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Liang W, Zhou C, Bai J, Zhang H, Long H, Jiang B, Liu L, Xia L, Jiang C, Zhang H, Zhao J. Nanotechnology-based bone regeneration in orthopedics: a review of recent trends. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2024; 19:255-275. [PMID: 38275154 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2023-0187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Nanotechnology has revolutionized the field of bone regeneration, offering innovative solutions to address the challenges associated with conventional therapies. This comprehensive review explores the diverse landscape of nanomaterials - including nanoparticles, nanocomposites and nanofibers - tailored for bone tissue engineering. We delve into the intricate design principles, structural mimicry of native bone and the crucial role of biomaterial selection, encompassing bioceramics, polymers, metals and their hybrids. Furthermore, we analyze the interface between cells and nanostructured materials and their pivotal role in engineering and regenerating bone tissue. In the concluding outlook, we highlight emerging frontiers and potential research directions in harnessing nanomaterials for bone regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqing Liang
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Chao Zhou
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Guanghua hospital, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Juqin Bai
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Hongwei Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Hengguo Long
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Bo Jiang
- Rehabilitation Department, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Lu Liu
- Medical Research Center, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Linying Xia
- Medical Research Center, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Chanyi Jiang
- Department of Pharmacy, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Hengjian Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
| | - Jiayi Zhao
- Department of Orthopedics, Zhoushan Hospital of Traditional Chinese Medicine Affiliated to Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Zhoushan, 316000, China
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Palominos MF, Muhl V, Richards EJ, Miller CT, Martin CH. Jaw size variation is associated with a novel craniofacial function for galanin receptor 2 in an adaptive radiation of pupfishes. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20231686. [PMID: 37876194 PMCID: PMC10598438 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2023.1686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the genetic basis of novel adaptations in new species is a fundamental question in biology. Here we demonstrate a new role for galr2 in vertebrate craniofacial development using an adaptive radiation of trophic specialist pupfishes endemic to San Salvador Island, Bahamas. We confirmed the loss of a putative Sry transcription factor binding site upstream of galr2 in scale-eating pupfish and found significant spatial differences in galr2 expression among pupfish species in Meckel's cartilage using in situ hybridization chain reaction (HCR). We then experimentally demonstrated a novel role for Galr2 in craniofacial development by exposing embryos to Garl2-inhibiting drugs. Galr2-inhibition reduced Meckel's cartilage length and increased chondrocyte density in both trophic specialists but not in the generalist genetic background. We propose a mechanism for jaw elongation in scale-eaters based on the reduced expression of galr2 due to the loss of a putative Sry binding site. Fewer Galr2 receptors in the scale-eater Meckel's cartilage may result in their enlarged jaw lengths as adults by limiting opportunities for a circulating Galr2 agonist to bind to these receptors during development. Our findings illustrate the growing utility of linking candidate adaptive SNPs in non-model systems with highly divergent phenotypes to novel vertebrate gene functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Fernanda Palominos
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Vanessa Muhl
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Emilie J. Richards
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Craig T. Miller
- Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Christopher H. Martin
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, 3101 Valley Life Sciences Building, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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3
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Mutumi GL, Hall RP, Hedrick BP, Yohe LR, Sadier A, Davies KTJ, Rossiter SJ, Sears KE, Dávalos LM, Dumont ER. Disentangling Mechanical and Sensory Modules in the Radiation of Noctilionoid Bats. Am Nat 2023; 202:216-230. [PMID: 37531274 DOI: 10.1086/725368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractWith diverse mechanical and sensory functions, the vertebrate cranium is a complex anatomical structure whose shifts between modularity and integration, especially in mechanical function, have been implicated in adaptive diversification. Yet how mechanical and sensory systems and their functions coevolve, as well as how their interrelationship contributes to phenotypic disparity, remain largely unexplored. To examine the modularity, integration, and evolutionary rates of sensory and mechanical structures within the head, we analyzed hard and soft tissue scans from ecologically diverse bats in the superfamily Noctilionoidea, a clade that ranges from insectivores and carnivores to frugivores and nectarivores. We identified eight regions that evolved in a coordinated fashion, thus recognizable as evolutionary modules: five associated with bite force and three linked to olfactory, visual, and auditory systems. Interrelationships among these modules differ between Neotropical leaf-nosed bats (family Phyllostomidae) and other noctilionoids. Consistent with the hypothesis that dietary transitions begin with changes in the capacity to detect novel food items followed by adaptations to process them, peak rates of sensory module evolution predate those of some mechanical modules. We propose that the coevolution of structures influencing bite force, olfaction, vision, and hearing constituted a structural opportunity that allowed the phyllostomid ancestor to take advantage of existing ecological opportunities and contributed to the clade's remarkable radiation.
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4
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Kozol RA, Conith AJ, Yuiska A, Cree-Newman A, Tolentino B, Benesh K, Paz A, Lloyd E, Kowalko JE, Keene AC, Albertson C, Duboue ER. A brain-wide analysis maps structural evolution to distinct anatomical module. eLife 2023; 12:e80777. [PMID: 37498318 PMCID: PMC10435234 DOI: 10.7554/elife.80777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The vertebrate brain is highly conserved topologically, but less is known about neuroanatomical variation between individual brain regions. Neuroanatomical variation at the regional level is hypothesized to provide functional expansion, building upon ancestral anatomy needed for basic functions. Classically, animal models used to study evolution have lacked tools for detailed anatomical analysis that are widely used in zebrafish and mice, presenting a barrier to studying brain evolution at fine scales. In this study, we sought to investigate the evolution of brain anatomy using a single species of fish consisting of divergent surface and cave morphs, that permits functional genetic testing of regional volume and shape across the entire brain. We generated a high-resolution brain atlas for the blind Mexican cavefish Astyanax mexicanus and coupled the atlas with automated computational tools to directly assess variability in brain region shape and volume across all populations. We measured the volume and shape of every grossly defined neuroanatomical region of the brain and assessed correlations between anatomical regions in surface fish, cavefish, and surface × cave F2 hybrids, whose phenotypes span the range of surface to cave. We find that dorsal regions of the brain are contracted, while ventral regions have expanded, with F2 hybrid data providing support for developmental constraint along the dorsal-ventral axis. Furthermore, these dorsal-ventral relationships in anatomical variation show similar patterns for both volume and shape, suggesting that the anatomical evolution captured by these two parameters could be driven by similar developmental mechanisms. Together, these data demonstrate that A. mexicanus is a powerful system for functionally determining basic principles of brain evolution and will permit testing how genes influence early patterning events to drive brain-wide anatomical evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A Kozol
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Andrew J Conith
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts AmherstAmherstUnited States
| | - Anders Yuiska
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Alexia Cree-Newman
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Bernadeth Tolentino
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Kasey Benesh
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Alexandra Paz
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
| | - Evan Lloyd
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
| | - Johanna E Kowalko
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh UniversityBethlehemUnited States
| | - Alex C Keene
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
| | - Craig Albertson
- Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts AmherstAmherstUnited States
| | - Erik R Duboue
- Jupiter Life Science Initiative, Florida Atlantic UniversityJupiterUnited States
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5
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Palominos MF, Muhl V, Richards EJ, Miller CT, Martin CH. Jaw size variation is associated with a novel craniofacial function for galanin receptor 2 in an adaptive radiation of pupfishes. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.02.543513. [PMID: 37333213 PMCID: PMC10274624 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.02.543513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the genetic basis of novel adaptations in new species is a fundamental question in biology that also provides an opportunity to uncover new genes and regulatory networks with potential clinical relevance. Here we demonstrate a new role for galr2 in vertebrate craniofacial development using an adaptive radiation of trophic specialist pupfishes endemic to San Salvador Island in the Bahamas. We confirmed the loss of a putative Sry transcription factor binding site in the upstream region of galr2 in scale-eating pupfish and found significant spatial differences in galr2 expression among pupfish species in Meckel's cartilage and premaxilla using in situ hybridization chain reaction (HCR). We then experimentally demonstrated a novel function for Galr2 in craniofacial development and jaw elongation by exposing embryos to drugs that inhibit Galr2 activity. Galr2-inhibition reduced Meckel's cartilage length and increased chondrocyte density in both trophic specialists but not in the generalist genetic background. We propose a mechanism for jaw elongation in scale-eaters based on the reduced expression of galr2 due to the loss of a putative Sry binding site. Fewer Galr2 receptors in the scale-eater Meckel's cartilage may result in their enlarged jaw lengths as adults by limiting opportunities for a postulated Galr2 agonist to bind to these receptors during development. Our findings illustrate the growing utility of linking candidate adaptive SNPs in non-model systems with highly divergent phenotypes to novel vertebrate gene functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fernanda Palominos
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Vanessa Muhl
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Emilie J Richards
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota
| | - Craig T Miller
- Department of Molecular & Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley
| | - Christopher H Martin
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley
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6
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Diamond KM, Burtner AE, Siddiqui D, Alvarado K, Leake S, Rolfe S, Zhang C, Kwon RY, Maga AM. Examining craniofacial variation among crispant and mutant zebrafish models of human skeletal diseases. J Anat 2023; 243:66-77. [PMID: 36858797 PMCID: PMC10273351 DOI: 10.1111/joa.13847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Genetic diseases affecting the skeletal system present with a wide range of symptoms that make diagnosis and treatment difficult. Genome-wide association and sequencing studies have identified genes linked to human skeletal diseases. Gene editing of zebrafish models allows researchers to further examine the link between genotype and phenotype, with the long-term goal of improving diagnosis and treatment. While current automated tools enable rapid and in-depth phenotyping of the axial skeleton, characterizing the effects of mutations on the craniofacial skeleton has been more challenging. The objective of this study was to evaluate a semi-automated screening tool can be used to quantify craniofacial variations in zebrafish models using four genes that have been associated with human skeletal diseases (meox1, plod2, sost, and wnt16) as test cases. We used traditional landmarks to ground truth our dataset and pseudolandmarks to quantify variation across the 3D cranial skeleton between the groups (somatic crispant, germline mutant, and control fish). The proposed pipeline identified variation between the crispant or mutant fish and control fish for four genes. Variation in phenotypes parallel human craniofacial symptoms for two of the four genes tested. This study demonstrates the potential as well as the limitations of our pipeline as a screening tool to examine multi-dimensional phenotypes associated with the zebrafish craniofacial skeleton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly M Diamond
- Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Tennessee, Memphis, USA
- Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Abigail E Burtner
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Daanya Siddiqui
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Kurtis Alvarado
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Sanford Leake
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Sara Rolfe
- Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Chi Zhang
- Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Ronald Young Kwon
- Department of Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - A Murat Maga
- Center for Developmental Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Seattle Children's Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Division of Craniofacial Medicine, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Uetanabaro LC, Gerber JT, Dos Santos KM, Meger MN, da Costa DJ, Küchler EC, Sebastiani AM, Scariot R. Prevalence and associated factors of myofascial pain in orthognathic patients with skeletal class II malocclusion. Oral Maxillofac Surg 2023; 27:25-31. [PMID: 35262814 DOI: 10.1007/s10006-022-01046-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Orthognathic patients with skeletal class II malocclusion frequently suffer from myofascial pain (MP). PURPOSE This study aimed to evaluate the prevalence and associated factors of MP in these patients. METHODS This cross-sectional study was performed in adult patients with skeletal Class II malocclusion requiring orthognathic surgery. They were divided according to the presence or absence of MP. The predictor variables were craniofacial morphology, sex, temporomandibular disorders, chronic pain, depression, and polymorphisms of dopamine receptors DRD2 (rs6275 and rs6276) and ANKK1 (rs1800497) genes. Data were submitted to statistical analyses using the linear regression model and Poisson regression with a significance level of 0.05. RESULTS Sixty-five individuals were selected, of which 50 (76.92%) were females. A total of 21 (32.3%) patients had MP. Individuals with MP showed a decrease in the mandible gonial angle (p = 0.042) and an increased risk of having temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disc displacement (p = 0.003), TMJ pain (p = 0.030), chronic pain (p = 0.001), and severe depression (p = 0.015). Additionally, individuals carrying AA and AG genotypes in rs6275, and CC genotype in rs6276, were more likely to have MP (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION In this study, 32.3% of skeletal class II orthognathic patients had MP, which was associated with a decreased gonial angle, TMJ disc displacement, TMJ pain, chronic pain, depression, and polymorphisms in the DRD2 gene.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Delson João da Costa
- Department of Stomatology, Federal University of Parana, 632 Prefeito Lothário Meissner Avenue, Curitiba, PR, 80210-170, Brazil
| | - Erika Calvano Küchler
- Department of Pediatric Dentistry, Ribeirão Preto Dental School, University of Sao Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Aline Monise Sebastiani
- Department of Stomatology, Federal University of Parana, 632 Prefeito Lothário Meissner Avenue, Curitiba, PR, 80210-170, Brazil.
| | - Rafaela Scariot
- Department of Stomatology, Federal University of Parana, 632 Prefeito Lothário Meissner Avenue, Curitiba, PR, 80210-170, Brazil
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8
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Conith AJ, Hope SA, Albertson RC. Covariation of brain and skull shapes as a model to understand the role of crosstalk in development and evolution. Evol Dev 2023; 25:85-102. [PMID: 36377237 PMCID: PMC9839637 DOI: 10.1111/ede.12421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Covariation among discrete phenotypes can arise due to selection for shared functions, and/or shared genetic and developmental underpinnings. The consequences of such phenotypic integration are far-reaching and can act to either facilitate or limit morphological variation. The vertebrate brain is known to act as an "organizer" of craniofacial development, secreting morphogens that can affect the shape of the growing neurocranium, consistent with roles for pleiotropy in brain-neurocranium covariation. Here, we test this hypothesis in cichlid fishes by first examining the degree of shape integration between the brain and the neurocranium using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics in an F5 hybrid population, and then genetically mapping trait covariation using quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis. We observe shape associations between the brain and the neurocranium, a pattern that holds even when we assess associations between the brain and constituent parts of the neurocranium: the rostrum and braincase. We also recover robust genetic signals for both hard- and soft-tissue traits and identify a genomic region where QTL for the brain and braincase overlap, implicating a role for pleiotropy in patterning trait covariation. Fine mapping of the overlapping genomic region identifies a candidate gene, notch1a, which is known to be involved in patterning skeletal and neural tissues during development. Taken together, these data offer a genetic hypothesis for brain-neurocranium covariation, as well as a potential mechanism by which behavioral shifts may simultaneously drive rapid change in neuroanatomy and craniofacial morphology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Conith
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002,Corresponding authors: AJC: , RCA:
| | - Sylvie A. Hope
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002
| | - R. Craig Albertson
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002,Corresponding authors: AJC: , RCA:
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Murphy P, Rolfe RA. Building a Co-ordinated Musculoskeletal System: The Plasticity of the Developing Skeleton in Response to Muscle Contractions. ADVANCES IN ANATOMY, EMBRYOLOGY, AND CELL BIOLOGY 2023; 236:81-110. [PMID: 37955772 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-38215-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
The skeletal musculature and the cartilage, bone and other connective tissues of the skeleton are intimately co-ordinated. The shape, size and structure of each bone in the body is sculpted through dynamic physical stimuli generated by muscle contraction, from early development, with onset of the first embryo movements, and through repair and remodelling in later life. The importance of muscle movement during development is shown by congenital abnormalities where infants that experience reduced movement in the uterus present a sequence of skeletal issues including temporary brittle bones and joint dysplasia. A variety of animal models, utilising different immobilisation scenarios, have demonstrated the precise timing and events that are dependent on mechanical stimulation from movement. This chapter lays out the evidence for skeletal system dependence on muscle movement, gleaned largely from mouse and chick immobilised embryos, showing the many aspects of skeletal development affected. Effects are seen in joint development, ossification, the size and shape of skeletal rudiments and tendons, including compromised mechanical function. The enormous plasticity of the skeletal system in response to muscle contraction is a key factor in building a responsive, functional system. Insights from this work have implications for our understanding of morphological evolution, particularly the challenging concept of emergence of new structures. It is also providing insight for the potential of physical therapy for infants suffering the effects of reduced uterine movement and is enhancing our understanding of the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in skeletal tissue differentiation, with potential for informing regenerative therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Murphy
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland.
| | - Rebecca A Rolfe
- School of Natural Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, The University of Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
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10
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Hawkins RK, Bell CJ, Olori JC, Stocker MR. Intraspecific variation in the cranial osteology of Diplometopon zarudnyi (Squamata: Amphisbaenia: Trogonophidae). J Morphol 2022; 283:1359-1375. [PMID: 35998301 PMCID: PMC9826134 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A snake-like body plan and burrowing lifestyle characterize numerous vertebrate groups as a result of convergent evolution. One such group is the amphisbaenians, a clade of limbless, fossorial lizards that exhibit head-first burrowing behavior. Correlated with this behavior, amphisbaenian skulls are more rigid and coossified than those of nonburrowing lizards. However, due to their lifestyle, there are many gaps in our understanding of amphisbaenian anatomy, including how their cranial osteology varies among individuals of the same species and what that reveals about constraints on the skull morphology of head-first burrowing taxa. We investigated intraspecific variation in the cranial osteology of amphisbaenians using seven individuals of the trogonophid Diplometopon zarudnyi. Variation in both skull and individual skull element morphology was examined qualitatively and quantitatively through three-dimensional (3D) models created from microcomputed tomography data. Qualitative examination revealed differences in the number and position of foramina, the interdigitation between the frontals and parietal, and the extent of coossification among the occipital complex, fused basioccipital and parabasisphenoid ("parabasisphenoid-basioccipital complex"), and elements X. We performed 3D landmark-based geometric morphometrics for the quantitative assessment, revealing shape differences in the skull, premaxilla, maxilla, frontal, and parietal. The observed intraspecific variation may be the result of different stages of ontogenetic development or biomechanical optimization for head-first burrowing. For example, variation in the coossification of the occipital region suggests a potential ontogenetic coossification sequence. Examination of these areas of variation across other head-first burrowing taxa will help determine if the variation is clade-specific or part of a broader macroevolutionary pattern of head-first burrowing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K. Hawkins
- Department of Fish and Wildlife ConservationVirginia TechBlacksburgVirginiaUSA,Present address:
Museum Studies Program, Lippincott Hall Room 61410 Jayhawk BlvdLawrenceKansasUSA
| | - Christopher J. Bell
- Department of Geological SciencesThe University of Texas at AustinAustinTexasUSA
| | - Jennifer C. Olori
- Biological Sciences DepartmentState University of New York at OswegoOswegoNew YorkUSA
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11
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Zhang Z, Yaryhin O, Koyabu D, Werneburg I. Morphological association between muscle attachments and ossification sites in the late cartilaginous skull of tuatara embryos. J Morphol 2022; 283:908-931. [DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zitong Zhang
- Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Universität Tübingen Hölderlinstraße 12 72074 Tübingen Germany
- Fachbereich Biologie, Universität Tübingen Auf der Morgenstelle 28 72076 Tübingen Germany
| | | | - Daisuke Koyabu
- Research and Development Center for Precision Medicine University of Tsukuba 1‐2 Kasuga, Tsukuba‐shi Ibaraki 305‐8550 Japan
- Department of Molecular Craniofacial Embryology Tokyo Medical and Dental University 1‐5‐45 Yushima, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8549 Japan
| | - Ingmar Werneburg
- Fachbereich Geowissenschaften, Universität Tübingen Hölderlinstraße 12 72074 Tübingen Germany
- Senckenberg Centre for Human Evolution and Palaeoenvironment (SHEP) an der Universität Tübingen Hölderlinstraße 12 Tübingen 72076 Germany
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12
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Yang F, Bian W, Fu R, Wang J, Wang J, Zhou J. The perioral muscle continuum affects premaxillary development in Wistar rats. Am J Transl Res 2021; 13:12364-12374. [PMID: 34956458 PMCID: PMC8661191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Craniofacial deformities involve soft tissue and skeletal abnormalities. Facial bone growth is based on congenital defects and iatrogenic factors, in which muscle activity is important. Understanding the effects of muscle function on facial bone growth may help us in clinical treatment. Although there have been some studies, fewer have focused on the effects of perioral muscle continuity on maxillary development, which needs further research. In our study, mimic perioral muscle surgeries were performed in twenty 3-day Wistar rats, which were divided into four equal groups, including five untreated rats as control (Ctrl), five rats by unilateral perioral muscle incision (MI), five rats by unilateral perioral muscle incision combined with muscle stripping (MIMS) and five rats treated by unilateral perioral muscle incision combined with periosteal stripping (MIPS). After six weeks, skulls were imaged and measured by micro-CT scan and hematoxylin-eosin staining. Differences in the rats' premaxilla were analyzed with self-contrasted and group-control studies. Compared with Ctrl group, there were significant premaxillary developmental defects in the affected side of the rats in all three surgical groups. In the affected side, both the width and the length of the premaxilla were less than the unaffected side, particularly in MIMS and MIPS groups. Group-control study showed that the ratio of premaxillary length of affected side to unaffected side had significant differences between MI and MIMS. The conclusion was that complete perioral muscle continuity with intact muscle attachment on the premaxilla is the driving force for the premaxillary development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feng Yang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of MedicineNo. 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Weiwei Bian
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of MedicineNo. 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Rao Fu
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of MedicineNo. 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Jing Wang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, Shanghai Children’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University355 Luding Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Jian Wang
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of MedicineNo. 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
| | - Jia Zhou
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People’s Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, School of MedicineNo. 639 Zhizaoju Road, Shanghai 200011, China
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13
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Conith AJ, Meagher MA, Dumont ER. The influence of divergent reproductive strategies in shaping modularity and morphological evolution in mammalian jaws. J Evol Biol 2021; 35:164-179. [PMID: 34624153 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Marsupial neonates are born at an earlier developmental stage than placental mammals, but the rapid development of their forelimbs and cranial skeleton allows them to climb to the pouch, begin suckling and complete their development ex utero. The mechanical environment in which marsupial neonates develop is vastly different from that of placental neonates, which exhibit a more protracted development of oral muscles and bones. This difference in reproductive strategy has been theorized to constrain morphological evolution in the oral region of marsupials. Here, we use 3D morphometrics to characterize one of these oral bones, the lower jaw (dentary), and assess modularity (pattern of covariation among traits), morphological disparity and rates of morphological evolution in two clades of carnivorous mammals: the marsupial Dasyuromorphia and placental fissiped Carnivora. We find that dasyuromorph dentaries have fewer modules than carnivorans and exhibit tight covariation between the angular and coronoid processes, the primary attachment sites for jaw-closing muscles. This pattern of modularity may result from the uniform action of muscles on the developing mandible during suckling. Carnivorans are free from this constraint and exhibit a pattern of modularity that more strongly reflects genetic and developmental signals of trait covariation. Alongside differences in modularity, carnivorans exhibit greater disparity and faster rates of morphological evolution compared with dasyuromorphs. Taken together, this suggests dasyuromorphs have retained a signal of trait covariation that reflects the outsized influence of muscular force during early development, a feature that may have impacted the ability of marsupial carnivores to explore specialized regions of morphospace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Conith
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Molly A Meagher
- Natural Resources Conservation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Elizabeth R Dumont
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California, Merced, California, USA
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14
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Hall RP, Mutumi GL, Hedrick BP, Yohe LR, Sadier A, Davies KTJ, Rossiter SJ, Sears K, Dávalos LM, Dumont ER. Find the food first: An omnivorous sensory morphotype predates biomechanical specialization for plant based diets in phyllostomid bats. Evolution 2021; 75:2791-2801. [PMID: 34021589 DOI: 10.1111/evo.14270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The role of mechanical morphologies in the exploitation of novel niche space is well characterized; however, the role of sensory structures in unlocking new niches is less clear. Here, we investigate the relationship between the evolution of sensory structures and diet during the radiation of noctilionoid bats. With a broad range of foraging ecologies and a well-supported phylogeny, noctilionoids constitute an ideal group for studying this relationship. We used diffusible iodine-based contrast enhanced computed tomography scans of 44 noctilionoid species to analyze relationships between the relative volumes of three sensory structures (olfactory bulbs, orbits, and cochleae) and diet. We found a positive relationship between frugivory and both olfactory and orbit size. However, we also found a negative relationship between nectarivory and cochlea size. Ancestral state estimates suggest that larger orbits and olfactory bulbs were present in the common ancestor of family Phyllostomidae, but not in other noctilionoid. This constellation of traits indicates a shift toward omnivory at the base of Phyllostomidae, predating their radiation into an exceptionally broad range of dietary niches. This is consistent with a scenario in which changes in sensory systems associated with foraging and feeding set the stage for subsequent morphological modification and diversification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald P Hall
- Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Merced, Merced, California
| | - Gregory L Mutumi
- Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Merced, Merced, California
| | - Brandon P Hedrick
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Laurel R Yohe
- Department of Geology and Geophysics, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Alexa Sadier
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Kalina T J Davies
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Stephen J Rossiter
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London, UK
| | - Karen Sears
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California-Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Liliana M Dávalos
- Department of Ecology and Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York.,Consortium for Inter-Disciplinary Environmental Research, School of Marine and Atmospheric Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Elizabeth R Dumont
- Life and Environmental Sciences, University of California-Merced, Merced, California
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15
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Conith AJ, Hope SA, Chhouk BH, Albertson RC. Weak genetic signal for phenotypic integration implicates developmental processes as major regulators of trait covariation. Mol Ecol 2021; 30:464-480. [PMID: 33231336 PMCID: PMC8811731 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Phenotypic integration is an important metric that describes the degree of covariation among traits in a population, and is hypothesized to arise due to selection for shared functional processes. Our ability to identify the genetic and/or developmental underpinnings of integration is marred by temporally overlapping cell-, tissue- and structure-level processes that serve to continually 'overwrite' the structure of covariation among traits through ontogeny. Here, we examine whether traits that are integrated at the phenotypic level also exhibit a shared genetic basis (e.g. pleiotropy). We micro-CT scanned two hard tissue traits, and two soft tissue traits (mandible, pectoral girdle, atrium and ventricle, respectively) from an F5 hybrid population of Lake Malawi cichlids, and used geometric morphometrics to extract 3D shape information from each trait. Given the large degree of asymmetric variation that may reflect developmental instability, we separated symmetric from asymmetric components of shape variation. We then performed quantitative trait loci (QTL) analysis to determine the degree of genetic overlap between shapes. While we found ubiquitous associations among traits at the phenotypic level, except for a handful of notable exceptions, our QTL analysis revealed few overlapping genetic regions. Taken together, this indicates developmental interactions can play a large role in determining the degree of phenotypic integration among traits, and likely obfuscate the genotype to phenotype map, limiting our ability to gain a comprehensive picture of the genetic contributors responsible for phenotypic divergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Conith
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002
| | - Sylvie A. Hope
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002
| | - Brian H Chhouk
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002
| | - R. Craig Albertson
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, 01002
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16
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Galea GL, Zein MR, Allen S, Francis-West P. Making and shaping endochondral and intramembranous bones. Dev Dyn 2020; 250:414-449. [PMID: 33314394 PMCID: PMC7986209 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Skeletal elements have a diverse range of shapes and sizes specialized to their various roles including protecting internal organs, locomotion, feeding, hearing, and vocalization. The precise positioning, size, and shape of skeletal elements is therefore critical for their function. During embryonic development, bone forms by endochondral or intramembranous ossification and can arise from the paraxial and lateral plate mesoderm or neural crest. This review describes inductive mechanisms to position and pattern bones within the developing embryo, compares and contrasts the intrinsic vs extrinsic mechanisms of endochondral and intramembranous skeletal development, and details known cellular processes that precisely determine skeletal shape and size. Key cellular mechanisms are employed at distinct stages of ossification, many of which occur in response to mechanical cues (eg, joint formation) or preempting future load‐bearing requirements. Rapid shape changes occur during cellular condensation and template establishment. Specialized cellular behaviors, such as chondrocyte hypertrophy in endochondral bone and secondary cartilage on intramembranous bones, also dramatically change template shape. Once ossification is complete, bone shape undergoes functional adaptation through (re)modeling. We also highlight how alterations in these cellular processes contribute to evolutionary change and how differences in the embryonic origin of bones can influence postnatal bone repair. Compares and contrasts Endochondral and intramembranous bone development Reviews embryonic origins of different bones Describes the cellular and molecular mechanisms of positioning skeletal elements. Describes mechanisms of skeletal growth with a focus on the generation of skeletal shape
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel L Galea
- Developmental Biology and Cancer, UCL GOS Institute of Child Health, London, UK.,Comparative Bioveterinary Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Mohamed R Zein
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
| | - Steven Allen
- Comparative Bioveterinary Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, London, UK
| | - Philippa Francis-West
- Centre for Craniofacial and Regenerative Biology, Faculty of Dentistry, Oral and Craniofacial Sciences, King's College London, London, UK
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17
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Conith AJ, Kidd MR, Kocher TD, Albertson RC. Ecomorphological divergence and habitat lability in the context of robust patterns of modularity in the cichlid feeding apparatus. BMC Evol Biol 2020; 20:95. [PMID: 32736512 PMCID: PMC7393717 DOI: 10.1186/s12862-020-01648-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adaptive radiations are characterized by extreme and/or iterative phenotypic divergence; however, such variation does not accumulate evenly across an organism. Instead, it is often partitioned into sub-units, or modules, which can differentially respond to selection. While it is recognized that changing the pattern of modularity or the strength of covariation (integration) can influence the range or rate of morphological evolution, the relationship between shape variation and covariation remains unclear. For example, it is possible that rapid phenotypic change requires concomitant changes to the underlying covariance structure. Alternatively, repeated shifts between phenotypic states may be facilitated by a conserved covariance structure. Distinguishing between these scenarios will contribute to a better understanding of the factors that shape biodiversity. Here, we explore these questions using a diverse Lake Malawi cichlid species complex, Tropheops, that appears to partition habitat by depth. RESULTS We construct a phylogeny of Tropheops populations and use 3D geometric morphometrics to assess the shape of four bones involved in feeding (mandible, pharyngeal jaw, maxilla, pre-maxilla) in populations that inhabit deep versus shallow habitats. We next test numerous modularity hypotheses to understand whether fish at different depths are characterized by conserved or divergent patterns of modularity. We further examine rates of morphological evolution and disparity between habitats and among modules. Finally, we raise a single Tropheops species in environments mimicking deep or shallow habitats to discover whether plasticity can replicate the pattern of morphology, disparity, or modularity observed in natural populations. CONCLUSIONS Our data support the hypothesis that conserved patterns of modularity permit the evolution of divergent morphologies and may facilitate the repeated transitions between habitats. In addition, we find the lab-reared populations replicate many trends in the natural populations, which suggests that plasticity may be an important force in initiating depth transitions, priming the feeding apparatus for evolutionary change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J. Conith
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003 USA
| | - Michael R. Kidd
- Department of Biology & Chemistry, Texas A&M International University, Laredo, TX 78041 USA
| | - Thomas D. Kocher
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742 USA
| | - R. Craig Albertson
- Biology Department, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA 01003 USA
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18
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Yamamoto M, Takada H, Ishizuka S, Kitamura K, Jeong J, Sato M, Hinata N, Abe S. Morphological association between the muscles and bones in the craniofacial region. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0227301. [PMID: 31923241 PMCID: PMC6953862 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0227301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The strains of inbred laboratory mice are isogenic and homogeneous for over 98.6% of their genomes. However, geometric morphometric studies have demonstrated clear differences among the skull shapes of various mice strains. The question now arises: why are skull shapes different among the mice strains? Epigenetic processes, such as morphological interaction between the muscles and bones, may cause differences in the skull shapes among various mice strains. To test these predictions, the objective of this study is to examine the morphological association between a specific part of the skull and its adjacent muscle. We examined C57BL6J, BALB/cA, and ICR mice on embryonic days (E) 12.5 and 16.5 as well as on postnatal days (P) 0, 10, and 90. As a result, we found morphological differences between C57BL6J and BALB/cA mice with respect to the inferior spine of the hypophyseal cartilage or basisphenoid (SP) and the tensor veli palatini muscle (TVP) during the prenatal and postnatal periods. There was a morphological correlation between the SP and the TVP in the C57BL6J, BALB/cA, and ICR mice during E15 and P0. However, there were not correlation between the TVP and the SP during P10. After discectomy, bone deformation was associated with a change in the shape of the adjacent muscle. Therefore, epigenetic modifications linked to the interaction between the muscles and bones might occur easily during the prenatal period, and inflammation seems to allow epigenetic modifications between the two to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahito Yamamoto
- Department of Anatomy, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- Tokyo Dental College Research Branding Project, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
| | | | - Satoshi Ishizuka
- Department of Anatomy, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- Tokyo Dental College Research Branding Project, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kei Kitamura
- Tokyo Dental College Research Branding Project, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- Department of Histology and Developmental Biology, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Juhee Jeong
- Department of Basic Science and Craniofacial Biology, New York University College of Dentistry, New York, NY, United States of America
| | - Masaki Sato
- Tokyo Dental College Research Branding Project, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- Laboratory of Biology, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Hinata
- Department of Urology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Shinichi Abe
- Department of Anatomy, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- Tokyo Dental College Research Branding Project, Tokyo Dental College, Tokyo, Japan
- * E-mail:
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19
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Abstract
The generation of variation is paramount for the action of natural selection. Although biologists are now moving beyond the idea that random mutation provides the sole source of variation for adaptive evolution, we still assume that variation occurs randomly. In this review, we discuss an alternative view for how phenotypic plasticity, which has become well accepted as a source of phenotypic variation within evolutionary biology, can generate nonrandom variation. Although phenotypic plasticity is often defined as a property of a genotype, we argue that it needs to be considered more explicitly as a property of developmental systems involving more than the genotype. We provide examples of where plasticity could be initiating developmental bias, either through direct active responses to similar stimuli across populations or as the result of programmed variation within developmental systems. Such biased variation can echo past adaptations that reflect the evolutionary history of a lineage but can also serve to initiate evolution when environments change. Such adaptive programs can remain latent for millions of years and allow development to harbor an array of complex adaptations that can initiate new bouts of evolution. Specifically, we address how ideas such as the flexible stem hypothesis and cryptic genetic variation overlap, how modularity among traits can direct the outcomes of plasticity, and how the structure of developmental signaling pathways is limited to a few outcomes. We highlight key questions throughout and conclude by providing suggestions for future research that can address how plasticity initiates and harbors developmental bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin J. Parsons
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Kirsty McWhinnie
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Natalie Pilakouta
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Lynsey Walker
- Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health, and Comparative MedicineUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
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