychology, Center for Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
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Barkley SB, Hajcak G, Klein DN, Nelson BD. Electrocortical Reactivity During Self-Referential Processing Predicts the Development of Depression Across Adolescence. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2024:S2451-9022(24)00118-6. [PMID: 38710386 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2024.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 03/24/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Negative attentional biases and self-schemas have been implicated in the development of depression. Research has indicated that a larger late positive potential (LPP) to negative self-referential words is associated with depression-as well as a maternal history of depression, an indicator of risk. However, it is unclear whether the LPP to self-referential words predicts the actual development of depression. In the current study, we examined whether electrocortical reactivity during self-referential processing predicted the development of depression across adolescence. METHODS The sample consisted of 165 8- to 14-year-old girls with no lifetime history of a depressive disorder who completed the self-referential encoding task while electroencephalography was recorded at a baseline assessment. Participants and their parent completed the Kiddie Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia for School-Age Children at the baseline and 2-, 4-, and 6-year follow-up assessments. RESULTS Results indicated that a larger LPP to negative self-referential words at baseline predicted an increased likelihood of developing chronic-intermittent depression (i.e., persistent and/or recurrent), but not nonchronic, single-episode depression, across adolescence. In contrast, neither self-referential encoding task recall biases nor the LPP to positive self-referential words predicted the development of either type of depression. CONCLUSIONS The results of the current study suggest that electrocortical reactivity associated with a negative self-schema in late childhood predicts the development of a more pernicious subtype of depression across adolescence. Moreover, the current study highlights the importance of considering clinical course in the examination of biomarkers of risk for depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah B Barkley
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York.
| | - Greg Hajcak
- Santa Clara University, School of Education and Counseling Psychology, Santa Clara, California
| | - Daniel N Klein
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Brady D Nelson
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
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Renault H, Freeman C, Banica I, Sandre A, Ethridge P, Park J, Weinberg A. Neural response to rewards moderates the within-person association between daily positive events and positive affect during a period of stress exposure. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14376. [PMID: 37430465 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
Stress and neural responses to reward can interact to predict psychopathology, but the mechanisms of this interaction are unclear. One possibility is that the strength of neural responses to reward can affect the ability to maintain positive affect during stress. In this study, 105 participants completed a monetary reward task to elicit the reward positivity (RewP), an event-related potential sensitive to rewards. Subsequently, during a stressful period, participants reported on their affect nine times a day and on daily positive and negative events for 10 days. Even during heightened stress, experiencing more positive events was associated with increased positive affect. The RewP significantly moderated this association: Individuals with a larger RewP reported greater increases in positive affect when they experienced more positive events, relative to individuals with a smaller RewP. A blunted RewP might contribute to stress susceptibility by affecting how much individuals engage in positive emotion regulation during stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Héléna Renault
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Clara Freeman
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Iulia Banica
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Aislinn Sandre
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Paige Ethridge
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Juhyun Park
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Anna Weinberg
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
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Tan JXY, Liu P. Beyond the RewP: The reward feedback-elicited LPP and its potential associations with perceived stress and internalizing symptoms in late childhood. Int J Psychophysiol 2023; 193:112237. [PMID: 37625596 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2023.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 08/10/2023] [Accepted: 08/19/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Internalizing problems increase substantially during late childhood and early adolescence, which are known to be associated with elevated perceived stress as children transition into adolescence. One risk factor that may moderate the stress-symptom association is reward processing. While neurophysiological research in this field has focused on the reward positivity component (RewP) elicited during reward processing, little work has examined the reward feedback-elicited late positive potential (LPP) and its association with internalizing psychopathology. The present study examined the moderating roles of the RewP and feedback-elicited LPP in the relationship between perceived stress and internalizing symptoms in late childhood. A community sample of 115 nine-to-12-year-old children (66 girls, Mean age = 11.00 years, SD = 1.16) completed an EEG version of the reward feedback paradigm, the Doors task, and completed questionnaires on perceived stress and internalizing symptoms. A principal component analysis revealed three temporo-spatial factors that were temporally and spatially analogous to the RewP, anterior LPP, and posterior LPP, respectively. As expected, an enlarged RewP was found towards the win condition compared to the loss condition. We also observed a potentiated LPP towards loss relative to win feedback, which may reflect the evaluation and reappraisal processes following unsuccessful performance (i.e., loss). We did not, however, find significant moderating effects of any ERP components on the stress-symptom association. Our study was first to isolate the feedback-elicited LPP in a reward processing paradigm in children and provide initial evidence on the modulation of the ERP component by task conditions. Future research is warranted to further explore the functional significance of the reward feedback-elicited LPP in association with perceived stress and internalizing psychopathology in youths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaron X Y Tan
- Department of Psychology, Center for Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience, North Dakota State University, United States of America.
| | - Pan Liu
- Department of Psychology, Center for Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience, North Dakota State University, United States of America
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Liu P, Tan JXY. Incremental validity of ERP correlates of self-referential processing in predicting emerging depressive symptoms in late childhood: Evidence from a community-dwelling sample. Psychophysiology 2023; 60:e14382. [PMID: 37392027 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/02/2023]
Abstract
Depressogenic self-referential processing (e.g., self-schemas reflecting shallower processing of positive, and deeper processing of negative, self-descriptive words) is an established cognitive vulnerability to depression. Alterations of event-related potentials (ERPs) during self-referential processing have been observed in adolescents with depression risk or clinical depression. However, no study has examined ERPs associated with self-referential processing in typical-risk youth with emerging depressive symptoms during late childhood, a high-risk period for depression. It is also unclear to what extent ERPs provide incremental validity in predicting symptoms beyond performance on self-referential processing tasks. Sixty-five community-dwelling children (38 girls; mean age/SD = 11.02/1.59 years) completed a self-referent encoding task (SRET) with EEG recorded. Children showed a larger P2 and a larger late positive potential (LPP) in response to positive SRET stimuli versus negative stimuli. Hierarchical regression showed that in the positive condition only, including ERP correlates (P1, P2, LPP) and interactions between the ERPs and positive SRET score increased the explained variation in depressive symptoms beyond behavioral SRET performance. The LPP in response to positive words was associated with lower depressive symptoms. The P1 and P2 in response to positive words interacted with positive SRET score, such that the association between positive SRET score and symptoms was significant in children with greater P1 but smaller P2. We provide novel evidence supporting the incremental validity of ERPs beyond behavioral makers in predicting emerging depressive symptoms in children. Our findings also highlight the moderating role of ERP activity in strengthening the association between behavioral markers of self-schemas and depressive outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan Liu
- Department of Psychology, Center for Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
| | - Jaron X Y Tan
- Department of Psychology, Center for Visual and Cognitive Neuroscience, North Dakota State University, Fargo, North Dakota, USA
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Kim S, Champion KE, Gardner LA, Teesson M, Newton NC, Gainsbury SM. The directionality of anxiety and gaming disorder: An exploratory analysis of longitudinal data from an Australian youth population. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:1043490. [PMID: 36405898 PMCID: PMC9672463 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.1043490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Gaming activities among adolescents have increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, bringing with it a growing concern for the potential harms of excessive gaming and its risk factors. Anxiety is frequently linked with gaming disorder, but studies investigating this association were mostly cross-sectional in design. Longitudinal studies that explore risk factors associated with gaming disorder are sparse and the trajectories of gaming disorder remain unclear. To address this paucity, the present study analyzed a large longitudinal dataset with a 12-month follow-up of 4,968 Australian adolescents (ages 13-14) during the pandemic. Logistic regression and multiple regression analyses were conducted to investigate the temporal relationships between anxiety, gaming frequency, the amount of money spent within video games, and gaming disorder. Prevalence rates for gaming disorder in adolescents aged 13 and 14 were 15 and 16%, respectively. The regression models indicated a bidirectional relationship between anxiety and gaming disorder symptoms, where higher levels of anxiety were associated with higher levels of gaming disorder 12 months later and vice versa. The study also found that the interaction between anxiety and higher gaming frequency could predict gaming disorder symptoms. Overall, the findings suggest that young adolescents may be more vulnerable to developing gaming disorder and highlight the importance of addressing the interactions between risk factors and gaming disorder in treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungyeon Kim
- Brain and Mind Centre, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Katrina E Champion
- The Matilda Centre for Research in Mental Health and Substance Use, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Lauren A Gardner
- The Matilda Centre for Research in Mental Health and Substance Use, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Maree Teesson
- The Matilda Centre for Research in Mental Health and Substance Use, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Nicola C Newton
- The Matilda Centre for Research in Mental Health and Substance Use, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Sally M Gainsbury
- Brain and Mind Centre, School of Psychology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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