Experimental and Theoretical Insights into the Effect of Dioldibenzoate Isomers on the Performance of Polypropylene Catalysts

Experimental investigations and density functional theory (DFT) calculations were carried out to study the comprehensive effect of different 3,5-heptanedioldibenzoate (HDDB) optical isomers as the internal electron donor on the catalytic performance of Ziegler-Natta catalysts. The experimental catalytic activity of HDDB has a positive correlation with the relative content of the mesomer incorporated during catalyst preparation, while the hydrogen response of HDDB displayed a negative correlation with the relative content of the mesomer. In order to apply the DFT calculation results to the macroscopic activity of the catalyst, the content of the active centers of the catalyst was analyzed. Assuming that the content of the active centers is proportional to the internal electron donor content of the catalyst, binary linear regression was carried out, which showed a good linear correlation between experimental activity data and internal electron donor content. Furthermore, the fitted activity of the single active centers aligned well with the calculated activation energies. These results revealed that the catalytic activity of polypropylene (PP) catalysts is dependent on both the active center content and the catalytic activity of an individual active center. Additionally, the lower hydrogen response of HDDB leads to a higher molecular weight of polypropylene obtained from the RS-containing catalyst compared to the SS-containing catalyst. Further study reveals that the hydrogen transfer reactions of 2,4-pentanediol dibenzoate (PDDB)/HDDB are influenced by the orientation of the methyl/ethyl groups in different isomers, which affect the activation energy differences between the hydrogen transfer reaction and the propylene insertion reaction, and finally influence the molecular weight of PP.

MAO- and Borate-Free Activating Supports for Group 4 Metallocene and Post-Metallocene Catalysts of α-Olefin Polymerization and Oligomerization

Modern industry of advanced polyolefins extensively uses Group 4 metallocene and post-metallocene catalysts. High-throughput polyolefin technologies demand the use of heterogeneous catalysts with a given particle size and morphology, high thermal stability, and controlled productivity. Conventional Group 4 metal single-site heterogeneous catalysts require the use of high-cost methylalumoxane (MAO) or perfluoroaryl borate activators. However, a number of inorganic phases, containing highly acidic Lewis and Brønsted sites, are able to activate Group 4 metal pre-catalysts using low-cost and affordable alkylaluminums. In the present review, we gathered comprehensive information on MAO- and borate-free activating supports of different types and discussed the surface nature and chemistry of these phases, examples of their use in the polymerization of ethylene and α-olefins, and prospects of the further development for applications in the polyolefin industry.

Transition Metal-(μ-Cl)-Aluminum Bonding in α-Olefin and Diene Chemistry

Olefin and diene transformations, catalyzed by organoaluminum-activated metal complexes, are widely used in synthetic organic chemistry and form the basis of major petrochemical processes. However, the role of M−(μ-Cl)−Al bonding, being proven for certain >C=C< functionalization reactions, remains unclear and debated for essentially more important industrial processes such as oligomerization and polymerization of α-olefins and conjugated dienes. Numerous publications indirectly point at the significance of M−(μ-Cl)−Al bonding in Ziegler−Natta and related transformations, but only a few studies contain experimental or at least theoretical evidence of the involvement of M−(μ-Cl)−Al species into catalytic cycles. In the present review, we have compiled data on the formation of M−(μ-Cl)−Al complexes (M = Ti, Zr, V, Cr, Ni), their molecular structure, and reactivity towards olefins and dienes. The possible role of similar complexes in the functionalization, oligomerization and polymerization of α-olefins and dienes is discussed in the present review through the prism of the further development of Ziegler−Natta processes and beyond.

Fundamental aspects of heterogeneous Ziegler–Natta olefin polymerization catalysis: an experimental and computational overview

Using an internal/external donor containing MgCl₂-supported Ziegler–Natta catalyst is one of the important processes for polyolefin production.

Towards the design of a mixture of diether and succinate as an internal donor in a MgCl2-supported Ziegler–Natta catalyst

An investigation into competitions of mixtures of internal donors for interaction with MgCl₂was carried out and the subsequent influence on catalyst performance was studied.

Control of Ziegler–Natta catalyst activity by the structural design of alkoxysilane-based external donors

Herein, the evaluation of four commercial alkoxysilanes and two laboratory synthesized novel diethoxysilacycloalkanes as external donors towards propylene polymerization has been done.

Probing Interactions between Electron Donors and the Support in MgCl2-Supported Ziegler-Natta Catalysts

Olefin polymerization using Ziegler-Natta catalysts (ZNCs) is an important industrial process. Despite this, fundamental insight into the inner working mechanisms of these catalysts remains scarce. Here, we focus on the low-γ nuclei 25Mg and 35Cl for an in-depth solid-state NMR and density functional theory (DFT) study of the catalyst's MgCl2 support in binary adducts prepared by ball-milling. Besides the bare MgCl2 support and a MgCl2-TiCl4 adduct, samples containing donors that are part of the families of 2,2-dialkyl-1,3-dimethoxypropanes and phthalates used in fourth- and fifth-generation ZNCs are studied. DFT calculations indicate that the quadrupolar coupling parameters of the chlorines differ significantly between bulk and surface sites. As a result, the NMR visibility of the chlorine sites correlates with the particle size except for the adduct with 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dimethoxypropane donor. The DFT calculations furthermore show that the surface sites are fairly insensitive to binding of different donor molecules, making it difficult to identify specific binding motives. The surface sites with large 35Cl NMR line widths can be observed using high radio frequency field strengths. For the 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dimethoxypropane donor, we observe additional surface sites with intermediately high quadrupolar couplings, suggesting a different surface structure for this particular adduct compared to the other systems. For 25Mg, pronounced effects of donor binding on the quadrupole interaction parameters are observed, both computationally and experimentally. Again the adduct with the 2,2-dimethyl-1,3-dimethoxypropane donor shows a different behavior of the surface sites compared to the other adducts, which display more asymmetric coordinations of the surface Mg sites. Identifying specific binding motives by comparing 25Mg NMR results to DFT calculations also proves to be difficult, however. This is attributed to the existence of many defect structures caused by the ball-milling process. The existence of such defect structures both at the surface and in the interior of the MgCl2 particles is corroborated by NMR relaxation studies. Finally, we performed heteronuclear correlation experiments, which reveal interactions between the support and Mg-OH surface groups, but do not provide indications for donor-surface interactions.

Tuning the reactivity of Fe(V)(O) toward C-H bonds at room temperature: effect of water

The presence of an Fe(V)(O) species has been postulated as the active intermediate for the oxidation of both C-H and C═C bonds in the Rieske dioxygenase family of enzymes. Understanding the reactivity of these high valent iron-oxo intermediates, especially in an aqueous medium, would provide a better understanding of these enzymatic reaction mechanisms. The formation of an Fe(V)(O) complex at room temperature in an aqueous CH3CN mixture that contains up to 90% water using NaOCl as the oxidant is reported here. The stability of Fe(V)(O) decreases with increasing water concentration. We show that the reactivity of Fe(V)(O) toward the oxidation of C-H bonds, such as those in toluene, can be tuned by varying the amount of water in the H2O/CH3CN mixture. Rate acceleration of up to 60 times is observed for the oxidation of toluene upon increasing the water concentration. The role of water in accelerating the rate of the reaction has been studied using kinetic measurements, isotope labeling experiments, and density functional theory (DFT) calculations. A kinetic isotope effect of ∼13 was observed for the oxidation of toluene and d8-toluene showing that C-H abstraction was involved in the rate-determining step. Activation parameters determined for toluene oxidation in H2O/CH3CN mixtures on the basis of Eyring plots for the rate constants show a gain in enthalpy with a concomitant loss in entropy. This points to the formation of a more-ordered transition state involving water molecules. To further understand the role of water, we performed a careful DFT study, concentrating mostly on the rate-determining hydrogen abstraction step. The DFT-optimized structure of the starting Fe(V)(O) and the transition state indicates that the rate enhancement is due to the transition state's favored stabilization over the reactant due to enhanced hydrogen bonding with water.