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Schram J, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Slosse A, Van Durme F, van Nuijs ALN, De Wael K. Electrochemical classification of benzodiazepines: A comprehensive approach combining insights from voltammetry and liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry. Talanta 2024; 279:126623. [PMID: 39084042 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/26/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
The growing non-medical use of benzodiazepines (BZs) has led to the emergence of counterfeit BZ pills and new psycho-active substances (NPS) in the BZ class on the illicit market. Comprehensive analytical methods for BZ identification are required to allow law enforcement, first aid responders and drug-checking services to analyze a variety of sample types and contents to make timely decisions on the spot. In this work, the electrochemical behavior of diazepam (DZ), clonazepam (CZ) and alprazolam (AP) is studied on graphite screen-printed electrodes, both with and without dissolved oxygen in the solution, to link their redox signals to their chemical structure. After elucidation of their reduction mechanisms using liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry, three structural classes (Class 1, Class 2 and Class 3) were defined, each with different redox centers and electrochemical behavior. Subsequently, 22 confiscated pills containing 14 different BZs were correctly assigned to these three structural classes, with the deoxygenated conditions displaying the highest class selectivity. Finally, the three classes were successfully detected after being spiked into five alcoholic beverages in the context of drug-facilitated sexual assault. For analysis in red wine, which complicated the analysis by interfering with Class 1, a dual test strategy in pH 2 and pH 7 was proposed for accurate detection. Its rapid measurements, broad scope and lack of interference from diluents or colors makes this method a promising approach for aiding various services in combating problematic BZ use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schram
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Amorn Slosse
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Vilvoordsesteenweg 100, 1120, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Karolien De Wael
- A-Sense Lab, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium; NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium.
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2
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Yao J, Yang C, Wen R, Liu T, Ding L, Yao Z, Fang Y. Integrated Sensing Platform Validated for the Efficient and On-Site Screening of Amine-Containing Illicit Drugs. ACS Sens 2024; 9:4608-4616. [PMID: 39116022 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.4c00787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/10/2024]
Abstract
Efficient and reliable technologies for the on-site detection of illicit drugs are important in drug-facilitated crime investigations. However, the development of such technologies is challenging. Based on the synthetic optimization, introducing a boron ester functional group to the two furanic indicators endows the stimulus-responsive properties synergistically. The ring-opening reaction of the indicators in the presence of amine-containing illicit drugs generated well-known donor-acceptor Stenhouse adducts, accompanied by strong color changes. A small-size and lightweight laminated sensor was integrated based on the outstanding ratiometric variations of the two active furanic indicators. A prototype platform was fabricated equipped with a circuit control, a mini pump, and a signal processing system. A user-friendly detection and efficient screening of amine-containing illicit drugs, including phenethylamines, amphetamines, cathinones, and tryptamines in the liquid states were conducted. The ratiometric response of the sensor was linear in the concentration range of 2.1-10.6 μg·mL-1 for methamphetamine·HCl and methcathinone ·HCl. The detection limits for the two illicit drugs at the sublevel (ng·mL-1) were found to be 8.4 and 9.0 ng·mL-1, respectively. Double-blind field tests and different illicit drugs were evaluated with good screening capability. Successful trials showed the potential applications of the developed prototype platform for efficient and on-site analytical determination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiashuang Yao
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, P. R. China
| | - Chun Yang
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Shaanxi Regional Center (Anti-Drug Technology Center of Shaanxi Provincial Public Security Department), Xi'an 710115, P. R. China
| | - Ruijuan Wen
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, P. R. China
| | - Taihong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, P. R. China
| | - Liping Ding
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, P. R. China
| | - Zhen Yao
- National Anti-Drug Laboratory Shaanxi Regional Center (Anti-Drug Technology Center of Shaanxi Provincial Public Security Department), Xi'an 710115, P. R. China
| | - Yu Fang
- Key Laboratory of Applied Surface and Colloid Chemistry of Ministry of Education, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, P. R. China
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3
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O'Connell KC, Almeida MB, Nouwairi RL, Costen ET, Lawless NK, Charette ME, Stewart BM, Nixdorf SL, Landers JP. Microwave-assisted extraction, separation, and chromogenic detection of laced marijuana for presumptive point-of-interdiction testing. LAB ON A CHIP 2024; 24:4403-4421. [PMID: 39162068 DOI: 10.1039/d4lc00223g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/21/2024]
Abstract
Presumptive drug screening enables timely procurement of search and arrest warrants and represents a crucial first step in crime scene analysis. Screening also reduces the burden on forensic laboratories which often face insurmountable backlogs. In most scenarios, on-site presumptive drug screening relies on chemical field tests for initial identification. However, even when used appropriately, these test kits remain limited to subjective colorimetric analysis, produce false positive or negative results with excessive sample quantities, and are known to cross-react with numerous innocuous substances. Previous efforts to develop microfluidic devices that incorporate these chromogenic indicator reagents address only a few of the many challenges associated with these kits. This is especially true for samples where the drug of interest is present as a lacing agent. This work describes the development of a centrifugal microfluidic device capable of integrating facile sample preparation, by way of a 3D printed snap-on cartridge amenable to microwave assisted extraction, followed by chromatographic separation and chromogenic detection on-disc. As cannabis is among the most widely used controlled substance worldwide, and displays strong interference with these indicator reagents, mock samples of laced marijuana are used for a proof-of-concept demonstration. Post extraction, the microdevice completes high throughput metering just prior to simultaneous reaction with four of the most commonly employed microchemical tests, followed by objective image analysis in CIELAB (a device-independent color model). Separation and recovery of a representative controlled substance with 93% efficiency is achieved. Correct identification, according to hierarchical cluster analysis, of three illicit drugs (e.g., heroin, phencyclidine, and cocaine) in artificially laced samples is also demonstrated on-disc. The cost effective microdevice is capable of complete automation post-extraction, with a total analysis time (including extraction) of <8 min. Finally, sample consumption is minimized, thereby preventing the complete destruction of forensic evidence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian C O'Connell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA.
| | - Mariana B Almeida
- Chemical Institute of São Carlos, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05001, Brazil
- Department of Chemistry, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná 86057, Brazil
| | - Renna L Nouwairi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA.
| | - Emmet T Costen
- Aerospace Structural Research Corporation, Milford, Connecticut, 06460 USA
| | - Nicola K Lawless
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Maura E Charette
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Brennan M Stewart
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Suzana L Nixdorf
- Department of Chemistry, Londrina State University, Londrina, Paraná 86057, Brazil
| | - James P Landers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA.
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
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4
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Fursman H, Morelato M, Chadwick S, Coppey F, Esseiva P, Roux C, Stojanovska N. Development and evaluation of portable NIR technology for the identification and quantification of Australian illicit drugs. Forensic Sci Int 2024; 362:112179. [PMID: 39096793 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2024.112179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 06/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/05/2024]
Abstract
The efficient and accurate analysis of illicit drugs remains a constant challenge in Australia given the high volume of drugs trafficked into and around the country. Portable drug testing technologies facilitate the decentralisation of the forensic laboratory and enable analytical data to be acted upon more efficiently. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy combined with chemometric modelling (machine learning algorithms) has been highlighted as a portable drug testing technology that is rapid and accurate. However, its effectiveness depends upon a database of chemically relevant specimens that are representative of the market. There are chemical differences between drugs in different countries that need to be incorporated into the database to ensure accurate chemometric model prediction. This study aimed to optimise and assess the implementation of NIR spectroscopy combined with machine learning models to rapidly identify and quantify illicit drugs within an Australian context. The MicroNIR (Viavi Solutions Inc.) was used to scan 608 illicit drug specimens seized by the Australian Federal Police comprising of mainly crystalline methamphetamine hydrochloride (HCl), cocaine HCl, and heroin HCl. A number of other traditional drugs, new psychoactive substances and adulterants were also scanned to assess selectivity. The 3673 NIR scans were compared to the identity and quantification values obtained from a reference laboratory in order to assess the proficiency of the chemometric models. The identification of crystalline methamphetamine HCl, cocaine HCl, and heroin HCl specimens was highly accurate, with accuracy rates of 98.4 %, 97.5 %, and 99.2 %, respectively. The sensitivity of these three drugs was more varied with heroin HCl identification being the least sensitive (methamphetamine = 96.6 %, cocaine = 93.5 % and heroin = 91.3 %). For these three drugs, the NIR technology provided accurate quantification, with 99 % of values falling within the relative uncertainty of ±15 %. The MicroNIR with NIRLAB infrastructure has demonstrated to provide accurate results in real-time with clear operational applications. There is potential to improve informed decision-making, safety, efficiency and effectiveness of frontline and proactive policing within Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harrison Fursman
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Marie Morelato
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Scott Chadwick
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Florentin Coppey
- École des Sciences Criminelles/School of Criminal Justice, University of Lausanne, Building Batochime, Lausanne, Vaud CH-1015, Switzerland.
| | - Pierre Esseiva
- École des Sciences Criminelles/School of Criminal Justice, University of Lausanne, Building Batochime, Lausanne, Vaud CH-1015, Switzerland.
| | - Claude Roux
- Centre for Forensic Science, University of Technology Sydney, 15 Broadway, PO Box 123, Broadway, NSW 2007, Australia.
| | - Natasha Stojanovska
- Forensics Command, Australian Federal Police, 110 Goulburn Street, Sydney, NSW 2000, Australia.
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5
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Fitzgerald ND, Palamar JJ. Increases in the use of drug testing kits among nightclub and festival attendees in New York City who use ecstasy, 2017-2022. Drug Alcohol Rev 2024; 43:975-983. [PMID: 38408742 PMCID: PMC11052675 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/28/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine [MDMA]) is a drug commonly used by people who attend electronic dance music (EDM) events at nightclubs and dance festivals. Drug checking has gained popularity in recent years to test for adulterants, but epidemiology studies are needed to estimate potential shifts in prevalence of drug checking to further inform harm reduction efforts. METHODS Adults entering randomly selected EDM events in New York City were surveyed in 2017 and 2022. Those reporting past-year ecstasy use were asked if they tested their ecstasy in the past year using a drug testing kit and whether they found out or suspected their ecstasy contained other drugs. We compared estimates between 2017 and 2022. RESULTS In 2017, an estimated 23.1% had tested their ecstasy, and this estimate increased to 43.1% in 2022 (86.6% increase, p = 0.006). Among those who tested their ecstasy, in 2017, 31.2% always tested their drug, and this increased to 60.6% in 2022 (94.2% increase, p = 0.026). In 2017, 59.6% of those who tested their ecstasy reported finding out or suspecting their drug was adulterated, which decreased to 18.4% in 2022 (69.1% decrease, p < 0.001). Suspected methamphetamine adulteration in particular decreased, from 21.9% in 2017 to 3.6% in 2022 (83.6% decrease, p = 0.007). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The use of drug testing kits has increased among EDM event attendees who use ecstasy and, at the same time, among those who had tested their ecstasy, suspected adulteration has decreased. Continued interest in understanding ecstasy contents among this population suggests the need for formal drug checking services.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole D. Fitzgerald
- Department of Epidemiology, College of Public Health and Health Professions, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Joseph J. Palamar
- Department of Population Health, NYU Grossman School of Medicine, New York, USA
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6
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Heckel S, Wittmann M, Reid M, Villa K, Simmchen J. An Account on BiVO 4 as Photocatalytic Active Matter. ACCOUNTS OF MATERIALS RESEARCH 2024; 5:400-412. [PMID: 38694187 PMCID: PMC11059100 DOI: 10.1021/accountsmr.3c00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 12/25/2023] [Indexed: 05/04/2024]
Abstract
Photocatalytic materials are gaining popularity and research investment for developing light-driven micromotors. While most of the early work used highly stable TiO2 as a material to construct micromotors, mostly in combination with noble metals, other semiconductors offer a wider range of properties, including independence from high-energy UV light. This review focuses on our work with BiVO4 which has shown promise due to its small band gap and resulting ability to absorb blue light. Additionally, this salt's well-defined crystal structures lead to exploitable charge separation on different crystal facets, providing sufficient asymmetry to cause active propulsion. These properties have given rise to fascinating physical and chemical behaviors that show how rich and variable active matter can become. Here, we present the synthesis of different BiVO4 microparticles and their material properties that make them excellent candidates as active micromotors. A critical factor in understanding inherently asymmetric micromotors is knowledge of their flow fields. However, due to their small size and the need to use even smaller tracer particles to avoid perturbing the flow field, measuring flow fields at the microscale is a difficult task. We also present these first results, which allow us to demonstrate the correlation between chemical reactivity and the flow generated, leading to active motion. Due to the nontoxic nature of BiVO4, these visible-light-responsive microswimmers have been used to study the first steps toward applications, even in sensitive areas such as food technology. Although these initial tests are far from being realized, we have to face the fact that a single microswimmer will not be able to perform macroscale tasks. Therefore, we present the reader with the first simple studies of collective motion, hoping for many new contributions to the field. The one-step synthesis of BiVO4 clearly paves the way for studies requiring large numbers of particles. We predict that the combination of promising applications for a nontoxic material which is readily synthesized in large quantities will contribute pivotally to advance the field of active matter beyond the proof-of-concept stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Heckel
- Physical
Chemistry, TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 19, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Martin Wittmann
- Physical
Chemistry, TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 19, 01069 Dresden, Germany
| | - Marc Reid
- Department
of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University
of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral
Street, Glasgow G1 1XL, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine Villa
- Institute
of Chemical Research of Catalonia (ICIQ), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology (BIST), Av. Països Catalans, 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Juliane Simmchen
- Physical
Chemistry, TU Dresden, Zellescher Weg 19, 01069 Dresden, Germany
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Canoura J, Alkhamis O, Venzke M, Ly PT, Xiao Y. Developing Aptamer-Based Colorimetric Opioid Tests. JACS AU 2024; 4:1059-1072. [PMID: 38559723 PMCID: PMC10976566 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.3c00801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Opioids collectively cause over 80,000 deaths in the United States annually. The ability to rapidly identify these compounds in seized drug samples on-site will be essential for curtailing trafficking and distribution. Chemical reagent-based tests are fast and simple but also notorious for giving false results due to poor specificity, whereas portable Raman spectrometers have excellent selectivity but often face interference challenges with impure drug samples. In this work, we develop on-site sensors for morphine and structurally related opioid compounds based on in vitro-selected oligonucleotide affinity reagents known as aptamers. We employ a parallel-and-serial selection strategy to isolate aptamers that recognize heroin, morphine, codeine, hydrocodone, and hydromorphone, along with a toggle-selection approach to isolate aptamers that bind oxycodone and oxymorphone. We then utilize a new high-throughput sequencing-based approach to examine aptamer growth patterns over the course of selection and a high-throughput exonuclease-based screening assay to identify optimal aptamer candidates. Finally, we use two high-performance aptamers with KD of ∼1 μM to develop colorimetric dye-displacement assays that can specifically detect opioids like heroin and oxycodone at concentrations as low as 0.5 μM with a linear range of 0-16 μM. Importantly, our assays can detect opioids in complex chemical matrices, including pharmaceutical tablets and drug mixtures; in contrast, the conventional Marquis test completely fails in this context. These aptamer-based colorimetric assays enable the naked-eye identification of specific opioids within seconds and will play an important role in combatting opioid abuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Canoura
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Dr., Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Obtin Alkhamis
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Dr., Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Matthew Venzke
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Dr., Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Phuong T. Ly
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Dr., Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
| | - Yi Xiao
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, 2620 Yarbrough Dr., Raleigh, North Carolina 27695, United States
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8
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Usman M, Baig Y, Nardiello D, Quinto M. How new nanotechnologies are changing the opioid analysis scenery? A comparison with classical analytical methods. Forensic Sci Res 2024; 9:owae001. [PMID: 38560581 PMCID: PMC10981550 DOI: 10.1093/fsr/owae001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Opioids such as heroin, fentanyl, raw opium, and morphine have become a serious threat to the world population in the recent past, due to their increasing use and abuse. The detection of these drugs in biological samples is usually carried out by spectroscopic and/or chromatographic techniques, but the need for quick, sensitive, selective, and low-cost new analytical tools has pushed the development of new methods based on selective nanosensors, able to meet these requirements. Modern sensors, which utilize "next-generation" technologies like nanotechnology, have revolutionized drug detection methods, due to easiness of use, their low cost, and their high sensitivity and reliability, allowing the detection of opioids at trace levels in raw, pharmaceutical, and biological samples (e.g. blood, urine, saliva, and other biological fluids). The peculiar characteristics of these sensors not only have allowed on-site analyses (in the field, at the crime scene, etc.) but also they are nowadays replacing the gold standard analytical methods in the laboratory, even if a proper method validation is still required. This paper reviews advances in the field of nanotechnology and nanosensors for the detection of commonly abused opioids both prescribed (i.e. codeine and morphine) and illegal narcotics (i.e. heroin and fentanyl analogues).
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Usman
- Narcotic Unit, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Home Department, Government of The Punjab, Lahore-54000, Pakistan
- Department of Sciences of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering (DAFNE), University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Yawar Baig
- Narcotic Unit, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Home Department, Government of The Punjab, Lahore-54000, Pakistan
| | - Donatella Nardiello
- Department of Sciences of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering (DAFNE), University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy
| | - Maurizio Quinto
- Department of Sciences of Agriculture, Food, Natural Resources and Engineering (DAFNE), University of Foggia, I-71122 Foggia, Italy
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9
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Zhao Y, Gan Y, Chen J, Zheng H, Chang Y, Lin C. Recent reports on the sensing strategy and the On-site detection of illegal drugs. RSC Adv 2024; 14:6917-6929. [PMID: 38410368 PMCID: PMC10895702 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra06931a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In this review, works on the on-site detection of illegal drugs in recent years are summarised and discussed, most of which were published within the past five years. The detection methods are categorised as colourimetric, fluorescence, Raman spectrometry, ion mobility spectrometry, electrochemistry, and mass spectrometry. Also, strategies that are possibly suitable for on-site detection and the actual instrumentation to be used in the field are listed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
- Institute of Forensic Science of the Ministry of Public Security No. 17 Muxidi Nanli, West City District 100038 Beijing China
| | - Yumeng Gan
- Institute for Biomimetics and Soft Matter, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University 9 Zengcuoan West Road 361005 Xiamen China
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surface Xiamen China
| | - Jun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
| | - Hui Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
| | - Ying Chang
- Institute of Forensic Science of the Ministry of Public Security No. 17 Muxidi Nanli, West City District 100038 Beijing China
| | - Changxu Lin
- Institute for Biomimetics and Soft Matter, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University 9 Zengcuoan West Road 361005 Xiamen China
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surface Xiamen China
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10
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Burks R, Öhrström L, Amombo Noa FM. Clarifying the complex chemistry of cobalt(II) thiocyanate-based tests for cocaine using single-crystal X-ray diffraction and spectroscopic techniques. J Forensic Sci 2024; 69:291-300. [PMID: 37853665 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Cobalt(II) thiocyanate-based tests are routinely used to screen cocaine products, with the formation of a blue species interpreted as a positive response. An array of other organic bases has been identified as false positives - including well-documented cocaine product adulterant lidocaine and its salt. False positives prompt continued test development, though improvements are hindered by unresolved product structures and reaction pathways. Toward greater clarity, cobalt(II) thiocyanate reactions with cocaine hydrochloride, along with lidocaine and its salt, were investigated using multiple analytical techniques. Reactions involving cocaine hydrochloride yielded glassy, amorphous blue material while reactions of lidocaine hydrochloride monohydrate produced larger, needle-like crystals whose structure was determined via single-crystal X-ray diffraction to be an ion pair (Hlidocaine+ )2 ([Co(SCN)4 ]2- )·H2 O. While the blue precipitate isolated from reactions involving cocaine hydrochloride was unsuitable for crystallographic structure determination, comparative ultraviolet-visible, attenuated total reflectance infrared, and Raman spectroscopic analysis - along with elemental analysis - supports that this solid is comprised of a comparable ion pair (Hcocaine+ )2 [Co(SCN)4 ]2- . Pink crystals isolated from lidocaine reaction vessels were identified as coordination compounds cis-[CoL2 (SCN)2 ] and trans-[CoL2 (SCN)2 ] where L = lidocaine, while pink crystals from both cocaine hydrochloride and lidocaine hydrochloride monohydrate reaction vessels were the coordination polymer trans-[Co(H2 O)2 (SCN)2 ]·H2 O. The results presented herein enable reaction optimization to favor a desired product, whether ion pair or coordination species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raychelle Burks
- Department of Chemistry, American University, Washington, District of Columbia, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Lars Öhrström
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Francoise M Amombo Noa
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
- AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden
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11
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Chen M, Burn PL, Shaw PE. Utilizing Different Diffusion Mechanisms for Thin Film Fluorescence-Based Detection and Discrimination of Illicit Drug Vapors. ACS Sens 2023; 8:4607-4614. [PMID: 38051524 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.3c01566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Film-based fluorescence sensors have been demonstrated to be powerful tools for real-time detection of trace chemical vapors. While explosive vapor detection via fluorescence quenching has been widely explored, fluorescence-based real-time detection and identification of illicit drug vapors remains a challenge. Here, we report two perylene diimide-based sensing materials, P1 and P2, incorporating 2,2-dihexyloctanyl chains and 4-[tris(4-{tert-butyl}phenyl)methyl]phenyl moieties at the imide positions, respectively. Quartz crystal microbalance with in situ photoluminescence measurements showed that N-methylphenethylamine, a simulant of methamphetamine (MA), diffused into films of P1 and P2 via Fickian and case-II mechanisms, respectively. The difference in the analyte diffusion mechanism led to P2 showing significantly faster luminescence quenching but slower luminescence recovery compared to P1. Finally, the different diffusion mechanisms were used as the basis for developing a simple sensor array based on P1 and P2 that could selectively detect free-base illicit drugs (MA, cocaine, and tetrahydrocannabinol) from potential interferants (organic amines, alcohol, and cosmetics) within 40 s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Chen
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Paul L Burn
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Paul E Shaw
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Queensland 4072, Australia
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12
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Chauhan V, Sharma M. Development and validation of presumptive spot test for the identification of z-drugs used in drug-facilitated crimes. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2023:10.1007/s12024-023-00739-7. [PMID: 37878164 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-023-00739-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023]
Abstract
The significance and desire for preliminary testing approaches that are straightforward, quick, selective, affordable, and practical for use in the field are highlighted by the increasing enormous amounts of potentially illegal samples being seized worldwide. The "z-drugs," which include zolpidem, zopiclone, and eszopiclone, are non-benzodiazepine medications used to treat insomnia. z-drugs are short-term solutions for sleeplessness and anxiety but have a long history of abuse and misuse. The extensive list is primarily utilized for drug-facilitated crimes and drug dependence. The presumptive color spot test for z-drugs, such as zolpidem, zopiclone, and eszopiclone, has been created and validated in this study. In the preliminary identification of zolpidem, zopiclone, and eszopiclone, no color spot test has been documented as per the literature. The color spot test is the most essential and routinely used technique for identifying any unknown sample substance. The color test method was proven to provide high-quality, dependable presumptive test findings and satisfy standards for preliminary screening usage. Validation experiments demonstrate that, at room temperature, the color change is specific to the zolpidem, zopiclone, and eszopiclone classes and unaffected by the common cutting agent's presence. It was discovered that 5, 10, and 6 ppm were the operational limit of detection of the sample present against the reagents 0.1% diphenyl carbazone, aqueous potassium iodoplatinate, and modified cobalt thiocyanate reagent, respectively. The color test is immediate and validated with other substances of a similar category and 10 ppm was the operational limit of detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Varsha Chauhan
- National Forensic Science University, Delhi Campus, Ministry of Home Affairs, Sec-3, Rohini, Delhi, 110085, India
| | - Manu Sharma
- National Forensic Science University, Delhi Campus, Ministry of Home Affairs, Sec-3, Rohini, Delhi, 110085, India.
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13
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Bugeja N, Oliver C, McGrath N, McGuire J, Yan C, Carlysle-Davies F, Reid M. Teaching old presumptive tests new digital tricks with computer vision for forensic applications. DIGITAL DISCOVERY 2023; 2:1143-1151. [PMID: 38013815 PMCID: PMC10408571 DOI: 10.1039/d3dd00066d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Presumptive (or 'spot') tests have served forensic scientists, law enforcement, and legal practitioners for over a hundred years. Yet, the intended design of such tests, enabling quick identification of drugs by-eye, also hides their full potential. Here, we report the development and application of time-resolved imaging methods of reactions attending spot tests for amphetamines, barbiturates, and benzodiazepines. Analysis of the reaction videos helps distinguish drugs within the same structural class that, by-eye, are judged to give the same qualitative spot test result. It is envisaged that application of these results will bridge the existing suite of field and lab-based confirmatory forensic tests, and support a broader range of colorimetric sensing technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Bugeja
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Cameron Oliver
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Nicole McGrath
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Jake McGuire
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | - Chunhui Yan
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
| | | | - Marc Reid
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde Glasgow UK
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14
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Ott CE, Burns A, Sisco E, Arroyo LE. Targeted fentanyl screening utilizing electrochemical surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (EC-SERS) applied to authentic seized drug casework samples. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
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15
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Prunty S, Carmany D, Dhummakupt ES, Manicke NE. Combining presumptive color tests, pressure-sensitive adhesive-based collection, and paper spray-mass spectrometry for illicit drug detection. Analyst 2023. [PMID: 37377186 DOI: 10.1039/d3an00559c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Illicit drug trafficking and abuse is a significant public safety and health concern. Color tests are commonly used for drug screening, but their poor specificity results in false positives. This study demonstrates the combination of drug residue collection using pressure-sensitive adhesive paper, on-paper color testing, and post-reaction analysis by paper spray mass spectrometry (PS-MS) on both portable and benchtop ion trap MS. All steps, including residue collection, color testing, and paper spray analysis, were performed on the same piece of paper. Three common color tests were investigated: the cobalt thiocyanate test for cocaine, the Simon test for methamphetamine, and the Marquis test for phenethylamine stimulants and opiates. The detection threshold for color tests ranged from 1.25 to 10 μg on paper. Drug residues were successfully confirmed by paper spray MS at the color test threshold in all cases, except for heroin after reaction with the Marquis reagent, when using the portable MS. In this case, the MS detection threshold was 4-fold higher than the color test threshold. The stability of the color test products was assessed through a time study. Drug residues could be detected by MS at least 24 hours after reaction. A series of realistic samples, including false positives, were analyzed to demonstrate the technique's utility in real-world scenarios. Overall, combining color tests with PS-MS offers a rapid, low-cost method for the collection and analysis of illicit drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Prunty
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
| | | | | | - Nicholas E Manicke
- Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, Indianapolis, IN, USA.
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16
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Chen M, Burn PL, Shaw PE. Luminescence-based detection and identification of illicit drugs. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:13244-13259. [PMID: 37144605 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp00524k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Luminescence-based sensing is capable of being used for the sensitive, rapid, and in some cases selective detection of chemicals. Furthermore, the method is amenable to incorporation into handheld low-power portable detectors that can be used in the field. Luminescence-based detectors are now commercially available for explosive detection with the technology built on a strong foundation of science. In contrast, there are fewer examples of luminescence-based detection of illicit drugs, despite the pervasive and global challenge of combating their manufacture, distribution and consumption and the need for handheld detection systems. This perspective describes the relatively nascent steps that have been reported in the use of luminescent materials for the detection of illicit drugs. Much of the published work has focused on detection of illicit drugs in solution with less work on vapour detection using thin luminescent sensing films. The latter are better suited for handheld sensing devices and detection in the field. Illicit drug detection has been achieved via different mechanisms, all of which change the luminescence of the sensing material. These include photoinduced hole transfer (PHT) leading to quenching of the luminescence, disruption of Förster energy transfer between different chromophores by a drug, and chemical reaction between the sensing material and a drug. The most promising of these is PHT, which can be used for rapid and reversible detection of illicit drugs in solution and film-based sensing of drugs in the vapour phase. However, there are still significant knowledge gaps, for example, how vapours of illicit drugs interact with the sensing films, and how to achieve selectivity for specific drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Chen
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - P L Burn
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - P E Shaw
- Centre for Organic Photonics & Electronics, School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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17
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Wilcox PG, Emmons ED, Pardoe IJ, Kline ND, Guicheteau JA. Quantitative Raman Cross-Sections and Band Assignments for Fentanyl and Fentanyl Analogs. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2023; 77:439-448. [PMID: 36792941 DOI: 10.1177/00037028231160565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Raman cross sections and spectra were measured for five synthetic opioid fentanyl analogs: fentanyl citrate, sufentanil citrate, alfentanil HCl, carfentanil oxalate, and remifentanil HCl. The measurements were performed with excitation wavelengths in the visible (532 nm) and near infrared (785 nm). In addition, density functional theory (DFT) calculations were employed to generate simulated spectra of the compounds and aid in identification of the observed spectral modes. These cross-section measurements and calculations were also used to assess results from a series of measurements of fentanyls cut with other powdered materials. These measurements are valuable for assessment of field-deployable Raman chemical sensors for detection of fentanyl and fentanyl analogs, including when mixed with other materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip G Wilcox
- US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
| | - Erik D Emmons
- US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
| | - Ian J Pardoe
- US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
| | - Neal D Kline
- US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
| | - Jason A Guicheteau
- US Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Chemical Biological Center, Aberdeen, MD, USA
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18
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Morgan J. Wrongful convictions and claims of false or misleading forensic evidence. J Forensic Sci 2023; 68:908-961. [PMID: 36946413 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
The results are reported of a study to examine case factors associated with 732 wrongful convictions classified by the National Registry of Exonerations as being associated with "False or Misleading Forensic Evidence." A forensic error typology has been developed to provide a structure for the categorization and coding of factors relating to misstatements in forensic science reports; errors of individualization or classification; testimony errors; issues relating to trials and officers of the court; and evidence handling and reporting issues. This study, which included the analysis of 1391 forensic examinations, demonstrates that most errors related to forensic evidence are not identification or classification errors by forensic scientists. When such errors are made, they are frequently associated with incompetent or fraudulent examiners, disciplines with an inadequate scientific foundation, or organizational deficiencies in training, management, governance, or resources. More often, forensic reports or testimony miscommunicate results, do not conform to established standards, or fail to provide appropriate limiting information. Just as importantly, actors within the broader criminal justice system-but not under the purview of any forensic science organization-may contribute to errors that may be related to the forensic evidence. System issues include reliance on presumptive tests without confirmation by a forensic laboratory, use of independent experts outside the administrative control of public laboratories, inadequate defense, and suppression or misrepresentation of forensic evidence by investigators or prosecutors. In approximately half of wrongful convictions analyzed, improved technology, testimony standards, or practice standards may have prevented a wrongful conviction at the time of trial.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Morgan
- National Institute of Justice, 9569 Brookchase Drive, Raleigh, North Carolina, 27617, USA
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19
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Mullin A, Scott M, Vaccaro G, Gittins R, Ferla S, Schifano F, Guirguis A. Handheld Raman Spectroscopy in the First UK Home Office Licensed Pharmacist-Led Community Drug Checking Service. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:4793. [PMID: 36981705 PMCID: PMC10049009 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20064793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Across the world, the interest in point-of-care drug checking as a harm-reduction intervention is growing. This is an attempt to improve intelligence about current drug trends and reduce drug-related morbidity and mortality. In the UK, drug-related harm is increasing exponentially year after year. As such, specialist community treatment services are exploring new methods to improve engagement with people who use drugs (PWUD), who may require support for their problematic drug use. This need has driven the requirement to pilot an on-site, time-responsive, readily available drug-checking service at point-of-support centres. In this study, we piloted the UK's first Home Office-licensed drug-checking service that was embedded into a community substance-misuse service and had all on-site analysis and harm-reduction interventions led and delivered by pharmacists. We report on the laboratory findings from the associated confirmatory analysis (UHPLC-MS, GC-MS, and 1H NMR) to assess the performance of the on-site hand-held Raman spectrometer and outline the challenges of providing real-time analysis of psychoactive substances in a clinical setting. Whilst acknowledging the limitation of the small sample size (n = 13), we demonstrate the potential suitability of using this technology for the purposes of screening substances in community-treatment services. Portability of equipment and timeliness of results are important and only very small samples may be provided by people who use the service. The challenges of accurately identifying substances from complex mixtures were equally found with both point-of-care Raman spectroscopy and laboratory confirmatory-analysis techniques. Further studies are required to confirm these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Mullin
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Mark Scott
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Giorgia Vaccaro
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Rosalind Gittins
- Clinical Department, WDP-Westminster Drug Project, 18 Dartmouth St., London SW1H 9BL, UK
| | - Salvatore Ferla
- Pharmacy, Medical School, The Grove Extension, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Department of Clinical, Pharmaceutical and Biological Science, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK
- Pharmacy, Medical School, The Grove Extension, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
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20
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Appley MG, Robinson EL, Thomson A, Russell E, Sisco E. An Analytical Platform for Near Real-Time Drug Landscape Monitoring using Paraphernalia Residues. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
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21
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Integration of smart nanomaterials for highly selective disposable sensors and their forensic applications in amphetamine determination. Electrochim Acta 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2023.142009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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22
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Development and Validation of a Rapid GC-MS Method for Seized Drug Screening. Forensic Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2023.100479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
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23
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Detection and Identification of Amphetamine-Type Stimulants and Analogs via Recognition-Enabled “Chromatographic” 19F NMR. J Fluor Chem 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfluchem.2023.110085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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24
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Gosetti F, Consonni V, Ballabio D, Orlandi ME, Amodio A, Valeria Picci M, Visentin M, Termopoli V. From the Streets to the Judicial Evidence: Determination of Traditional Illicit Substances in Drug Seizures by a Rapid and Sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS-Based Platform. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 28:molecules28010164. [PMID: 36615358 PMCID: PMC9822244 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28010164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
According to the 2021 World Drug Report, around 275 million people use drugs of abuse, and 36 million people suffer from addiction, fostering a thriving market for illicit substances. In Italy, 30,083 people were reported to the Judicial Authority for offenses in violation of the Italian Law D.P.R. 309/1990. These offences are sentenced after a qualitative-quantitative analysis of seized materials. Given the large quantity of seized drugs and the need to perform accurate analytical determinations, Italian forensic laboratories struggle to complete analyses in a short time, delaying the entire reporting process needed to achieve sentencing. For this purpose, an UHPLC-MS/MS-based platform was developed at the University of Milano-Bicocca to support law-enforcement authorities. Software was designed to easily manage street seizure acquisition, documentation registration, and sampling. A sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method was fully validated for the quantification of the traditional illicit substances (cocaine, heroin, 6-MAM, morphine, amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA, ketamine, GHB, GBL, LSD, trans-∆9-THC, and THCA) at the ppb level. The final report is relayed to the Prefecture in 3-4 days, even within 24 h for urgent requests. The platform allows for semi-automatic data handling to minimize erroneous results for an accurate report generation by standardized procedures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabio Gosetti
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Viviana Consonni
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Ballabio
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (V.T.)
| | - Marco Emilio Orlandi
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Amodio
- Legione Carabinieri Lombardia, Comando Provinciale di Milano Sezione, Investigazioni Scientifiche L.A.S.S., Via V. Monti 58, 20145 Milan, Italy
| | - Maria Valeria Picci
- Gabinetto Regionale di Polizia Scientifica per la Lombardia, Polizia di Stato, Via Fatebenefratelli 11, 20121 Milan, Italy
| | - Marco Visentin
- Gabinetto Regionale di Polizia Scientifica per la Lombardia, Polizia di Stato, Via Fatebenefratelli 11, 20121 Milan, Italy
| | - Veronica Termopoli
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, Piazza della Scienza 1, 20126 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence: (D.B.); (V.T.)
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25
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker HJ, Weesepoel Y, Arisz PW, Keizers PH, van Esch A, Zieltjens – van Uxem C, van den Berg JD, Hulshof JW, Bakels S, Rijs AM, van Asten AC. The influence of water of crystallization in NIR-based MDMA∙HCl detection. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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26
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Montiel NF, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Van Durme F, van Nuijs AL, De Wael K. Electrochemical sensing of amphetamine-type stimulants (pre)-precursors to fight against the illicit production of synthetic drugs. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.141446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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27
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker HJ, van Asten AC. On-site forensic analysis of colored seized materials: Detection of brown heroin and MDMA-tablets by a portable NIR spectrometer. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1762-1772. [PMID: 35968822 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2022] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The increasing workload for forensic laboratories and the expanding complexity of the drug market necessitates efficient approaches to detect drugs of abuse. Identification directly at the scene of crime enables investigative forces to make rapid decisions. Additionally, on-site identification of the material also leads to considerable efficiency and cost benefits. As such, paperwork, transportation, and time-consuming analysis in a laboratory may be avoided. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy is an analysis technique suitable for rapid drug testing using portable equipment. A possible limitation of spectroscopic analysis concerns the complexity of seized materials. NIR measurements represent composite spectra for mixtures and diagnostic spectral features can be obscured by excipients such as colorants. Herein, a NIR-based (1300-2600 nm) detection of heroin and MDMA in colored casework (i.e., brown powders and ecstasy tablets) using a portable analyzer is presented. The application includes a multistage data analysis model based on the net analyte signal (NAS) approach. This identification model was specifically designed for mixture analysis and requires a limited set of pure reference spectra only. Consequently, model calibration efforts are reduced to a minimum. A total of 549 forensic samples was tested comprising brown heroine samples and a variety of colored tablets with different active ingredients. This investigation led to a >99% true negative and >93% true positive rate for heroin and MDMA. These results show that accurate on-site detection in colored casework is possible using NIR spectroscopy combined with an efficient data analysis model. These findings may eventually help in the transition of routine forensic laboratories from laboratory-based techniques to portable equipment operated on scene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F Kranenburg
- Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Dutch National Police, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, GD, The Netherlands
| | | | - Arian C van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, GD, The Netherlands.,Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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28
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker HJ, van Asten AC. Portable near infrared spectroscopy for the isomeric differentiation of new psychoactive substances. Forensic Sci Int 2022; 341:111467. [PMID: 36154979 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Rapid and efficient identification of the precise isomeric form of new psychoactive substances (NPS) by forensic casework laboratories is a relevant challenge in the forensic field. Differences in legal status occur for ring-isomeric species of the same class, thus leading to different penalties and judicial control. Portable systems such as near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy recently emerged as suitable techniques for the on-scene identification of common drugs of abuse such as cocaine, MDMA and amphetamine. This way, the overall forensic process becomes more efficient as relevant information on substance identity becomes available directly at the scene of crime. Currently, no NIR-based applications exist for the rapid, on-scene detection of NPS isomers. Herein, we present the differentiation of cathinone and phenethylamine-type NPS analogues based on their NIR spectrum recorded in 2 seconds on a portable 1350 - 2600 nm spectrometer. A prior developed data analysis model was found suitable for the identification of the methylmethcathinone (MMC) isomers 2-MMC, 3-MMC and 4-MMC. In 51 mixtures and 22 seized casework samples, the correct isomeric form was detected in all cases except for a few mixtures with an active ingredient content of 10 wt%. These results show the feasibility of on-site NPS detection as presumptive test performed directly at the scene of crime with a small size NIR-spectrometer. Additionally, in the illicit drug analysis laboratory the combination of NIR and GC-MS analysis might be suitable for robust identification of NPS isomers and analogues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, the Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands.
| | - Henk-Jan Ramaker
- TIPb, Koningin Wilhelminaplein 30, Amsterdam 1062 KR, the Netherlands
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, the Netherlands
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29
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Vannoy KJ, Krushinski LE, Kong EF, Dick JE. Reagentless Voltammetric Identification of Cocaine from Complex Powders. Anal Chem 2022; 94:12638-12644. [PMID: 36066582 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most commonly trafficked and abused drugs in the United States, and deployable field tests are important for rapid identification in nonlaboratory settings. At present, colorimetric tests exist for in-field determination, but these fundamentally suffer from interferent effects. Cocaine is an organic salt that is readily water soluble as a cation and almost insoluble in the deprotonated neutral form. Here, we take advantage of the electrochemical window of water to increase the pH at the electrode surface by driving water reduction, effectively electroprecipitating the cocaine base. The precipitate on the electrode surface is then electrochemically oxidized by a voltammetric sweep through sufficiently positive potentials. We demonstrate excellent selectivity to cocaine compared to common adulterants, such as procaine, lidocaine, benzocaine, caffeine, and levamisole. Finally, we detect cocaine on a carbon fiber microelectrode, demonstrating miniaturizability and allowing access to low-resistance media (e.g., tap water).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn J Vannoy
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Lynn E Krushinski
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Edgar F Kong
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Jeffrey E Dick
- Department of Chemistry, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States.,Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, School of Medicine, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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30
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The importance of wavelength selection in on-scene identification of drugs of abuse with portable near-infrared spectroscopy. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2022.100437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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31
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Paraformaldehyde-coated electrochemical sensor for improved on-site detection of amphetamine in street samples. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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32
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Kranenburg RF, Ou F, Sevo P, Petruzzella M, de Ridder R, van Klinken A, Hakkel KD, van Elst DM, van Veldhoven R, Pagliano F, van Asten AC, Fiore A. On-site illicit-drug detection with an integrated near-infrared spectral sensor: A proof of concept. Talanta 2022; 245:123441. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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33
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Kosecki PA, Brooke P, Canonico E. Fentanyl as a potential false positive with color tests commonly used for presumptive cocaine identification. J Forensic Sci 2022; 67:2082-2088. [PMID: 35766309 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.15090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 05/25/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chemical color tests are widely utilized as part of the analytical scheme approved to identify drugs in forensic laboratories and in the field by law enforcement officers. Although these test results are considered preliminary indications of the presence of a drug, forensic scientists sometimes use these test results to direct their confirmatory testing and law enforcement officers use these test results when making arrest decisions and decisions on how to impound evidence. The color tests commonly used to identify cocaine are aqueous cobalt thiocyanate, the Young's test, the Scott's test, and the modified Scott's test. Field testing of a white powder was reported by a law enforcement officer to be positive for cocaine hydrochloride using a commercially available test kit based on the modified Scott's test. The forensic laboratory determined that the powder contained fentanyl and mannitol; cocaine was not detected. Subsequently, the case material, fentanyl and cocaine reference materials, and cocaine cut with mannitol were tested using aqueous cobalt thiocyanate, the Young's test, the Scott's test, and the modified Scott's test. The fentanyl standard and case material produced the colors that would be interpreted as cocaine using the aqueous cobalt thiocyanate and Young's tests. The misidentification of fentanyl as cocaine with these tests could create a potentially hazardous situation. The cocaine containing samples were distinguishable from the fentanyl containing samples with the Scott's and modified Scott's test when 1 mg of cocaine material was tested, whereas a 3-mg cocaine sample produced the same color sequence as fentanyl.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Phillip Brooke
- Scottsdale Police Department Crime Laboratory, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA
| | - Erika Canonico
- Scottsdale Police Department Crime Laboratory, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA
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34
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O'Connell KC, Lawless NK, Stewart BM, Landers JP. Dielectric heating of highly corrosive and oxidizing reagents on a hybrid glass microfiber-polymer centrifugal microfluidic device. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:2549-2565. [PMID: 35674228 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00221c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Many assays necessitate the use of highly concentrated acids, powerful oxidizing agents, or a combination of the two. Although microfluidic devices offer vast potential for rapid analytical interrogation at the point-of-need (PON), they cannot escape the fundamental requirement for reagent compatibility. Worse, many innovative protocols have been developed that would represent a significant improvement to current field-forward practices within their respective disciplines, but adoption falters due to chemical incompatibility with challenging reagents. Polymeric centrifugal microfluidic devices meet many of the needs for accommodating complex chemical or biochemical protocols in a multiplexed and automatable format. Yet, they also struggle to accommodate highly reactive chemical components long term. In this work, we report on a simple and inexpensive reagent storage strategy that bypasses the typical complexity involved with integration of liquid reagents on microfluidic devices. Moreover, we demonstrate microdevice compatibility and operation after six months of corrosive reagent storage as well as post dielectric heating. This new strategy allows for storage of multiple highly corrosive and oxidative reagents simultaneously, enhancing the possibilities for multistep assay integration at the PON for a diverse array of applications. Successful detection after one week of corrosive reagent storage of an illicit drug and neurotransmitter metabolite, for forensic and clinical applications, is demonstrated. Furthermore, environmental sample preparation via microwave-assisted wet acid digestion is performed on-disc and integrated with downstream detection. Quantitative detection of a heavy metal in soil is achieved by way of on-disc calibration and found to be accurate within 2.4% compared to a gold standard reference (ICP-OES).
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Affiliation(s)
- Killian C O'Connell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA.
| | - Nicola K Lawless
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Department of Cognitive Science, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Brennan M Stewart
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - James P Landers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA.
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
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35
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de Souza DM, de Moura Messias PJ, Silva Santos ID, Ramalho ED, Ferrari Júnior E, de Oliveira Morais PA. Scott test associated with multivariate image analysis: A more selective alternative for cocaine research in forensic laboratories. Forensic Sci Int 2022; 335:111277. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2022.111277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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36
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Rapid On-Site Detection of Illicit Drugs in Smuggled Samples with a Portable Electrochemical Device. CHEMOSENSORS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors10030108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The smuggling of illicit drugs urges the development of new tools for rapid on-site identification in cargos. Current methods rely on presumptive color tests and portable spectroscopic techniques. However, these methods sometimes exhibit inaccurate results due to commonly used cutting agents, the colorful nature of the sample or because the drugs are smuggled in common goods. Interestingly, electrochemical sensors can deal with these specific problems. Herein, an electrochemical device is presented that uses affordable screen-printed electrodes for the electrochemical profiling of several illicit drugs by square-wave voltammetry (SWV). The identification of the illicit compound is based on the oxidation potential of the analyte. Hence, a library of electrochemical profiles is built upon the analysis of illicit drugs and common cutting agents. This library allows the design of a tailor-made script that enables the identification of each drug through a user-friendly interface (laptop or mobile phone). Importantly, the electrochemical test is compared by analyzing 48 confiscated samples with other portable devices based on Raman and FTIR spectroscopy as well as a laboratory standard method (i.e., gas chromatography–mass spectrometry). Overall, the electrochemical results, obtained through the analysis of different samples from confiscated cargos at an end-user site, present a promising alternative to current methods, offering low-cost and rapid testing in the field.
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37
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Van Echelpoel R, Kranenburg RF, van Asten AC, De Wael K. Electrochemical detection of MDMA and 2C-B in ecstasy tablets using a selectivity enhancement strategy by in-situ derivatization. Forensic Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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38
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Arrieiro MO, Arantes LC, Moreira DA, Pimentel DM, Lima CD, Costa LM, Verly RM, dos Santos WT. Electrochemical detection of eutylone using screen-printed electrodes: Rapid and simple screening method for application in forensic samples. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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39
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Kranenburg RF, Ramaker H, Sap S, Asten AC. A Calibration Friendly Approach to Identify Drugs of Abuse Mixtures with a Portable Near‐Infrared Analyzer. Drug Test Anal 2022; 14:1089-1101. [PMID: 35098685 PMCID: PMC9305489 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Both the increasing number and diversity of illicit‐drug seizures complicate forensic drug identification. Traditionally, colorimetric tests are performed on‐site, followed by transport to a laboratory for confirmatory analysis. Higher caseloads increase laboratory workload and associated transport and chain‐of‐evidence assurance performed by police officers. Colorimetric tests are specific only for a small set of drugs. The rise of new psychoactive substances therefore introduces risks for erroneous results. Near‐infrared (NIR)‐based analyzers may overcome these encumbrances by their compound‐specific spectral selectivity and broad applicability. This work introduces a portable NIR analyzer that combines a broad wavelength range (1300–2600 nm) with a chemometric model developed specifically for forensic samples. The application requires only a limited set of reference spectra for time‐efficient model training. This calibration‐light approach thus eliminates the need of extensive training sets including mixtures. Performance was demonstrated with 520 casework samples resulting in a 99.6% true negative and 97.6% true positive rate for cocaine. Similar results were obtained for MDMA, methamphetamine, ketamine, and heroin. Additionally, 236 samples were analyzed by scanning directly through their plastic packaging. Also here, a >97% true positive rate was obtained. This allows for non‐invasive, operator‐safe chemical identification of potentially potent drugs of abuse. Our results demonstrate the applicability for multiple drug‐related substances. Ideally, the combination of this NIR approach with other portable techniques, such as Raman and IR spectroscopy and electrochemical tests, may eventually eliminate the need for subsequent laboratory analysis; therefore, saving tremendous resources in the overall forensic process of confirmatory illicit drug identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F. Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25 Amsterdam BA The Netherlands
- Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
| | | | - Sharon Sap
- Dutch Customs Laboratory, Kingsfordweg 1 Amsterdam GN The Netherlands
| | - Arian C. Asten
- Van’t Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences University of Amsterdam Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157 Amsterdam GD The Netherlands
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40
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Laposchan S, Kranenburg RF, van Asten AC. Impurities, adulterants and cutting agents in cocaine as potential candidates for retrospective mining of GC-MS data. Sci Justice 2022; 62:60-75. [PMID: 35033329 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2021.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 10/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine is one of the most widely used illicit drugs worldwide. Cocaine powders seized by the Police may contain numerous other substances besides the drug itself. These can be impurities originating from the coca plant or the production process, or be purposely added to the drug formulation as adulterants and cutting agents. In forensic laboratories, identification of cocaine is routinely done through GC-MS analysis, but other components are often ignored even if the method allows for their detection. Yet, they can provide valuable insight into the history of a seizure and its potential connection to other samples. To explore this idea, an extensive review of common impurities and adulterants encountered in cocaine is presented. Based on their incidence, concentration in the end product and compatibility with GC-MS methods, their overall usefulness as candidates for the statistical investigation of existing forensic data is evaluated. The impurities cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine, tropacocaine, norcocaine and N-benzoylnormethylecgonine as well as the adulterants lidocaine, procaine, tetracaine, benzocaine, caffeine, acetylsalicylic acid, phenacetin, ibuprofen, levamisole, hydroxyzine and diltiazem are promising candidates to provide additional forensic intelligence. Future research on optimized routine GC-MS methods, signal reproducibility, comparison, statistics and databases is suggested to facilitate this concept. Ultimately, such an approach may significantly advance the amount of information that is extracted from routine casework data, elucidate developments in the cocaine markets in the past and facilitate Police work in the future. Preliminary assessment of existing data from the forensic laboratory of the Amsterdam Police has been included to show that the detection of the identified target impurities is feasible, and that small adjustments to the analysis method could significantly increase the detectability of these analytes in prospective drug screenings. Forensic intelligence based on retrospective data mining of cocaine containing casework samples may thus be realized with minimal additional laboratory efforts by using already available instrumentation, samples and data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Laposchan
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Ruben F Kranenburg
- Dutch National Police, Unit Amsterdam, Forensic Laboratory, Kabelweg 25, Amsterdam 1014 BA, The Netherlands; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands.
| | - Arian C van Asten
- Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands; Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine, Postbus 94157, Amsterdam 1090 GD, The Netherlands
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41
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Doménech-Carbó MT, Doménech-Carbó A. Spot tests: past and present. CHEMTEXTS 2022; 8:4. [PMID: 34976574 PMCID: PMC8710564 DOI: 10.1007/s40828-021-00152-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Microchemistry, i.e., the chemistry performed at the scale of a microgram or less, has its roots in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. In the first half of the twentieth century a wide range of spot tests have been developed. For didactic reasons, they are still part of the curriculum of chemistry students. However, they are even highly important for applied analyses in conservation of cultural heritage, food science, forensic science, clinical and pharmacological sciences, geochemistry, and environmental sciences. Modern pregnancy tests, virus tests, etc. are the most recent examples of sophisticated spot tests. The present ChemTexts contribution aims to provide an overview of the past and present of this analytical methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Teresa Doménech-Carbó
- Institut de Restauració del Patrimoni, Universitat Politècnica de València, Camí de Vera 14, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Antonio Doménech-Carbó
- Departament de Química Analítica, Universitat de València. Dr. Moliner, 50, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain
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42
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Dignan LM, Woolf MS, Ross JA, Baehr C, Holstege CP, Pravetoni M, Landers JP. A Membrane-Modulated Centrifugal Microdevice for Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay-Based Detection of Illicit and Misused Drugs. Anal Chem 2021; 93:16213-16221. [PMID: 34807557 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Increased opioid use and misuse have imposed large analytical demands across clinical and forensic sectors. Due to the absence of affordable, accurate, and simple on-site tests (e.g., point of interdiction and bedside), analysis is primarily conducted in centralized laboratories via time-consuming, labor-intensive methods. Many healthcare facilities do not have such analytical capabilities and must send samples to commercial laboratories, increasing turnaround time and care costs, as well as delaying public health warnings regarding the emergence of specific substances. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are used ubiquitously, despite lengthy workflows that require substantial manual intervention. Faster, reliable analytics are desperately needed to mitigate the mortality and morbidity associated with the current substance use epidemic. We describe one such alternative─a portable centrifugal microfluidic ELISA system that supplants repetitive pipetting with rotationally controlled fluidics. Embedded cellulosic membranes act as microvalves, permitting flow only when centrifugally generated hydraulic pressure exceeds their liquid entry pressure. These features enable stepwise reagent introduction, incubation, and removal simply by tuning rotational frequency. We demonstrate the success of this platform through sensitive, specific colorimetric detection of opiates, a subclass of opioids naturally derived from the opium poppy. Objective image analysis eliminated subjectivity in human color perception and permitted reliable detection of opiates in buffer and artificial urine at the ng/μL range. Opiates were clearly differentiated from other drug classes without interference from common adulterants known to cause false positive results in current colorimetric field tests. Eight samples were simultaneously analyzed in under 1 h, a marked reduction from the traditional multiday timeline. This approach could permit rapid, automatable ELISA-based drug detection outside of traditional laboratories by nontechnical personnel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah M Dignan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
| | - M Shane Woolf
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
| | - Jennifer A Ross
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, United States
| | - Carly Baehr
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Christopher P Holstege
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Virginia School of Medicine, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903, United States
| | - Marco Pravetoni
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - James P Landers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, United States
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43
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Climent E, Rurack K. Streifenschnelltest mit ppt‐Empfindlichkeit durch Kombination von Elektrochemilumineszenz‐Detektion mit Aptamer‐gesteuerter Indikatorfreisetzung aus mesoporösen Nanopartikeln. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202110744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Estela Climent
- Fachbereich Chemische und Optische Sensorik Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11 12489 Berlin Deutschland
| | - Knut Rurack
- Fachbereich Chemische und Optische Sensorik Bundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM) Richard-Willstätter-Str. 11 12489 Berlin Deutschland
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44
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Climent E, Rurack K. Combining Electrochemiluminescence Detection with Aptamer-Gated Indicator Releasing Mesoporous Nanoparticles Enables ppt Sensitivity for Strip-Based Rapid Tests. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:26287-26297. [PMID: 34595818 PMCID: PMC9298832 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202110744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The combination of electrogenerated chemiluminescence (ECL) and aptamer-gated indicator delivering (gAID) magnetic mesoporous silica nanoparticles embedded into glass fibre paper functionalised with poly(ethyleneglycol) and N-(3-triethoxysilylpropyl)diethanolamine allowed the development of a rapid test that detects penicillin directly in diluted milk down to 50±9 ppt in <5 min. Covalent attachment of the aptamer "cap" to the silica scaffold enabled pore closure through non-covalent electrostatic interactions with surface amino groups, while binding of penicillin led to a folding-up of the aptamer thus releasing the ECL reporter Ru(bpy)32+ previously loaded into the material and letting it be detected after lateral flow by a smartphone camera upon electrochemical excitation with a screen printed electrode inserted into a 3D-printed holder. The approach is simple, generic and presents advantages with respect to sensitivity, measurement uncertainty and robustness compared with conventional fluorescence or electrochemical detection, especially for point-of-need analyses of challenging matrices and analytes at ultra-trace levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estela Climent
- Chemical and Optical Sensing DivisionBundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)Richard-Willstätter-Str. 1112489BerlinGermany
| | - Knut Rurack
- Chemical and Optical Sensing DivisionBundesanstalt für Materialforschung und -prüfung (BAM)Richard-Willstätter-Str. 1112489BerlinGermany
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45
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Dragan AM, Parrilla M, Feier B, Oprean R, Cristea C, De Wael K. Analytical techniques for the detection of amphetamine-type substances in different matrices: A comprehensive review. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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46
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A Colorimetric Membrane-Based Sensor with Improved Selectivity towards Amphetamine. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26216713. [PMID: 34771122 PMCID: PMC8588055 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26216713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to their simplicity, speed and low cost, chemical spot tests are increasingly demanded for the presumptive identification of illicit drugs in a variety of contexts such as point-of-care assistance or prosecution of drug trafficking. However, most of the colorimetric reactions used in these tests are, at best, drug class selective. Therefore, the development of tests based on chemical reactions with improved discrimination power is of great interest. In this work, we propose a new colorimetric assay for amphetamine (AMP) based on its reaction with solutions of alkaline gold bromide to form an insoluble yellow–orange derivative. The resulting suspensions are then filtered onto nylon membranes and the precipitate collected is used for the visual identification of AMP. The measurement of the absorbance of the membranes by diffuse reflectance spectroscopy also allows the quantification of AMP in a simple and rapid way, as demonstrated for different synthetic and drug street samples. On the basis of the results obtained, it was concluded that the proposed procedure is highly selective towards AMP, as this compound could be easily differentiated from other common drugs such as methamphetamine (MET), ephedrine (EPH), scopolamine (SCP) and cocaine (COC).
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47
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Screening of seized drugs utilizing portable Raman spectroscopy and direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS). Forensic Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forc.2021.100352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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48
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Kranenburg RF, Verduin J, de Ridder R, Weesepoel Y, Alewijn M, Heerschop M, Keizers PH, van Esch A, van Asten AC. Performance evaluation of handheld Raman spectroscopy for cocaine detection in forensic case samples. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1054-1067. [PMID: 33354929 PMCID: PMC8248000 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Handheld Raman spectroscopy is an emerging technique for rapid on-site detection of drugs of abuse. Most devices are developed for on-scene operation with a user interface that only shows whether cocaine has been detected. Extensive validation studies are unavailable, and so are typically the insight in raw spectral data and the identification criteria. This work evaluates the performance of a commercial handheld Raman spectrometer for cocaine detection based on (i) its performance on 0-100 wt% binary cocaine mixtures, (ii) retrospective comparison of 3,168 case samples from 2015 to 2020 analyzed by both gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and Raman, (iii) assessment of spectral selectivity, and (iv) comparison of the instrument's on-screen results with combined partial least square regression (PLS-R) and discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) models. The limit of detection was dependent on sample composition and varied between 10 wt% and 40 wt% cocaine. Because the average cocaine content in street samples is well above this limit, a 97.5% true positive rate was observed in case samples. No cocaine false positives were reported, although 12.5% of the negative samples were initially reported as inconclusive by the built-in software. The spectral assessment showed high selectivity for Raman peaks at 1,712 (cocaine base) and 1,716 cm-1 (cocaine HCl). Combined PLS-R and PLS-DA models using these features confirmed and further improved instrument performance. This study scientifically assessed the performance of a commercial Raman spectrometer, providing useful insight on its applicability for both presumptive detection and legally valid evidence of cocaine presence for law enforcement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben F. Kranenburg
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Joshka Verduin
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Renee de Ridder
- Forensic LaboratoryDutch National Police, Unit AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
| | - Yannick Weesepoel
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University and ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | - Martin Alewijn
- Wageningen Food Safety ResearchWageningen University and ResearchWageningenThe Netherlands
| | | | - Peter H.J. Keizers
- National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (RIVM)BilthovenThe Netherlands
| | | | - Arian C. van Asten
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular SciencesUniversity of AmsterdamAmsterdamThe Netherlands
- Co van Ledden Hulsebosch Center (CLHC), Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and MedicineAmsterdamThe Netherlands
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Schram J, Parrilla M, Sleegers N, Van Durme F, van den Berg J, van Nuijs ALN, De Wael K. Electrochemical profiling and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry characterization of synthetic cathinones: From methodology to detection in forensic samples. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1282-1294. [PMID: 33624933 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of new psychoactive drugs in the market demands rapid and accurate tools for the on-site classification of illegal and legal compounds with similar structures. Herein, a novel method for the classification of synthetic cathinones (SCs) is presented based on their electrochemical profile. First, the electrochemical profile of five common SC (i.e., mephedrone, ethcathinone, methylone, butylone, and 4-chloro-alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone) is collected to build calibration curves using square wave voltammetry on graphite screen-printed electrodes (SPEs). Second, the elucidation of the oxidation pathways, obtained by liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry, allows the pairing of the oxidation products to the SC electrochemical profile, providing a selective and robust classification. Additionally, the effect of common adulterants and illicit drugs on the electrochemical profile of the SC is explored. Interestingly, a cathodic pretreatment of the SPE allows the selective detection of each SC in presence of electroactive adulterants. Finally, the electrochemical approach is validated with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry by analyzing 26 confiscated samples from seizures and illegal webshops. Overall, the electrochemical method exhibits a successful classification of SC including structural derivatives, a crucial attribute in an ever-diversifying drug market.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Schram
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Marc Parrilla
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Nick Sleegers
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Filip Van Durme
- Drugs and Toxicology Department, National Institute for Criminalistics and Criminology (NICC), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jorrit van den Berg
- Team Illicit Drugs, The Netherlands Forensic Institute (NFI), The Hague, The Netherlands
| | | | - Karolien De Wael
- AXES Research Group, Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.,NANOlab Center of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Karamahito P, Sitanurak J, Nacapricha D, Wilairat P, Chaisiwamongkhol K, Phonchai A. Paper device for distance-based visual quantification of sibutramine adulteration in slimming products. Microchem J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2020.105784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
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