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Reece AS, Hulse GK. Patterns of Cannabis- and Substance-Related Congenital General Anomalies in Europe: A Geospatiotemporal and Causal Inferential Study. Pediatr Rep 2023; 15:69-118. [PMID: 36810339 PMCID: PMC9944887 DOI: 10.3390/pediatric15010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Recent series of congenital anomaly (CA) rates (CARs) have showed the close and epidemiologically causal relationship of cannabis exposure to many CARs. We investigated these trends in Europe where similar trends have occurred. METHODS CARs from EUROCAT. Drug use from European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Income data from World Bank. RESULTS CARs were higher in countries with increasing daily use overall (p = 9.99 × 10-14, minimum E-value (mEV) = 2.09) and especially for maternal infections, situs inversus, teratogenic syndromes and VACTERL syndrome (p = 1.49 × 10-15, mEV = 3.04). In inverse probability weighted panel regression models the series of anomalies: all anomalies, VACTERL, foetal alcohol syndrome, situs inversus (SI), lateralization (L), and teratogenic syndromes (TS; AAVFASSILTS) had cannabis metric p-values from: p < 2.2 × 10-16, 1.52 × 10-12, 1.44 × 10-13, 1.88 × 10-7, 7.39 × 10-6 and <2.2 × 10-16. In a series of spatiotemporal models this anomaly series had cannabis metric p-values from: 8.96 × 10-6, 6.56 × 10-6, 0.0004, 0.0019, 0.0006, 5.65 × 10-5. Considering E-values, the cannabis effect size order was VACTERL > situs inversus > teratogenic syndromes > FAS > lateralization syndromes > all anomalies. 50/64 (78.1%) E-value estimates and 42/64 (65.6%) mEVs > 9. Daily cannabis use was the strongest predictor for all anomalies. CONCLUSION Data confirmed laboratory, preclinical and recent epidemiological studies from Canada, Australia, Hawaii, Colorado and USA for teratological links between cannabis exposure and AAVFASSILTS anomalies, fulfilled epidemiological criteria for causality and underscored importance of cannabis teratogenicity. VACTERL data are consistent with causation via cannabis-induced Sonic Hedgehog inhibition. TS data suggest cannabinoid contribution. SI&L data are consistent with results for cardiovascular CAs. Overall, these data show that cannabis is linked across space and time and in a manner which fulfills epidemiological criteria for causality not only with many CAs, but with several multiorgan teratologic syndromes. The major clinical implication of these results is that access to cannabinoids should be tightly restricted in the interests of safeguarding the community's genetic heritage to protect and preserve coming generations, as is done for all other major genotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Stuart Reece
- Division of Psychiatry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
| | - Gary Kenneth Hulse
- Division of Psychiatry, University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia
- School of Medical and Health Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup, WA 6027, Australia
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Chen L, Guo C, Sun Z, Xu J. Occurrence, bioaccumulation and toxicological effect of drugs of abuse in aquatic ecosystem: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2021; 200:111362. [PMID: 34048744 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2021.111362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Drugs of abuse are a group of emerging contaminants. As the prevalence of manufacture and consumption, there is a growing global environmental burden and ecological risk from the continuous release of these contaminants into environment. The widespread occurrence of drugs of abuse in waste wasters and surface waters is due to the incomplete removal through traditional wastewater treatment plants in different regions around the world. Although their environmental concentrations are not very high, they can potentially influence the aquatic organisms and ecosystem function. This paper reviews the occurrence of drugs of abuse and their metabolites in waste waters and surface waters, their bioaccumulation in aquatic plants, fishes and benthic organisms and even top predators, and the toxicological effects such as genotoxic effect, cytotoxic effect and even behavioral effect on aquatic organisms. In summary, drugs of abuse occur widely in aquatic environment, and may exert adverse impact on aquatic organisms at molecular, cellular or individual level, and even on aquatic ecosystem. It necessitates the monitoring and risk assessment of these compounds on diverse aquatic organisms in the further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Like Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Changsheng Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China
| | - Zhenyu Sun
- Jiangsu Rainfine Environmental Science and Technology Co.,Ltd, Henan Branch Zhengzhou, 450000, China
| | - Jian Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Ecological Effect and Risk Assessment of Chemicals, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, 100012, China.
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How ZT, Gamal El-Din M. A critical review on the detection, occurrence, fate, toxicity, and removal of cannabinoids in the water system and the environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 268:115642. [PMID: 33032096 PMCID: PMC7489229 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115642] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are a group of organic compounds found in cannabis. Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD), the two major constituents of cannabinoids, and their metabolites are contaminants of emerging concern due to the limited information on their environmental impacts. As well, their releases to the water systems and environment are expected to increase due to recent legalization. Solid-phase extraction is the most common technique for the extraction and pre-concentration of cannabinoids in water samples as well as a clean-up step after the extraction of cannabinoids from solid samples. Liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry is the most common technique used for the analysis of cannabinoids. THC and its metabolites have been detected in wastewater, surface water, and drinking water. In particular, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) has been detected at concentrations up to 2590 and 169 ng L-1 in untreated and treated wastewater, respectively, 79.9 ng L-1 in surface water, and 1 ng L-1 in drinking water. High removal of cannabinoids has been observed in wastewater treatment plants; this is likely a result of adsorption due to the low aqueous solubility of cannabinoids. Based on the estrogenicity and cytotoxicity studies and modelling, it has been predicted that THC and THC-COOH pose moderate risk for adverse impact on the environment. While chlorination and photo-oxidation have been shown to be effective in the removal of THC-COOH, they also produce by-products that are potentially more toxic than regulated disinfection by-products. The potential of indirect exposure to cannabinoids and their metabolites through recreational water is of great interest. As cannabinoids and especially their by-products may have adverse impacts on the environment and public health, more studies on their occurrence in various types of water and environmental systems, as well as on their environmental toxicity, would be required to accurately assess their impact on the environment and public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zuo Tong How
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9
| | - Mohamed Gamal El-Din
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada, T6G 1H9.
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4
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Kuo DTF, Chen CC. A Reduced Model for Bioconcentration and Biotransformation of Neutral Organic Compounds in Midge. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2021; 40:57-71. [PMID: 33044762 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 07/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A bioconcentration factor (BCF) database and a toxicokinetic model considering only biota-water partitioning and biotransformation were constructed for neutral organic chemicals in midge. The database contained quality-reviewed BCF and toxicokinetic data with variability constrained to within 0.5 to 1 log unit. Diverse conditions in exposure duration, flow set-up, substrate presence, temperature, and taxonomic classification did not translate into substantial variability in BCF, uptake rate constant (k1 ), or depuration rate constant (kT ), and no systematic bias was observed in BCFs derived in unlabeled versus radiolabeled studies. Substance-specific biotransformation rate constants kM were derived by difference between the calculated biota-water partitioning coefficient (KBW ) and experimental BCF for developing a midge biotransformation model. Experimental midge BCF was modeled as BCF = KBW /(1 + kM/ k2 ) with log kM (kM in h-1 ) = -0.37 log KOW - 0.06T (in K) + 18.87 (root mean square error [RMSE] = 0.60), log k1 (k1 in L kgwet.wt-1 h-1 ) = -0.0747 W (body weight in mgwet.wt ) + 2.35 (RMSE = 0.48). The KBW value was estimated using midge biochemical composition and established polyparameter linear free energy relationships, and the diffusive elimination rate constant (k2 ) was computed as k2 = k1 /KBW. The BCF model predicted >85% of BCFs that associated with neutral organic compounds (log KOW = 1.46 - 7.75) to within 1 log-unit error margin and had comparable accuracy similar to amphipod or fish models. A number of outliers and critical limitations of the kM model were identified and examined, and they largely reflected the inherent limitation of difference-derived kM , the lack of chemical diversity, and inadequate temperature variation in existing data. Future modeling efforts can benefit from more BCF and toxicokinetic observations of BCF on structurally diverse chemicals for model training, validation, and diagnosis. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:57-71. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dave T F Kuo
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
- Kuo Research & Consulting, Toronto, Canada
| | - Ciara C Chen
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
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De Souza DV, Claudio SR, Da Silva CLF, Marangoni KP, Peres RC, Ribeiro DA. Genomic Instability in Peripheral Blood and Buccal Mucosal Cells of Marijuana Smokers: The Impact of Tobacco Smoke. Asian Pac J Cancer Prev 2020; 21:1235-1239. [PMID: 32458627 PMCID: PMC7541859 DOI: 10.31557/apjcp.2020.21.5.1235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The aim of this study was to evaluate cytotoxic, mutagenic and genotoxic effects on buccal mucosa and peripheral blood cells from marijuana and tobacco smokers. METHODS For this purpose, a total of 45 volunteers were distributed into four groups: CTRL group (control): individuals who did not smoke marijuana or tobacco (n = 11); Group M: Marijuana smokers (n = 13); Group T: Tobacco smokers (n = 13); Group M + T: Smokers of both marijuana and tobacco (n = 08). RESULTS Smokers of both marijuana and tobacco led an increase of micronucleated cells on buccal mucosa when compared to control group. The occurrence of karyolysis showed significant changes in this group as well. The comet assay data revealed genetic damage in peripheral blood cells for all groups of smokers. CONCLUSION In summary, our results showed that marijuana and /or tobacco are able to induce genetic damage and cytotoxicity in oral and peripheral blood cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Vitor De Souza
- Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sao Paulo, UNIFESP, Santos, SP, Brazil.
| | - Samuel Rangel Claudio
- Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sao Paulo, UNIFESP, Santos, SP, Brazil.
| | | | | | | | - Daniel Araki Ribeiro
- Department of Biosciences, Federal University of Sao Paulo, UNIFESP, Santos, SP, Brazil.
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Apul OG, Rowles LS, Khalid A, Karanfil T, Richardson SD, Saleh NB. Transformation potential of cannabinoids during their passage through engineered water treatment systems: A perspective. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 137:105586. [PMID: 32086082 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.105586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 02/14/2020] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoids are incipient contaminants with limited literature in the context of water treatment. With increasing positive public opinion toward legalization and their increasing use as a pharmaceutical, cannabinoids are expected to become a critical class of pollutant that requires attention in the water treatment industry. The destructive removal of cannabinoids via chlorination and other oxidation processes used in drinking water and wastewater treatment requires careful investigation, because the oxidation and disinfection byproducts (DBPs) may pose significant risks for public health and the environment. Understanding transformation of cannabinoids is the first step toward the development of management strategies for this emerging class of contaminant in natural and engineered aquatic systems. This perspective reviews the current understanding of cannabinoid occurrence in water and its potential transformation pathways during the passage through drinking water and wastewater treatment systems with chlorination process. The article also aims to identify research gaps on this topic, which demand attention from the environmental science and engineering community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onur G Apul
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, United States
| | - Lewis Stetson Rowles
- Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Arsalan Khalid
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts Lowell, Lowell, MA 01854, United States
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29631, United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208, United States
| | - Navid B Saleh
- Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States.
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Brown AK, Xia Z, Bulloch P, Idowu I, Francisco O, Stetefeld J, Stout J, Zimmer J, Marvin C, Letcher RJ, Tomy G. Validated quantitative cannabis profiling for Canadian regulatory compliance - Cannabinoids, aflatoxins, and terpenes. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1088:79-88. [PMID: 31623719 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In response to the Canadian federal government's Cannabis Tracking and Licensing System compliance standards, a quantitative method was created for cannabis analysis, and validated using Eurachem V.2 (2014) guidelines. Cannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, cannabichromene, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, and Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A were all analysed by scheduled multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) via LC-MS/MS and isotope dilution. In addition, aflatoxins B1, B2, G1, and G2 were also analysed by scheduled MRM via LC-MS/MS and matrix matched calibration curves in order to achieve the reporting limits (≤2 μg kg-1) set out by the European Pharmacopoeia. The LODs/LOQs were 0.50/1.7, 2.0/6.7, 0.59/2.0, and 0.53/1.8 μg kg-1, for B1, B2, G1, and G2 respectively. Thirty one terpenes were analysed by selected reaction monitoring via GC-MS/MS and isotope dilution using β-myrcene-d6 as a surrogate. All quantitative analyses can be accomplished using less than 1 g of material, with minimal solvent and consumable use, on low resolution instruments in less than 30 min of instrument time. Of important note is this method's power of selectivity, working ranges, and lack of need for extraction consumables such as SPE or QuEChERS, thereby minimising analytical costs and time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alistair K Brown
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Zhe Xia
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Patrique Bulloch
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Ifeoluwa Idowu
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Olga Francisco
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Jorg Stetefeld
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Jake Stout
- University of Manitoba, Department of Biological Sciences, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Jeff Zimmer
- Saskatchewan Research Council, 143-111 Research Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3R2, Canada
| | - Chris Marvin
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, National Water Research Institute, Burlington, ON L7S 1A1, Canada
| | - Robert J Letcher
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Ecotoxicology and Wildlife Health Division, National Wildlife Research Centre, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON K1A 0H3, Canada
| | - Gregg Tomy
- University of Manitoba, Department of Chemistry, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada.
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Chen CC, Kuo DTF. Bioconcentration model for non-ionic, polar, and ionizable organic compounds in amphipod. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2018; 37:1378-1386. [PMID: 29315781 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The present study presents a bioconcentration model for non-ionic, polar, and ionizable organic compounds in amphipod based on first-order kinetics. Uptake rate constant k1 is modeled as logk1=10.81logKOW + 0.15 (root mean square error [RMSE] = 0.52). Biotransformation rate constant kM is estimated using an existing polyparameter linear free energy relationship model. Respiratory elimination k2 is calculated as modeled k1 over theoretical biota-water partition coefficient Kbiow considering the contributions of lipid, protein, carbohydrate, and water. With negligible contributions of growth and egestion over a typical amphipod bioconcentration experiment, the bioconcentration factor (BCF) is modeled as k1 /(kM + k2 ) (RMSE = 0.68). The proposed model performs well for non-ionic organic compounds (log KOW range = 3.3-7.62) within 1 log-unit error margin. Approximately 12% of the BCFs are underpredicted for polar and ionizable compounds. However, >50% of the estimated k2 values are found to exceed the total depuration rate constants. Analyses suggest that these excessive k2 values and underpredicted BCFs reflect underestimation in Kbiow , which may be improved by incorporating exoskeleton as a relevant partitioning component and refining the membrane-water partitioning model. The immediate needs to build up high-quality experimental kM values, explore the sorptive role of exoskeleton, and investigate the prevalence of k2 overestimation in other bioconcentration models are also identified. The resulting BCF model can support, within its limitations, the ecotoxicological and risk assessment of emerging polar and ionizable organic contaminants in aquatic environments and advance the science of invertebrate bioaccumulation. Environ Toxicol Chem 2018;37:1378-1386. © 2018 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciara Chun Chen
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
| | - Dave Ta Fu Kuo
- Department of Architecture and Civil Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen, China
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Mackie AL, Park YR, Gagnon GA. Chlorination Kinetics of 11-Nor-9-carboxy-Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol: Effects of pH and Humic Acid. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:10711-10717. [PMID: 28806081 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b02234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The main psychoactive compound in marijuana, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), and its metabolites are emerging organic contaminants that have been detected in waste and surface waters. As legalization of marijuana for medical and recreational use continues, the effects of increased use and potency of marijuana on water and wastewater treatment processes and the environment should be considered. This study examined degradation kinetics of the main urinary metabolite of THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC-COOH) with chlorine. THC-COOH was rapidly removed from both deionized (DI) water at pH 5.6 ± 0.2 and Suwannee River humic acid (SRHA) at pH 5.1 ± 0.2 using low doses of chlorine (0.1 to 0.50 mg free Cl2/L), with half-lives calculated from second-order kinetics constants (k2) of 8 s for DI and 42 s for DI with SRHA. Kinetic rates increased with an increase in pH from 5 to 9 in both DI water and SRHA and no interference from phosphate was observed. The chlorination pathway of electrophilic substitution of Cl at the ortho or para position of the phenol structure of THC-COOH was confirmed by detection of monochlorinated byproduct fragmentation ions using flow injection analysis with orbitrap mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allison L Mackie
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Dalhousie University , PO Box 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada , B3H 4R2
| | - Yu Ri Park
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Dalhousie University , PO Box 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada , B3H 4R2
| | - Graham A Gagnon
- Centre for Water Resources Studies, Dalhousie University , PO Box 15000, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada , B3H 4R2
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