The evolution of the concepts of seizures and epilepsy: What's in a name?

Assessment and evaluation of quality of life in epileptic patients using QOLIE-31 and QOLIE-AD-48 at tertiary care hospital

INTRODUCTION

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines quality of life as a person's assessment of their place in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live, as well as in connection to their objectives, expectations, standards, and worries. Physiological as well as emotional wellness both affect quality of life (QOL).

OBJECTIVE

To assess and evaluate the quality of life in epileptic patients by using Quality of life in epilepsy inventory for adolescent (QOLIE-AD-48) and Quality of life in epilepsy inventory for adults (QOLIE-31) at tertiary care hospital.

METHODS

After receiving approval from the Institution Ethics Committees (IEC) of the ISF College of Pharmacy and Guru Gobind Singh Medical College and Hospital, Faridkot. This observational and questionnaire based study was carried out for a period of six months. Quality of life in epilepsy inventory for adolescent (QOLIE-AD-48) and Quality of life in epilepsy inventory for adults (QOLIE-31) had been used for this research and got approval from Dr. Joyce A. Cramer to use the questionnaire.

RESULTS

Except for the patients who declined to participate in the study, 109 individuals who participated in the observation and questionnaire-based study was enrolled. In this study, it was discovered that adolescents made up the majority of the patients with respect to adults and quality of life was found to be good (p = 0.062). The mean score of quality of life of the patients and standard deviation (SD) was found to be (M = 61.26) and (SD = 21.10). Males (63%, 69 patients) were found higher with respect to females (37%, 40 patients). Linear regression test was found to be significant (p = 0.003) of quality of life score (dependent variable) in relation to age and weight (independent variable) of the patients it. One way ANOVA test was found significant of quality of life score in relation to educational status (p = 0.001), epilepsy from last year (p = 0.001), and drug therapy (p = 0.017).

CONCLUSION

The current study explains the relationship between quality of life and other dependent variables by using different statistical analysis techniques. The quality of life of epileptic patients must be assessed on an individual basis, taking into consideration the patient's state of physical health and psychological state. This study concludes that the quality of life of epileptic patients was found to be good as per significant results. If any of factors changes then there will also be differ in quality of life score.

Epilepsy in Cerebral Palsy: Unraveling Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Subtype Associations in a Large-Scale Population Study

Background and Objective: Cerebral palsy (CP) constitutes a group of enduring movement disorders arising from non-progressive brain damage, often accompanied by epilepsy. This study aims to explore the prevalence of epilepsy in CP patients, dissecting demographic characteristics, healthcare parameters, and nuanced risk factors. Materials and Methods: The study employed the National Inpatient Sample (NIS) database (2016-2019, four years). CP patients were identified through ICD-10 codes, excluding non-CP patients and those with missing values. Baseline characteristics of CP patients, such as age, subtype distribution, and types of epilepsy, were tabulated, and disparities were assessed using the chi-squared test. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were conducted to examine predictors of epilepsy according to CP subtypes and infant-related conditions. Data were presented as odds ratios (OR) with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI). Results: In this comprehensive analysis of 88,138 CP patients, 44,901 with epilepsy and 43,237 without epilepsy, disparities between those with and without epilepsy were uncovered, revealing distinct demographic patterns and healthcare characteristics. Spastic diplegic CP showed the strongest association with epilepsy (adjusted OR = 1.88, 95% CI [1.73-2.04], p < 0.0001), underscoring the significance of subtype-specific considerations. Perinatal infection emerged as a noteworthy risk factor for epilepsy development (adjusted OR = 1.61, 95% CI [1.17-2.23], p = 0.004). Conclusions: The study provides nuanced insights into the prevalence and associations of epilepsy in CP patients. Specific CP subtypes and perinatal factors play pivotal roles in epilepsy risk. These findings offer a foundation for tailored clinical management and support services, addressing the complex needs of individuals with CP and epilepsy.

WONOEP appraisal: Genetic insights into early onset epilepsies

Early onset epilepsies occur in newborns and infants, and to date, genetic aberrations and variants have been identified in approximately one quarter of all patients. With technological sequencing advances and ongoing research, the genetic diagnostic yield for specific seizure disorders and epilepsies is expected to increase. Genetic variants associated with epilepsy include chromosomal abnormalities and rearrangements of various sizes as well as single gene variants. Among these variants, a distinction can be made between germline and somatic, with the latter being increasingly identified in epilepsies with focal cortical malformations in recent years. The identification of the underlying genetic mechanisms of epilepsy syndromes not only revolutionizes the diagnostic schemes but also leads to a better understanding of the diseases and their interrelationships, ultimately providing new opportunities for therapeutic targeting. At the XVI Workshop on Neurobiology of Epilepsy (WONOEP 2022, Talloires, France, July 2022), various etiologies, research models, and mechanisms of genetic early onset epilepsies were presented and discussed.

Seizures and Epilepsy: An Overview for UK Medical Students

Epilepsy is a common neurological disorder impacting millions globally, marked by recurrent, unprovoked seizures. This review article, tailored for UK medical students, provides a broad clinical overview of epilepsy, focusing on its pathophysiology, classification, and management strategies. The article clarifies the distinction between epilepsy and seizures and delves into key areas, including risk factors, clinical features, and differential diagnosis. The discussion extends to diagnostic methods, underscoring the importance of conducting a thorough evaluation in diagnosing and managing epilepsy effectively. Data were drawn from the UK National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) guidelines, World Health Organization (WHO) reports, and key peer-reviewed studies. Particular attention was given to UK-specific data on epilepsy incidence, treatment gaps, and clinical outcomes. A review of relevant literature was conducted, covering epidemiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic protocols, and management strategies based on UK practices. Finally, the article addresses the acute management of seizures and the pharmacological and non-pharmacological management of epilepsy based on the NICE guidelines. The goal is to offer medical students a concise yet comprehensive understanding of epilepsy, preparing them for practical, evidence-based decision-making in clinical practice.

Neuropsychiatry revisited: epilepsy as the borderland between neurology and psychiatry

Since epilepsy is often complicated by psychiatric symptoms, the contributions of psychiatry are indispensable for the care and improvement of the quality of life of individuals with epilepsy. Moreover, the existence of a bidirectional relationship between epilepsy and psychiatric symptoms was recently proposed, based on the evidence that not only are some psychiatric symptoms more likely than others to follow epilepsy, but also that psychiatric symptoms may precede the onset of epilepsy and the presence of psychiatric symptoms may influence the outcome of treatment for seizures. There has also been a gradual accumulation of neurobiological findings related to psychosis, depressive, and anxiety symptoms that are associated with epilepsy with respect to abnormalities in brain networks and neurotransmission. This mini-review focuses on the neuropsychiatric aspects of epilepsy and proposes that a reconsideration of neuropsychiatry in light of epilepsy findings could serve as a bridge between psychiatry and neurology.

Prevalence and Temporal Trends of Epilepsy in Children: A Retrospective Birth Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Epilepsy is one of the most common chronic neurologic diseases in children; however, few recent studies examine the prevalence of epilepsy and its evolution over time according to birth or maternal characteristics. The aim of the study was to examine the prevalence of epilepsy in children born between 2002 and 2020 and the temporal trends by year of birth, in Ontario, Canada, overall, and according to maternal and birth characteristics.

METHODS

We included all in-hospital deliveries between 2002 and 2020 (N = 2,343,482) in Ontario, Canada, using linked administrative health dataset. We estimated the overall prevalence of epilepsy diagnosed before the age of 18 years, by birth and maternal characteristics. For temporal trend analyses, we restricted our population to children born up to 2012 (N = 1,405,271) and examined the prevalence of epilepsy diagnosed by age 8 by their year of birth, using Poisson regression.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of epilepsy in our cohort was 8.1 per 1,000 live births (95% CI: 8.0-8.2). Prevalence was higher for boys, for children born preterm, with congenital malformations, from multiple pregnancies, from mothers born in Canada, and for children living in deprived areas. Epilepsy prevalence diagnosed by age 8 increased slightly between 2002 and 2012 cohorts (6.9 [95% CI: 6.2-7.6] to 7.3 [95% CI: 6.6-8.1] per 1,000 live births, respectively). Differences by gestational age as gradient and socioeconomic characteristics were persistent and stable over time, while those by pregnancy plurality and sex decreased.

SIGNIFICANCE

In a large population-based birth cohort in Canada, we observed a slight increase in epilepsy prevalence over time among children born in 2002 and those born in 2012 and persistent disparities by gestational age, socioeconomic position, and maternal immigration status. This study highlights the need for continued surveillance of rates to see if this increasing trend is persistent, to understand the potential causes behind it, and to understand the persistence of these disparities.

Gaining consensus on emotional wellbeing themes and preferences for digital intervention type and content to support the mental health of young people with long-term health conditions: A Delphi study

BACKGROUND

Young people (YP) with long-term conditions (LTCs) are at greater risk of psychological distress than those without LTCs. Despite this, there is a scarcity of quality digital interventions designed to help improve mental wellbeing in this population. The aim of this study was to determine what YP, parents and health professionals preferred for future interventions.

METHODS

Twenty-six YP with asthma, diabetes and/or epilepsy (the three most common LTCs in YP), 23 parents of YP with LTCs and 10 health professionals mainly in paediatric specialisms (total n = 59) took part in an online Delphi study to gain consensus (set at 75% agreement) on four questions across three rounds. Participants ordered psychological themes that may be experienced by YP with LTCs by importance and ranked digital intervention types and delivery modes by importance or usefulness. The most common results were reported if no consensus was reached by round 3.

RESULTS

Participants preferred a mobile phone app (73% agreement) and a mixture of one-on-one and group support for an intervention (75% agreement). The two highest ranked psychological themes were anxiety (44%) and wanting to appear 'normal' (38%), and the top intervention type was 'general counselling' (54% agreement).

CONCLUSION

There was a clear desire for an app to help with the psychological aspects of living with LTCs and for a combination of one-to-one and group intervention elements. Anxiety and wanting to appear 'normal' might be two closely linked psychological challenges that could be addressed by a single intervention.

IMPLICATIONS

The results will be important to consider for a future intervention, although further consultation will be needed for app development.

PATIENT OR PUBLIC CONTRIBUTION

Two YP with a LTC provided feedback on the study protocol including the aims and procedures of the project. Another six YP with LTCs were consulted on an early draft of the study questionnaire (the four questions), which was subsequently revised. Once the project began, a patient and public involvement group consisting of two YP with LTCs and one parent of a YP with an LTC gave feedback on the research process, lay report of the results and dissemination plan.

Historical roots of the stigma of epilepsy: A review of the classic Iranian literature

BACKGROUND

The stigma toward epilepsy is a daily challenge for people with epilepsy (PWE) and can influence the well-being and prognosis of these individuals. However, the cultural origins of such stigma have sparsely been examined. In this study, we aimed to investigate the classic Persian literature to gain insight into the historical and cultural beliefs and opinions regarding epilepsy as a determinant in developing stigma towards PWE.

METHODS

In this narrative review of the classic Persian literature, we investigated the opinions and beliefs regarding epilepsy and PWE. In February 2023, we searched https://ganjoor.net (an open-access database of Iranian literature) for the relevant literary materials (poem and prose) using the Persian translation of the terms epilepsy (Sar'e) and epileptic (Masroo'e). Two clinical researchers went through the results and extracted the related materials under the supervision of two experts in Persian literature. A bilingual academic translated the included literary materials from Persian to English.

RESULTS

Our search yielded 57 literature materials by 31 poets and writers from the 4th to 14th Hijri centuries, roughly coinciding with the past Gregorian millennium (1000-2000 AC). We classified the literary concepts related to epilepsy stigma into five subgroups: (i) a simile for pain and suffering; (ii) an atonement for blasphemous beliefs or a disease caused by supernatural power; (iii) a sign of madness, insanity, and lack of wisdom; (iv) a celestial observation; and (v) a subject for jokes.

CONCLUSIONS

Classic Persian literature considered epilepsy as a simile for suffering and a sign of insanity that is caused by blasphemous beliefs or celestial objects, with PWE classified as insane and unwise. While such depictions became less prevalent after the 14th century CE, they can give rise to misconceptions and negative stigma toward PWE and should be addressed in modern culture. Each society should critically investigate its socio-cultural origins of stigma and rectify such misbeliefs.

Novel Surgical Approaches in Childhood Epilepsy: Laser, Brain Stimulation, and Focused Ultrasound

Pediatric epilepsy has a worldwide prevalence of approximately 1% (Berg et al., Handb Clin Neurol 111:391-398, 2013) and is associated with not only lower quality of life but also long-term deficits in executive function, significant psychosocial stressors, poor cognitive outcomes, and developmental delays (Schraegle and Titus, Epilepsy Behav 62:20-26, 2016; Puka and Smith, Epilepsia 56:873-881, 2015). With approximately one-third of patients resistant to medical control, surgical intervention can offer a cure or palliation to decrease the disease burden and improve neurological development. Despite its potential, epilepsy surgery is drastically underutilized. Even today only 1% of the millions of epilepsy patients are referred annually for neurosurgical evaluation, and the average delay between diagnosis of Drug Resistant Epilepsy (DRE) and surgical intervention is approximately 20 years in adults and 5 years in children (Solli et al., Epilepsia 61:1352-1364, 2020). It is still estimated that only one-third of surgical candidates undergo operative intervention (Pestana Knight et al., Epilepsia 56:375, 2015). In contrast to the stable to declining rates of adult epilepsy surgery (Englot et al., Neurology 78:1200-1206, 2012; Neligan et al., Epilepsia 54:e62-e65, 2013), rates of pediatric surgery are rising (Pestana Knight et al., Epilepsia 56:375, 2015). Innovations in surgical approaches to epilepsy not only minimize potential complications but also expand the definition of a surgical candidate. In this chapter, three alternatives to classical resection are presented. First, laser ablation provides a minimally invasive approach to focal lesions. Next, both central and peripheral nervous system stimulation can interrupt seizure networks without creating permanent lesions. Lastly, focused ultrasound is discussed as a potential new avenue not only for ablation but also modulation of small, deep foci within seizure networks. A better understanding of the potential surgical options can guide patients and providers to explore all treatment avenues.

Epilepsy Networks and Their Surgical Relevance

Surgical epilepsy is a rapidly evolved field. As the understanding and concepts of epilepsy shift towards a network disorder, surgical outcomes may shed light on numerous components of these systems. This review documents the evolution of the understanding of epilepsy networks and examines the data generated by resective, ablative, neuromodulation, and invasive monitoring surgeries in epilepsy patients. As these network tools are better integrated into epilepsy practice, they may eventually inform surgical decisions and improve clinical outcomes.

Activated protein C signaling mediates neuroinflammation in seizure induced by pilocarpine

Epilepsy is one of the most common and oldest neurological disorders, characterized by periodic seizures that affect millions globally. Despite its long history, its pathophysiology is not fully understood. Additionally, the current treatment methods have their limitations. Finding a new alternative is necessary. Activated Protein C (APC) has been proven to have neurological protection in other neurological disorders; however, there is no study that focuses on the role of APC in seizures. We propose that APC's protective effect could be associated with seizures through inflammation and apoptosis regulation. The results demonstrated that APC's pathway proteins are involved in neuroprotection mechanisms in seizure-induced models by acting on certain inflammatory factors, such as NF-κB and apoptosis proteins.

Epilepsy: Mitochondrial connections to the 'Sacred' disease

Over 65 million people suffer from recurrent, unprovoked seizures. The lack of validated biomarkers specific for myriad forms of epilepsy makes diagnosis challenging. Diagnosis and monitoring of childhood epilepsy add to the need for non-invasive biomarkers, especially when evaluating antiseizure medications. Although underlying mechanisms of epileptogenesis are not fully understood, evidence for mitochondrial involvement is substantial. Seizures affect 35%-60% of patients diagnosed with mitochondrial diseases. Mitochondrial dysfunction is pathophysiological in various epilepsies, including those of non-mitochondrial origin. Decreased ATP production caused by malfunctioning brain cell mitochondria leads to altered neuronal bioenergetics, metabolism and neurological complications, including seizures. Iron-dependent lipid peroxidation initiates ferroptosis, a cell death pathway that aligns with altered mitochondrial bioenergetics, metabolism and morphology found in neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Studies in mouse genetic models with seizure phenotypes where the function of an essential selenoprotein (GPX4) is targeted suggest roles for ferroptosis in epilepsy. GPX4 is pivotal in NDDs, where selenium protects interneurons from ferroptosis. Selenium is an essential central nervous system micronutrient and trace element. Low serum concentrations of selenium and other trace elements and minerals, including iron, are noted in diagnosing childhood epilepsy. Selenium supplements alleviate intractable seizures in children with reduced GPX activity. Copper and cuproptosis, like iron and ferroptosis, link to mitochondria and NDDs. Connecting these mechanistic pathways to selenoproteins provides new insights into treating seizures, pointing to using medicines including prodrugs of lipoic acid to treat epilepsy and to potential alternative therapeutic approaches including transcranial magnetic stimulation (transcranial), photobiomodulation and vagus nerve stimulation.

Psychosocial correlates of neurodevelopmental disabilities in 2- to 3-year-olds

RATIONALE

Canada's National Longitudinal Study of Children and Youth survey data provide insights into chronic health conditions in children. Children with neurodevelopmental disabilities (NDD) are at increased risk for adverse behavioral outcomes.

METHODS

We examined data from 3 cycles of Canada's National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth for the presence of epilepsy (Epi), cerebral palsy (CP), and intellectual disability (ID) in 2- to 3-year-olds. We then examined the relationship of NDD to composite measures of behavior: hyperactivity-inattention (HI), prosocial behaviors (PS), emotional disorder-anxiety (EA), physical aggression oppositional behavior (AO), and separation anxiety (SA).

RESULTS

There were 15 children with Epi, 25 with CP and 28 with ID in a sample of 10,879, which represented a population of 756,848 2- to 3-year-old Canadian children. Comparison of mean scores of the NDD groups and controls (Welch's ANOVA), indicated statistically significant differences in HI, PS, EA, and SA at the p < 0.001 level. Post hoc analysis showed significant intergroup differences. Children with epilepsy did not differ from controls on any of the behavioral measures. However, in comparison to controls, children with intellectual disability had higher EA and SA scores and lower PS scores, and those with cerebral palsy had lower PS scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with NDD show differences in behavioral outcomes at a very early age when compared with controls. Screening for these behaviors and early intervention programs may help avoid longer term psychiatric comorbidity associated with these disabilities.

Effect of Linker Elongation on the VGSC Affinity and Anticonvulsant Activity among 4-Alkyl-5-aryl-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione Derivatives

The main aim of the current project was to investigate the effect of the linker size in 4-alkyl-5-aryl-1,2,4-triazole-3-thione derivatives, known as a group of antiepileptic drug candidates, on their affinity towards voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs). The rationale of the study was based both on the SAR observations and docking simulations of the interactions between the designed ligands and the binding site of human VGSC. HYDE docking scores, which describe hydrogen bonding, desolvation, and hydrophobic effects, obtained for 5-[(3-chlorophenyl)ethyl]-4-butyl/hexyl-1,2,4-triazole-3-thiones, justified their beneficial sodium channel blocking activity. The results of docking simulations were verified using a radioligand binding assay with [³H]batrachotoxin. Unexpectedly, although the investigated triazole-based compounds acted as VGSC ligands, their affinities were lower than those of the respective analogs containing shorter alkyl linkers. Since numerous sodium channel blockers are recognized as antiepileptic agents, the obtained 1,2,4-triazole derivatives were examined for antiepileptic potential using an experimental model of tonic-clonic seizures in mice. Median effective doses (ED₅₀) of the compounds examined in MES test reached 96.6 ± 14.8 mg/kg, while their median toxic doses (TD₅₀), obtained in the rotarod test, were even as high as 710.5 ± 47.4 mg/kg.

Development of Antiepileptic Drugs throughout History: From Serendipity to Artificial Intelligence

This article provides a comprehensive narrative review of the history of antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) and their development over time. Firstly, it explores the significant role of serendipity in the discovery of essential AEDs that continue to be used today, such as phenobarbital and valproic acid. Subsequently, it delves into the historical progression of crucial preclinical models employed in the development of novel AEDs, including the maximal electroshock stimulation test, pentylenetetrazol-induced test, kindling models, and other animal models. Moving forward, a concise overview of the clinical advancement of major AEDs is provided, highlighting the initial milestones and the subsequent refinement of this process in recent decades, in line with the emergence of evidence-based medicine and the implementation of increasingly rigorous controlled clinical trials. Lastly, the article explores the contributions of artificial intelligence, while also offering recommendations and discussing future perspectives for the development of new AEDs.

Epilepsy and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Connection, Chance, and Challenges

Comorbidities are common in children with epilepsy, with nearly half of the patients having at least one comorbidity. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a psychiatric disorder characterized by hyperactivity and inattentiveness level disproportional to the child’s developmental stage. The burden of ADHD in children with epilepsy is high and can adversely affect the patients’ clinical outcomes, psychosocial aspects, and quality of life. Several hypotheses were proposed to explain the high burden of ADHD in childhood epilepsy; the well-established bidirectional connection and shared genetic/non-genetic factors between epilepsy and comorbid ADHD largely rule out the possibility of a chance in this association. Stimulants are effective in children with comorbid ADHD, and the current body of evidence supports their safety within the approved dose. Nonetheless, safety data should be further studied in randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trials. Comorbid ADHD is still under-recognized in clinical practice. Early identification and management of comorbid ADHD are crucial to optimize the prognosis and reduce the risk of adverse long-term neurodevelopmental outcomes. The identification of the shared genetic background of epilepsy and ADHD can open the gate for tailoring treatment options for these patients through precision medicine.

Fighting Epilepsy with Nanomedicines-Is This the Right Weapon?

Epilepsy is a chronic and complex condition and is one of the most common neurological diseases, affecting about 50 million people worldwide. Pharmacological therapy has been, and is likely to remain, the main treatment approach for this disease. Although a large number of new antiseizure drugs (ASDs) has been introduced into the market in the last few years, many patients suffer from uncontrolled seizures, demanding the development of more effective therapies. Nanomedicines have emerged as a promising approach to deliver drugs to the brain, potentiating their therapeutic index. Moreover, nanomedicine has applied the knowledge of nanoscience, not only in disease treatment but also in prevention and diagnosis. In the current review, the general features and therapeutic management of epilepsy will be addressed, as well as the main barriers to overcome to obtain better antiseizure therapies. Furthermore, the role of nanomedicines as a valuable tool to selectively deliver drugs will be discussed, considering the ability of nanocarriers to deal with the less favourable physical-chemical properties of some ASDs, enhance their brain penetration, reduce the adverse effects, and circumvent the concerning drug resistance.

Historical Overview of the "Firing" Liaison between Brain Tumors and Epilepsy

This review addresses, in a critical historical perspective, the link between seizures and endocranic neoplasms. Folkloric descriptions of epilepsy can be found in writings from ancient cultures. Hippocrates first provided a medical interpretation. In 1770, Tissot published Traité de l'épilepsie, a milestone in epileptology, whereas the 19th century is considered the golden era of epileptic studies. In 1882, the father of modern epileptology, Jackson, in his article Localized Convulsions from Tumour of the Brain, reported a case of a patient affected by typical Jacksonian seizures in the presence of a brain tumor. However, he did not establish a direct correlation between brain tumors and epilepsy, and an explanation for his clinical case was lacking. Before Jackson's article, other authors reported similar cases, but only Gairdner in 1834 published a report suggesting the concept of a direct relationship between epilepsy and a brain tumor. From the beginning until the mid of the 20th century several authors reported seizures attributed to intracranial tumors, and in recent years studies have focused on the pathogenesis of tumor-related seizures. Biochemical and molecular changes in brain tumors and their environment opened unprecedented working hypotheses on epileptogenesis and on treatment of epilepsy associated with brain tumors.

Epilepsy - from mysticism to science

The understanding of epilepsy has been in progressive evolution since Antiquity, with scientific advances culminating in the last few decades. Throughout history, epilepsy was plagued by mystical misconceptions involving either demonic possessions, witchcraft, or divine interventions. This has frequently altered or even halted any real progress in its scientific understanding or its social perception. This metaphysical context is also at the core of the stigma revolving around this condition, some of which still lingering today. This review explores the origins of these mystical beliefs, and describes the chronological evolution of epilepsy from mysticism to science across different civilizations and eras.

The History of Epilepsy: From Ancient Mystery to Modern Misconception

Epilepsy is an ancient disease, which has fascinated and frightened scientists and laymen alike. Before the working knowledge of the central nervous system, seizures were shrouded in mystery. In antiquity, this disease was accredited to gods and demonic possession, causing those with epilepsy to be feared and isolated. Epilepsy patients continued to face discrimination through the mid-20th century. This discrimination ranged from lack of access to health insurance, jobs, and marriage equality to forced sterilizations. Despite the strides that have been made, there are still many misconceptions globally regarding epilepsy. Studies show that patients with epilepsy in communities that understand the pathology and cause of seizures are generally more successful in social and educational environments. While there has been progress, there is more work which needs to be done to educate people across the globe about the pathology of epilepsy.

Proteomic analysis reveals plasma haptoglobin, interferon-γ, and interleukin-1β as potential biomarkers of pediatric refractory epilepsy

BACKGROUND

Children with refractory epilepsy (RE) are associated with increased mortality rate, nonfatal injuries, disability, and diminished quality of life. Biomarkers for the early prediction of RE is still an unmet need.

METHODS

Eighteen children with RE and six age-matched unrelated controls were included in this study. Plasma samples were prefractionated by the optimized thermal treatment before proteomic analysis using 2DE-LC-MS/MS. Bioinformatic analysis was carried out using STRING protein network. Immunoassay of unprocessed plasma was applied to confirm changes of proteins of interest. P-value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS

Proteomic analysis (n = 6 each group) revealed nine differentially expressed proteins, i.e., haptoglobin, S100A9, serpin B1, apolipoprotein A-I, apolipoprotein A-IV, apolipoprotein C-II, alpha-1-acid glycoprotein 1 and 2, and transthyretin. Western immunoblotting confirmed haptoglobin upregulation in the RE group. STRING protein network predicted the inflammatory cytokines, i.e., interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), play roles in pathophysiology in RE patients. Cytokine immunoassay (n = 24, 18 RE vs. 6 controls) exhibited plasma IFN-γ was upregulated in RE patients as compared to the healthy individuals (median [IQR]; 2.9 [2.9, 4.9] vs. 1.32 [0.8, 1.5] pg/mL, p = 0.0013), and plasma IL-1β was significantly downregulated in patients (1.0 [0.2, 1.9] vs. 4.5 [1.9, 11.0] pg/mL, p = 0.01). TNF-α had no difference between groups. The results suggest that haptoglobin may be associated with oxidative brain damage, while IFN-γ and IL-1β may be involved with neuroinflammation.

CONCLUSIONS

Alterations in plasma haptoglobin, IFN-γ, and IL-1β were associated with RE patients. Future studies using a combination of these candidate biomarkers may help predict the intractability of epilepsy in pediatric populations.

The evolution of the concepts of seizures and epilepsy: What's in a name?

This review aims to highlight the historical hallmarks in the development of the concepts of seizures and epilepsy. It begins with a discussion of seizure semiology and terminology, followed by the pathophysiology of seizures. We then discuss the definition of epilepsy, its etiologies, and ultimately classification schemes. Each section starts with our current views and subsequently transports the reader back in time to understand how these views evolved and came to be what they are today. People living as early as in the prehistoric times may have been aware of the existence of seizures, and descriptions and terminology have been provided as early as 2500 BC. While names have been revised and updated through time, the meanings are seemingly unchanged. However, it is clearly evident that we have come a long way in understanding the pathophysiology and etiology of seizures and epilepsy, thus leading to our current classification schemes. No classification scheme will be perfect yet, until our understanding is advanced enough to create one based predominantly on scientific grounds. The goal is that it is relevant to clinical practice, leading to a more precise diagnosis to guide targeted treatments.