Full-fat dairy products and cardiometabolic health outcomes: Does the dairy-fat matrix matter?

Reducing dairy fat intake is a common dietary guideline to limit energy and saturated fatty acid intake for the promotion of cardiometabolic health. However, research utilizing a holistic, food-based approach to assess the consumption of the fat found in dairy, a broad and diverse food group, may provide new insight into these guidelines. Dairy fat is comprised of a diverse assembly of fatty acids, triacylglycerols, sterols, and phospholipids, all uniquely packaged in a milk fat globule. The physical structure of this milk fat globule and its membrane is modified through different processing methods, resulting in distinctive dairy-fat matrices across each dairy product. The objectives of this narrative review were to first define and compare the dairy-fat matrix in terms of its unique composition, physical structure, and fat content across common dairy products (cow's milk, yogurt, cheese, and butter). With this information, we examined observational studies and randomized controlled trials published within the last 10 years (2013-2023) to assess the individual effects of the dairy-fat matrix in milk, yogurt, cheese, and butter on cardiometabolic health and evaluate the implications for nutrition guidance. Searches conducted on Ovid MEDLINE and PubMed® utilizing search terms for cardiometabolic health, both broadly and regarding specific disease outcomes and risk factors, yielded 59 studies that were analyzed and included in this review. Importantly, this review stratifies by both dairy product and fat content. Though the results were heterogeneous, most studies reported no association between intake of these individual regular-fat dairy products and cardiometabolic outcome measures, thus, the current body of evidence suggests that regular-fat dairy product consumption may be incorporated within overall healthy eating patterns. Research suggests that there may be a beneficial effect of regular-fat milk and yogurt intake on outcome measures related to body weight and composition, and an effect of regular-fat cheese intake on outcome measures related to blood lipids, but more research is necessary to define the directionality of this relationship. Lastly, we identify methodological research gaps and propose future research directions to bolster the current evidence base available for ascertaining the role of dairy fat in a healthy diet.

The effect of sourdough, turnips, and butternut squash on the physicochemical and nutritional properties of Doowina functional food during fermentation

The dairy-cereal-based food, known as Doowina, is one of the traditional fermented foods in Iran. We aimed to improve the health-promoting properties of Doowina by using turnips, butternut squash, and sourdough as a new functional food with high nutritional value and antioxidant activity. Therefore, the physicochemical, microbial, and sensory properties of samples with nutritional supplements (8% turnip and 8% butternut squash) and different concentrations of sourdough (0, 0.5, and 1%) were studied during 0, 3, 6, and 9 days of fermentation time. The results showed that there was no significant difference (p < .05) in the moisture and ash content between the different formulations of Doowina. There was also no significant difference (p < .05) in the phenolic compound content and antioxidant activity of the Doowina samples during the fermentation period. However, the number of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) increased significantly (p < .05) until the 6th day of fermentation, and the protein content decreased significantly (p < .05) in all samples during the fermentation period. According to the results, the samples with butternut squash and sourdough had the highest total phenolic content, the highest antioxidant activity, the highest linoleic acid content, and the highest sensory rating of all samples.

Comparative lipidomics analysis of in vitro lipid digestion of sheep milk: Influence of homogenization and heat treatment

This study investigated the changes in sheep milk lipids during in vitro gastrointestinal digestion in response to heat treatment (75°C/15 s and 95°C/5 min) and homogenization (200/50 bar) using lipidomics. Homogenized and pasteurized sheep milk had higher levels of polar lipids in gastric digesta emptied at 20 min than raw sheep milk. Intense heat treatment of homogenized sheep milk resulted in a reduced level of polar lipids compared with homogenized-pasteurized sheep milk. The release rate of free fatty acids during small intestinal digestion for gastric digesta emptied at 20 min followed the order: raw ≤ pasteurized < homogenized-pasteurized ≤ homogenized-heated sheep milk; the rate for gastric digesta emptied at 180 min showed a reverse order. No differences in the lipolysis degree were observed among differently processed sheep milks. These results indicated that processing treatments affect the lipid composition of digesta and the lipolysis rate but not the lipolysis degree during small intestinal digestion.

Mechanisms for the interaction of the milk fat globule membrane with the plasma membrane of gut epithelial cells

The milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) provides infants and adults with several health benefits. These are not derived solely from its unique composition, but also from arrangement of lipids in the MFGM that, in the case of newborns, could reach the intestine partially intact. Fluorochromes associated with lipid derivatives were used to prove a fusion process between the MFGM and the cellular membrane of differentiated Caco-2 cells. To explore the mechanism of this interaction, incubations of MFGM with Caco-2 cells were carried out in the presence of fusogenic agents or compounds that block other MFGM interaction pathways with cells. Confocal fluorescence microscopy provided visual evidence of the fusion process. Lastly, determination on the lipid profile of cells after their interaction with MFGM indicated a metabolic rearrangement of lipids leading to accumulation of triacylglycerols.

Explore Gastric Lipolysis and Lipid Oxidation of Conventional versus Pasture-Based Milk by a Semi-dynamic In Vitro Digestion Model

Research on gastric lipolysis of commercial cow's milk with different fatty acid (FA) compositions is scarce. Gastric lipase exhibits specificity for the sn-3 chain position of triacylglycerols, whose structure is influenced by milk FA composition. Therefore, during gastric digestion of conventional (C) vs pasture-based (P) milk, differences may occur on lipolysis, which has impact on free FA available, influencing their absorption/metabolism rate and physiological hormonal responses. Those two milk types were subjected to the INFOGEST semi-dynamic digestion model. Five gastric emptying points were analyzed for oxidative degradation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and individual free FA. The relative release of medium-chain FA (C8:0-C12:0) was higher than that of longer-chain FA (C14:0-C18:0), and a linear increase in markers of PUFA oxidative degradation occurred along gastric digestion. Quantitatively, C8:0, C18:2n-6, C18:3n-3, and CLAc9t11 were higher (P < 0.001) in P milk when compared with C milk.

Triacylglycerol Composition of Butterfat Fractions Determines Its Gastrointestinal Fate and Postprandial Effects: Lipidomic Analysis of Tri-, Di-, and Mono-acylglycerols and Free Fatty Acids

The lipolytic behaviors and postprandial effects of butterfat and its fractions (30L and 30S) procured by dry fractionation at 30 °C were investigated using in vivo digestion. A total of 142 triacylglycerols (TAGs), 64 diacylglycerols (DAGs), 14 monoacylglycerols (MAGs), and 7 free fatty acids (FFAs) in the butterfat fractions and their hydrolysates were identified by combining high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization-tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry with solid-phase extraction. The first-step hydrolysis from TAGs to sn-1,2 DAGs occurred slower in the high-melting-temperature solid fat (30S) fraction, which is rich in long-chain FAs compared to that of the low-melting-temperature liquid oil (30L) fraction, which is rich in short-chain unsaturated FAs (the hydrolysis rates were 39.22% vs 60.11%, respectively, in the 30 min gastric phase), and these differences were also reflected in the delayed and relatively flat postprandial lipemia levels in rats force-fed with 30S fraction. This study revealed the importance of TAG composition and lipid physical state in regulating digestion and absorption, which is related to nutrition science and the dairy or pharmaceutical industry.

Dietary Fat Chain Length, Saturation, and PUFA Source Acutely Affect Diet-Induced Thermogenesis but Not Satiety in Adults in a Randomized, Crossover Trial

Structural differences in dietary fatty acids modify their rate of oxidation and effect on satiety, endpoints that may influence the development of obesity. This study tests the hypothesis that meals containing fat sources with elevated unsaturated fats will result in greater postprandial energy expenditure, fat oxidation, and satiety than meals containing fats with greater saturation. In a randomized, 5-way crossover design, healthy men and women (n = 23; age: 25.7 ± 6.6 years; BMI: 27.7 ± 3.8 kg/m²) consumed liquid meals containing 30 g of fat from heavy cream (HC), olive oil (OO), sunflower oil (SFO), flaxseed oil (FSO), and fish oil (FO). Energy expenditure and diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT) were determined by metabolic rate over a 240 min postprandial period. Serum concentrations of ghrelin, glucose, insulin, and triacylglycerol (TAG) were assessed. DIT induced by SFO was 5% lower than HC and FO (p = 0.04). Energy expenditure and substrate oxidation did not differ between fat sources. Postprandial TAG concentrations were significantly affected by fat source (p = 0.0001). Varying fat sources by the degree of saturation and PUFA type modified DIT but not satiety responses in normal to obese adult men and women.

Impact of Rapeseed and Soy Lecithin on Postprandial Lipid Metabolism, Bile Acid Profile, and Gut Bacteria in Mice

SCOPE

Synthetic emulsifiers have recently been shown to promote metabolic syndrome and considerably alter gut microbiota. Yet, data are lacking regarding the effects of natural emulsifiers, such as plant lecithins rich in essential α-linolenic acid (ALA), on gut and metabolic health.

METHODS AND RESULTS

For 5 days, male Swiss mice are fed diets containing similar amounts of ALA and 0, 1, 3, or 10% rapeseed lecithin (RL) or 10% soy lecithin (SL). Following an overnight fast, they are force-fed the same oil mixture and euthanized after 90 minutes. The consumption of lecithin significantly increased fecal levels of the Clostridium leptum group (p = 0.0004), regardless of origin or dose, without altering hepatic or intestinal expression of genes of lipid metabolism. 10%-RL increased ALA abundance in plasma triacylglycerols at 90 minutes, reduced cecal bile acid hydrophobicity, and increased their sulfatation, as demonstrated by the increased hepatic RNA expression of Sult2a1 (p = 0.037) and cecal cholic acid-7 sulfate (CA-7S) concentration (p = 0.05) versus 0%-lecithin.

CONCLUSION

After only 5 days, nutritional doses of RL and SL modified gut bacteria in mice, by specifically increasing C. leptum group. RL also increased postprandial ALA abundance and induced beneficial modifications of the bile acid profile. ALA-rich lecithins, especially RL, may then appear as promising natural emulsifiers.

Effects of recombinant human gastric lipase and pancreatin during in vitro pediatric gastro-intestinal digestion

The aim of the study was to implement a gastric digestion step using recombinant human gastric lipase (rHGL) in an in vitro pediatric gastro-intestinal digestion model to achieve a physiologically relevant gastric contribution to total gastro-intestinal lipid digestion. A commercial infant formula (NAN Comfort stage 1 (NAN1)) with 3.4% lipid and an in-lab prepared oil-in-water emulsion, emulsified with soy phosphatidylcholine (SPCemul), with 3.5% lipid (oil-blend containing Akonino NS, MEG-3 and ARASCO oils) were subjected to in vitro gastro-intestinal digestion. To achieve a physiologically relevant level of gastric digestion, 50 min of in vitro gastric digestion, using either 0, 3.75 or 7.5 TBU mL^-1 rHGL, was followed by 90 min of in vitro intestinal digestion, using either 0 or 26.5 TBU mL^-1 pancreatic triglyceride lipase (PTL) from porcine pancreatin. The digestion of the substrates was assessed using titration-based quantification supported by HPLC-ELSD analysis. In vitro gastric digestion of NAN1 and SPCemul with either 3.75 or 7.5 TBU mL^-1 rHGL contributed with 10-27% of the total gastro-intestinal digestion, corresponding to the reported contribution in human infants. At the end of the gastro-intestinal digestion (t = 140 min), the combined lipolytic effect of rHGL and PTL was additive during digestion of SPCemul, but not for the digestion of NAN1, as all lipase activity combinations resulted in a similar degree of NAN1 digestion. The effect of gastric digestion with rHGL on total digestion therefore appeared to be substrate dependent. To conclude, a gastric digestion step using rHGL resulting in physiologically relevant gastric contribution to the observed gastro-intestinal digestion was successfully implemented into an in vitro pediatric gastro-intestinal digestion model.

Effect of Particle Size and Interface Composition on the Lipid Digestion of Droplets Covered with Membrane Phospholipids

The particle size and fatty acid release of droplets covered with milk fat globule membrane phospholipids with different particle sizes (large/MPL-L; medium/MPL-M; and small/MPL-S) and emulsions with different sources (droplets covered with MPL/MPLs; human milk/HM; and infant formula/IF) were investigated using an infant digestion model. During digestion, droplets exhibited different degrees of aggregation, and the order of the particle size was MPL-L > MPL-M > MPL-S. MPL-M and MPL-S were significantly higher than MPL-L in the release of free fatty acids. No significant difference was observed in the FFA release rate between MPLs and HM. However, the rate was significantly higher than that of IF in the intestinal stage. Compared to IF, a higher content of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and a lower content of saturated fatty acid were observed in MPLs and HM.

Digestion of human milk fat in healthy infants

Lipid digestion is critical for infant development, and yet, the interconnection between lipid digestion and the microbiota is largely understudied. This review focuses on digestion of the human milk fat globule and summarizes the current understanding of the mechanisms underlying this process in infants. We first discuss the partial hydrolysis of milk fat in the stomach, which leads to rearrangement of lipid droplets, creating a lipid-water interface necessary for duodenal lipolysis. In the first few months of life, secretion of pancreatic triglyceride lipase, phospholipase A₂, and bile salts is immature. The dominant lipases aiding fat digestion in the newborn small intestine are therefore pancreatic lipase-related protein 2 and bile salt-stimulated lipase from both the exocrine pancreas and milk. We summarize the interaction between ionic fatty acids and cations to form insoluble fatty acid soaps and how it is influenced by various factors, including cation availability, pH, and bile salt concentration, as well as saturation and chain length of fatty acids. We further argue that the formation of the soap complex does not contribute to lipid bioavailability. Next, the possible roles that the gut microbiota plays in lipid digestion and absorption are discussed. Finally, we provide a perspective on how the manufacturing process of infant formula and dairy products may alter the physical properties and structure of lipid droplets, thereby altering the rate of lipolysis.

Effect of gestational age (preterm or full term) on lipid composition of the milk fat globule and its membrane in human colostrum

Human colostrum is the first milk secreted by the mother after birth and constitutes the ideal food for the newborn, because its chemical composition, rich in immunoglobulins, antimicrobial peptides, growth factors, bioactive lipids, and other important molecules, is perfectly adapted to the metabolic, digestive, and immunological immaturity of the newborn. An incomplete gestational period can affect the maturity of the mammary gland and its ability to secrete milk with the proper composition for the newborn's condition. Previous studies indicate that the mammary gland modulates the profiles of bioactive lipids present in the different phases of lactation from colostrum to mature milk. Given the key role played by the polar lipids (PL) (phospho- and sphingolipids) of the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) in the immune system and cognitive development of the newborn, it is crucial to analyze whether the content and distribution of the PL are affected by gestation period. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the milk fat globule (MFG) and MFGM lipid compositions of human colostrum samples from 20 healthy preterm and full-term mothers. Lipid characterization using chromatographic techniques (gas chromatograph mass spectrometry and HPLC-evaporative light-scattering detection) revealed differences related to length of gestation in the profiles of lipid classes and fatty acid and triacylglyceride contents of colostrum. This comparative analysis leads to noteworthy outcomes about the changing roles of the PL, considering the preterm or full-term condition. We found a lack of correlation of some PL (such as phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylinositol, and phosphatidylserine) with the delivery term; these could be denoted as structural category lipids. However, sphingomyelin and phosphatidyl-ethanolamine exhibited trends to decrease in full-term colostrum, indicating that in the final stage of pregnancy specific accretion of some PL occurs, which should be denoted as a nutritional redistribution.

Development of Next-Generation Nutritionally Fortified Plant-Based Milk Substitutes: Structural Design Principles

Consumers are increasingly interested in decreasing their dietary intake of animal-based food products, due to health, sustainability, and ethical concerns. For this reason, the food industry is creating new products from plant-based ingredients that simulate many of the physicochemical and sensory attributes associated with animal-derived foods, including milk, eggs, and meat. An understanding of how the ingredient type, amount, and organization influence the desirable physicochemical, sensory, and nutritional attributes of these plant-based foods is required to achieve this goal. A potential problem with plant-based diets is that they lack key micronutrients, such as vitamin B12, vitamin D, calcium, and ω-3 fatty acids. The aim of this review is to present the science behind the creation of next-generation nutritionally fortified plant-based milk substitutes. These milk-like products may be formed by mechanically breaking down certain plant materials (including nuts, seeds, and legumes) to produce a dispersion of oil bodies and other colloidal matter in water, or by forming oil-in-water emulsions by homogenizing plant-based oils and emulsifiers with water. A brief overview of the formulation and fabrication of plant-based milks is given. The relationship between the optical properties, rheology, and stability of plant-based milks and their composition and structure is then covered. Approaches to fortify these products with micronutrients that may be missing from a plant-based diet are also highlighted. In conclusion, this article highlights how the knowledge of structural design principles can be used to facilitate the creation of higher quality and more sustainable plant-based food products.

Real-time measurements of milk fat globule membrane modulation during simulated intestinal digestion using electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy

Milk Fat Globules with their unique interfacial structure and membrane composition are a key nutritional source for mammalian infants, however, there is a limited understanding of the dynamics of fat digestion in these structures. Lipid digestion is an interfacial process involving interactions of enzymes and bile salts with the interface of suspended lipid droplets in an aqueous environment. In this study, we have developed an electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy approach to evaluate real time dynamics of milk fat globules interfacial structure during simulated intestinal digestion. To measure these dynamics, natural milk fat globule membrane was labeled with EPR-active probe, partitioning of EPR probes into MFGs membrane was validated using saturation-recovery measurements and calculation of the depth parameter Φ. After validation, the selected spin probe was used to evaluate the membrane's fluidity as a measure of the interface's modulation in the presence of bile salts and pancreatic lipase. Independently, bile salts were found to have a rigidifying effect on the spin probed MFGM, while pancreatic lipase resulted in an increase in membrane fluidity. When combined, the effect of lipase appears to be diminished in the presence of bile salts. These results indicate the efficacy of EPR in providing an insight into small time scale molecular dynamics of phospholipid interfaces in milk fat globules. Understanding interfacial dynamics of naturally occurring complex structures can significantly aid in understanding the role of interfacial composition and structural complexity in delivery of nutrients during digestion.

Plant-based Milks: A Review of the Science Underpinning Their Design, Fabrication, and Performance

Many consumers are interested in decreasing their consumption of animal products, such as bovine milk, because of health, environmental, and ethical reasons. The food industry is therefore developing a range of plant-based milk alternatives. These milk substitutes should be affordable, convenient, desirable, nutritional, and sustainable. This article reviews our current understanding of the development of plant-based milks. Initially, an overview of the composition, structure, properties, and nutritional profile of conventional bovine milk is given, because the development of successful alternatives depends on understanding the characteristics of real milk. The two main production routes for fabricating plant-based milks are then highlighted: (i) disruption of plant materials (such as nuts, seeds, or legumes) to form aqueous suspensions of oil bodies; (ii) formation of oil-in-water emulsions by homogenization of oil, water, and emulsifiers. The roles of the different functional ingredients in plant-based milks are highlighted, including oils, emulsifiers, thickeners, antioxidants, minerals, and other additives. The physicochemical basis of the appearance, texture, and stability of plant-based milks is covered. The importance of the sensory attributes and gastrointestinal fate of bovine milk and plant-based alternatives is also highlighted. Finally, potential areas for future work are discussed.

Alterations of endogenous sphingolipid metabolism in cardiometabolic diseases: Towards novel therapeutic approaches

The increasing prevalence of obesity and metabolic diseases is a worldwide public health concern, and the advent of new analytical technologies has made it possible to highlight the involvement of some molecules, such as sphingolipids (SL), in their pathophysiology. SL are constituents of cell membranes, lipoproteins and lipid droplets (LD), and are now considered as bioactive molecules. Indeed, growing evidence suggests that SL, characterized by diverse families and species, could represent one of the main regulators of lipid metabolism. There is an increasing amount of data reporting that plasma SL profile is altered in metabolic diseases. However, less is known about SL metabolism dysfunction in cells and tissues and how it may impact the lipoprotein metabolism, its functionality and composition. In cardiometabolic pathologies, the link between serum SL concentrations and alterations of their metabolism in various organs and LD is still unclear. Pharmacological approaches have been developed in order to activate or inhibit specific key enzymes of the SL metabolism, and to positively modulate SL profile or related metabolic pathways. Nevertheless, little is known about the long-term impact of such approaches in humans and the current literature still focuses on the decomposition of the different parts of this complex system rather than performing an integrated analysis of the whole SL metabolism. In addition, since SL can be provided from exogenous sources, it is also of interest to evaluate their impact on the homeostasis of endogenous SL metabolism, which could be beneficial in prevention or treatment of obesity and related metabolic disorders.

In-depth lipidomic analysis of tri-, di-, and mono-acylglycerols released from milk fat after in vitro digestion

Milk fat is arguably one of the most complex fats found in nature and varies widely between animal species. Analysis of its digestion products is tremendously challenging, due to the complexity, diversity, and large range of concentrations of triacylglycerols (TAGs) and their digestion products (i.e. diacylglycerols (DAGs), monoacylglycerols (MAGs), and free fatty acids (FFAs)). Therefore, a method combined the solid phase extraction (SPE), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and multi-dimension mass spectrometry (MDMS) was developed to identify and semi-quantify the TAGs, DAGs and MAGs in milk fat after in vitro digestion. Up to 105, 64, 14 and 30 species of TAGs, DAGs, MAGs, and FFAs were determined with their concentrations of 0.01-22.3, 0.01-39.2, 0.01-47.8, and 0.04-191.0 mg/g fat, respectively, during the in vitro digestion of cow and sheep milk. The validation of the method shows that this method was precise and reliable.

Lipolysis and Oxidation in Ultra-High Temperature Milk Depend on Sampling Month, Storage Duration, and Temperature

During storage, some factors (for example, storage duration and temperature) can affect milk stability and consumer acceptability. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARSs), lipid classes, and fatty acid profiles in stored ultra-high temperature (UHT) milk were analyzed to assess the effects of storage time and temperature on lipid oxidation and lipolysis. With storage duration up to 12 months, the milk fat phase was separated and showed high levels of oxidation and lipolysis, manifested as increased levels of TBARS and free fatty acids. High oxidation levels decreased the percentage of unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) in triacylglycerol and phospholipids. Higher storage temperatures (20, 30, and 37 °C) resulted in a higher degree of fat aggregation, oxidation, and lipolysis compared with refrigerated storage (4 °C). Additionally, sampling month of raw milk (May, July, and November) affected the lipid profiles of UHT milk during storage, with more UFA oxidized in July than in the other 2 months.

Effect of the food form and structure on lipid digestion and postprandial lipaemic response

As the food matrix is a determinant of the rate of fat digestion and absorption, it is important for the modulation of postprandial triglyceridaemia. High postprandial triglyceride levels are associated with an increase in inflammation, oxidative stress, an imbalance in the lipoprotein profile and an increase in the risk of developing chronic diseases. This study was designed to assess the in vitro digestion patterns and the postprandial lipaemic responses to test foods with the same nutrient composition but differing in the form and structure. A liquid, a semi-solid and a solid test food with the same nutrient and energy composition were designed. The digestion profiles of the three foods were assessed using a dynamic in vitro model. The foods were also consumed by healthy young adults who donated blood samples after an overnight fast and again 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 h after consuming each of the test foods and who were also assessed for appetite sensations. The solid food showed phase separation during gastric digestion and a lower release of fatty acids during intestinal digestion than the liquid and semi-solid foods. During the postprandial feeding experiments, the solid food caused a lower increase in serum triglycerides than the liquid food and produced higher fullness and satisfaction. In conclusion, the food form and structure modulated fat release, postprandial triglyceridaemia and appetite sensations independent of the nutrient and energy content. Thus, manipulation of the food structure and form may be used in designing strategies for improving metabolic markers and satiety.

Encapsulation and release of curcumin using an intact milk fat globule delivery system

Milk fat globule carriers were evaluated as an encapsulation system for curcumin. Partitioning is confirmed using fluorescence imaging. Release of curcumin under simulated gastrointestinal conditions and associated morphological changes to the carriers were evaluated.

Chemistry of Human Breast Milk-A Comprehensive Review of the Composition and Role of Milk Metabolites in Child Development

Early nutrition has an enormous influence on a child's physiological function, immune system maturation, and cognitive development. Human breast milk (HBM) is recognized as the gold standard for human infant nutrition. According to a WHO report, breastfeeding is considered as an unequaled way of providing ideal food to the infant, which is required for his healthy growth and development. HBM contains various macronutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and vitamins) as well as numerous bioactive compounds and interactive elements (growth factors, hormones, cytokines, chemokines, and antimicrobial compounds. The aim of this review is to summarize and discuss the current knowledge about metabolites, which are the least understood components of HBM, and their potential role in infant development. We focus on small metabolites (<1500 Da) and characterize the chemical structure and biological function of polar metabolites such as human milk oligosaccharides, nonprotein molecules containing nitrogen (creatine, amino acids, nucleotides, polyamines), and nonpolar lipids. We believe that this manuscript will provide a comprehensive insight into a HBM metabolite composition, chemical structure, and their role in a child's early life nutrition.

Metabolic effects in mice of cream processing: Direct ultra-high-temperature process lowers high-fat-induced adipose tissue inflammation

Although UHT heat treatment is being optimized to improve the stability and functional properties of dairy products, its metabolic effects remain scarcely known. As such, we studied the effect of the type of UHT process on lipid metabolism, intestinal barrier, and inflammation in mice. Nine-week-old male C57Bl/6J mice were fed a diet composed of nonlipidic powder mixed with different UHT dairy creams (final: 13% milkfat) for 1 or 4 wk. All creams contained 0.02% of thickener (carrageenan) and were treated via either (1) classical indirect heating process (Th), (2) indirect process at higher temperature (Th+), or (3) direct process by steam injection (ThD). Plasma, epididymal adipose tissue (EAT), and intestine were analyzed. Multivariate principal component analyses were used to identify differential effects of processes. Th+ differed by a globally higher liver damage score compared with that of the other creams. After 4 wk, the duodenal expression of lipid absorption genes fatty acid binding protein 4 (Fatp4) and microsomal triglycerides transfer protein (Mttp) was lower in the Th+ versus Th group. Expression in the colon of tight junction protein zonula occludens 1 (Zo1) and of some endoplasmic reticulum stress markers was lower in both Th+ and ThD versus the Th group. In EAT, ThD had lower gene expression of several inflammatory markers after 4 wk. Some differential effects may be related to heat-induced physicochemical changes of creams. The type of cream UHT process differentially affected metabolic parameters in mice after a 4-wk fat-rich diet, partly due to cream structure. Altogether, direct steam injection process induced the lowest early markers of high-fat-induced metabolic inflammation in EAT.

Influence of Dairy Emulsifier Type and Lipid Droplet Size on Gastrointestinal Fate of Model Emulsions: In Vitro Digestion Study

Human breast milk is a natural emulsion containing relatively large triacylglycerol droplets coated by a distinct interfacial layer known as the milk fat globule membrane (MFGM). The unique properties of the MFGM impact the release of nutrients from breast milk in an infant's gastrointestinal tract (GIT), but the membrane architecture is susceptible to disruption by industrial processes. To formulate infant formula that simulates the gastrointestinal behavior of breast milk, food manufacturers require knowledge of the impact of the interfacial properties on the gastrointestinal fate of fat globules. In this study, a simulated GIT was utilized to monitor the gastrointestinal fate of emulsified corn oil with different dairy emulsifiers, including sodium caseinate, lactoferrin (LF), whey protein isolate (WPI), and milk phospholipids (MPL) isolated from MFGM. The influence of droplet size on the gastrointestinal fate of the MPL-stabilized emulsions was also examined. Our findings provide valuable information for the optimization of infant formula and dairy-based nutritional beverages.

Complex lipid globules in early-life nutrition improve long-term metabolic phenotype in intra-uterine growth-restricted rats

Intra-uterine growth restriction (IUGR) is associated with adverse metabolic outcome later in life. Healthy mice challenged with a Western-style diet (WSD) accumulated less body fat when previously fed a diet containing large lipid globules (complex lipid matrix (CLM)). This study was designed to clarify whether an early-life CLM diet mitigates 'programmed' visceral adiposity and associated metabolic sequelae after IUGR. In rats, IUGR was induced either by bilateral uterine vessel ligation (LIG) or sham operation (i.e. intra-uterine stress) of the dam on gestational day 19. Offspring from non-operated (NOP) dams served as controls. Male offspring of all groups were either fed CLM or 'normal matrix' control diet (CTRL) from postnatal days (PND) 15 to 42. Thereafter, animals were challenged with a mild WSD until dissection (PND 98). Fat mass (micro computer-tomograph scan; weight of fat compartments), circulating metabolic markers and expression of 'metabolic' genes (quantitative real-time PCR) were assessed. CLM diet significantly reduced visceral fat mass in LIG at PND 40. At dissection, visceral fat mass, fasted blood glucose, TAG and leptin concentrations were significantly increased in LIG-CTRL v. NOP-CTRL, and significantly decreased in LIG-CLM v. LIG-CTRL. Gene expression levels of leptin (mesenteric fat) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (liver) were significantly reduced in LIG-CLM v. LIG-CTRL. In conclusion, early-life CLM diet mitigated the adverse metabolic phenotype after utero-placental insufficiency. The supramolecular structure of dietary lipids may be a novel aspect of nutrient quality that has to be considered in the context of primary prevention of obesity and metabolic disease in at-risk populations.

Influence of Homogenization and Thermal Processing on the Gastrointestinal Fate of Bovine Milk Fat: In Vitro Digestion Study

Dairy lipids are an important source of energy and nutrients for infants and adults. The dimensions, aggregation state, and interfacial properties of fat globules in raw milk are changed by dairy processing operations, such as homogenization and thermal processing. These changes influence the behavior of fat globules within the human gastrointestinal tract (GIT). The gastrointestinal fate of raw milk, homogenized milk, high temperature short time (HTST) pasteurized milk, and ultrahigh temperature (UHT) pasteurized milk samples was therefore determined using a simulated GIT. The properties of particles in different regions of the GIT depended on the degree of milk processing. Homogenization increased the initial lipid digestion rate but did not influence the final digestion extent. Thermal processing of homogenized milk decreased the initial rate and final extent of lipid digestion, which was attributed to changes in interfacial structure. These results provide insights into the impact of dairy processing on the gastrointestinal fate of milk fat.

Postprandial lipemia: factoring in lipemic response for ranking foods for their healthiness

One of the limitations for ranking foods and meals for healthiness on the basis of the glycaemic index (GI) is that the GI is subject to manipulation by addition of fat. Postprandial lipemia, defined as a rise in circulating triglyceride containing lipoproteins following consumption of a meal, has been recognised as a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease and other chronic diseases. Many non-modifiable factors (pathological conditions, genetic background, age, sex and menopausal status) and life-style factors (physical activity, smoking, alcohol and medication use, dietary choices) may modulate postprandial lipemia. The structure and the composition of a food or a meal consumed also plays an important role in the rate of postprandial appearance and clearance of triglycerides in the blood. However, a major difficulty in grading foods, meals and diets according to their potential to elevate postprandial triglyceride levels has been the lack of a standardised marker that takes into consideration both the general characteristics of the food and the food’s fat composition and quantity. The release rate of lipids from the food matrix during digestion also has an important role in determining the postprandial lipemic effects of a food product. This article reviews the factors that have been shown to influence postprandial lipemia with a view to develop a novel index for ranking foods according to their healthiness. This index should take into consideration not only the glycaemic but also lipemic responses.

Soybean polar lipids differently impact adipose tissue inflammation and the endotoxin transporters LBP and sCD14 in flaxseed vs. palm oil-rich diets

Obesity and type 2 diabetes are nutritional pathologies, characterized by a subclinical inflammatory state. Endotoxins are now well recognized as an important factor implicated in the onset and maintain of this inflammatory state during fat digestion in high-fat diet. As a preventive strategy, lipid formulation could be optimized to limit these phenomena, notably regarding fatty acid profile and PL emulsifier content. Little is known about soybean polar lipid (SPL) consumption associated to oils rich in saturated FA vs. anti-inflammatory omega-3 FA such as α-linolenic acid on inflammation and metabolic endotoxemia. We then investigated in mice the effect of different synthetic diets enriched with two different oils, palm oil or flaxseed oil and containing or devoid of SPL on adipose tissue inflammation and endotoxin receptors. In both groups containing SPL, adipose tissue (WAT) increased compared with groups devoid of SPL and an induction of MCP-1 and LBP was observed in WAT. However, only the high-fat diet in which flaxseed oil was associated with SPL resulted in both higher WAT inflammation and higher circulating sCD14 in plasma. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that LPS transporters LBP and sCD14 and adipose tissue inflammation can be modulated by SPL in high fat diets differing in oil composition. Notably high-flaxseed oil diet exerts a beneficial metabolic impact, however blunted by PL addition. Our study suggests that nutritional strategies can be envisaged by optimizing dietary lipid sources in manufactured products, including fats/oils and polar lipid emulsifiers, in order to limit the inflammatory impact of palatable foods.

Whole dairy matrix or single nutrients in assessment of health effects: current evidence and knowledge gaps

Foods consist of a large number of different nutrients that are contained in a complex structure. The nature of the food structure and the nutrients therein (i.e., the food matrix) will determine the nutrient digestion and absorption, thereby altering the overall nutritional properties of the food. Thus, the food matrix may exhibit a different relation with health indicators compared to single nutrients studied in isolation. The evidence for a dairy matrix effect was presented and discussed by an expert panel at a closed workshop, and the following consensus was reached: 1) Current evidence does not support a positive association between intake of dairy products and risk of cardiovascular disease (i.e., stroke and coronary heart disease) and type 2 diabetes. In contrast, fermented dairy products, such as cheese and yogurt, generally show inverse associations. 2) Intervention studies have indicated that the metabolic effects of whole dairy may be different than those of single dairy constituents when considering the effects on body weight, cardiometabolic disease risk, and bone health. 3) Different dairy products seem to be distinctly linked to health effects and disease risk markers. 4) Different dairy structures and common processing methods may enhance interactions between nutrients in the dairy matrix, which may modify the metabolic effects of dairy consumption. 5) In conclusion, the nutritional values of dairy products should not be considered equivalent to their nutrient contents but, rather, be considered on the basis of the biofunctionality of the nutrients within dairy food structures. 6) Further research on the health effects of whole dairy foods is warranted alongside the more traditional approach of studying the health effects of single nutrients. Future diet assessments and recommendations should carefully consider the evidence of the effects of whole foods alongside the evidence of the effects of individual nutrients. Current knowledge gaps and recommendations for priorities in future research on dairy were identified and presented.