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Du Y, Yang L, Wang X, Jiang N, Zhou Y, Chen R, Li H. Proteome Profiling of Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mouse Model and the Effect of a SUMO E1 Inhibitor. J Proteome Res 2024; 23:5312-5325. [PMID: 39568369 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.4c00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is one of the most common neurodegenerative diseases, causing demyelination and inflammation in the central nervous system. The pathology of MS has been extensively studied using the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) mouse model. However, the molecular mechanisms are still largely unclear and require further investigation. In this study, we carried out quantitative proteomic analysis of the brain and spinal cord tissues in mice induced with EAE using a data-independent acquisition strategy and identified 744 differentially regulated proteins in the brain and 741 in the spinal cord. The changed proteins were highly related with phagocytosis, lysosomal enzymes, inflammasome activation, complements, and synaptic loss processes. Moreover, gene set enrichment analysis revealed the elevation of the SUMOylation process in EAE with the increase of SUMOylation-related enzymes and modification targets. Furthermore, to test the possibility of treating MS by targeting SUMOylation, we explored the application of a selective SUMO E1 inhibitor, TAK-981. Intriguingly, TAK-981 suppressed the global SUMOylation level in the brain and significantly alleviated the symptoms of EAE in mice. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of MS pathology, reveal the important role of SUMOylation in disease progression, and demonstrate the potential of the SUMO E1 inhibitor as a novel treatment for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingdong Du
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Linlin Yang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Wang
- General Surgery Department, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Na Jiang
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yanting Zhou
- General Surgery Department, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
| | - Ruibing Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Faculty of Medicine, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Hongyan Li
- General Surgery Department, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100053, China
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Alcover-Sanchez B, Garcia-Martin G, Paleo-García V, Quintas A, Dopazo A, Gruart A, Delgado-García JM, de la Villa P, Wandosell F, Pereira MP, Cubelos B. R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 regulate mature oligodendrocyte subpopulations. Glia 2024. [PMID: 39558879 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Revised: 10/23/2024] [Accepted: 10/29/2024] [Indexed: 11/20/2024]
Abstract
In the mammalian central nervous system, axonal myelination, executed by mature oligodendrocytes (MOLs), enables rapid neural transmission. Conversely, myelin deficiencies are hallmark features of multiple sclerosis, optic neuromyelitis, and some leukodystrophies. Recent studies have highlighted that MOLs are heterogeneous; however, how MOL subpopulations are specified and balanced in physiological settings is poorly understood. Previous works have demonstrated an essential role of the small GTPases R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 in the survival and myelination of oligodendrocytes. In this study, we aimed to determine how R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 contribute to the heterogeneity of MOL subpopulations. Our results evidence that R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 affect specification into the distinct subpopulations MOL1, MOL2, and MOL5/6, which in turn vary in their dependence of these GTPases. In R-Ras1 and/or R-Ras2 mutant mice, we observed an increase in the MOL1 subpopulation and a decrease in the MOL2 and MOL5/6 subpopulations. We identified R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 as key elements in balancing the heterogeneity of MOLs. Our results contribute to the understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the heterogeneity of MOLs and the myelination processes, which is crucial for innovating regenerative therapies for nervous system disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berta Alcover-Sanchez
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBM) CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Garcia-Martin
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBM) CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Víctor Paleo-García
- Departamento de Biología de Sistemas, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
- Grupo de Neurofisiología Visual, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Quintas
- Genomics Unit, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana Dopazo
- Genomics Unit, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Cardiovasculares Carlos III (CNIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Agnès Gruart
- Division of Neurosciences, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
| | | | - Pedro de la Villa
- Departamento de Biología de Sistemas, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, Spain
- Grupo de Neurofisiología Visual, Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria (IRYCIS), Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Wandosell
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBM) CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Alzheimer's Disease and Other Degenerative Dementias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta P Pereira
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBM) CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Universitario de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Cubelos
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa (CBM) CSIC, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
- Instituto Universitario de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Ishibashi S, Kamei N, Tsuchikawa Y, Nakamae T, Akimoto T, Miyaki S, Adachi N. Myelin-Specific microRNA-23a/b Cluster Deletion Inhibits Myelination in the Central Nervous System during Postnatal Growth and Aging. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:402. [PMID: 38674338 PMCID: PMC11049049 DOI: 10.3390/genes15040402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/23/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Microribonucleic acids (miRNAs) comprising miR-23a/b clusters, specifically miR-23a and miR-27a, are recognized for their divergent roles in myelination within the central nervous system. However, cluster-specific miRNA functions remain controversial as miRNAs within the same cluster have been suggested to function complementarily. This study aims to clarify the role of miR-23a/b clusters in myelination using mice with a miR-23a/b cluster deletion (KO mice), specifically in myelin expressing proteolipid protein (PLP). Inducible conditional KO mice were generated by crossing miR-23a/b clusterflox/flox mice with PlpCre-ERT2 mice; the offspring were injected with tamoxifen at 10 days or 10 weeks of age to induce a myelin-specific miR-23a/b cluster deletion. Evaluation was performed at 10 weeks or 12 months of age and compared with control mice that were not treated with tamoxifen. KO mice exhibit impaired motor function and hypoplastic myelin sheaths in the brain and spinal cord at 10 weeks and 12 months of age. Simultaneously, significant decreases in myelin basic protein (MBP) and PLP expression occur in KO mice. The percentages of oligodendrocyte precursors and mature oligodendrocytes are consistent between the KO and control mice. However, the proportion of oligodendrocytes expressing MBP is significantly lower in KO mice. Moreover, changes in protein expression occur in KO mice, with increased leucine zipper-like transcriptional regulator 1 expression, decreased R-RAS expression, and decreased phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinases. These findings highlight the significant influence of miR-23a/b clusters on myelination during postnatal growth and aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shigeki Ishibashi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan; (S.I.); (T.N.); (S.M.); (N.A.)
| | - Naosuke Kamei
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan; (S.I.); (T.N.); (S.M.); (N.A.)
| | - Yuji Tsuchikawa
- Orthopedics and Micro-Surgical Spine Center, Hiroshima City North Medical Center Asa Citizens Hospital, Hiroshima 731-0293, Japan;
| | - Toshio Nakamae
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan; (S.I.); (T.N.); (S.M.); (N.A.)
| | - Takayuki Akimoto
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa 359-1192, Japan;
| | - Shigeru Miyaki
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan; (S.I.); (T.N.); (S.M.); (N.A.)
- Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan
| | - Nobuo Adachi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 734-8551, Japan; (S.I.); (T.N.); (S.M.); (N.A.)
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Tsuchikawa Y, Kamei N, Sanada Y, Nakamae T, Harada T, Imaizumi K, Akimoto T, Miyaki S, Adachi N. Deficiency of MicroRNA-23-27-24 Clusters Exhibits the Impairment of Myelination in the Central Nervous System. Neural Plast 2023; 2023:8938674. [PMID: 37006814 PMCID: PMC10060068 DOI: 10.1155/2023/8938674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Several microRNAs (miRNAs), including miR-23 and miR-27a have been reportedly involved in regulating myelination in the central nervous system. Although miR-23 and miR-27a form clusters in vivo and the clustered miRNAs are known to perform complementary functions, the role of these miRNA clusters in myelination has not been studied. To investigate the role of miR-23-27-24 clusters in myelination, we generated miR-23-27-24 cluster knockout mice and evaluated myelination in the brain and spinal cord. Our results showed that 10-week-old knockout mice had reduced motor function in the hanging wire test compared to the wild-type mice. At 4 weeks, 10 weeks, and 12 months of age, knockout mice showed reduced myelination compared to wild-type mice. The expression levels of myelin basic protein and myelin proteolipid protein were also significantly lower in the knockout mice compared to the wild-type mice. Although differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells to oligodendrocytes was not inhibited in the knockout mice, the percentage of oligodendrocytes expressing myelin basic protein was significantly lower in 4-week-old knockout mice than that in wild-type mice. Proteome analysis and western blotting showed increased expression of leucine-zipper-like transcription regulator 1 (LZTR1) and decreased expression of R-RAS and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (pERK1/2) in the knockout mice. In summary, loss of miR-23-27-24 clusters reduces myelination and compromises motor functions in mice. Further, LZTR1, which regulates R-RAS upstream of the ERK1/2 pathway, a signal that promotes myelination, has been identified as a novel target of the miR-23-27-24 cluster in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuji Tsuchikawa
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Naosuke Kamei
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Yohei Sanada
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
- Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Toshio Nakamae
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Takahiro Harada
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Kazunori Imaizumi
- Department of Biochemistry, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Takayuki Akimoto
- Faculty of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa 3591192, Japan
| | - Shigeru Miyaki
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
- Medical Center for Translational and Clinical Research, Hiroshima University Hospital, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
| | - Nobuo Adachi
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Graduate School of Biomedical and Health Sciences, Hiroshima University, Hiroshima 7348551, Japan
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Restoring Age-Related Cognitive Decline through Environmental Enrichment: A Transcriptomic Approach. Cells 2022; 11:cells11233864. [PMID: 36497123 PMCID: PMC9736066 DOI: 10.3390/cells11233864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Cognitive decline is one of the greatest health threats of old age and the maintenance of optimal brain function across a lifespan remains a big challenge. The hippocampus is considered particularly vulnerable but there is cross-species consensus that its functional integrity benefits from the early and continuous exercise of demanding physical, social and mental activities, also referred to as environmental enrichment (EE). Here, we investigated the extent to which late-onset EE can improve the already-impaired cognitive abilities of lifelong deprived C57BL/6 mice and how it affects gene expression in the hippocampus. To this end, 5- and 24-month-old mice housed in standard cages (5mSC and 24mSC) and 24-month-old mice exposed to EE in the last 2 months of their life (24mEE) were subjected to a Barnes maze task followed by next-generation RNA sequencing of the hippocampal tissue. Our analyses showed that late-onset EE was able to restore deficits in spatial learning and short-term memory in 24-month-old mice. These positive cognitive effects were reflected by specific changes in the hippocampal transcriptome, where late-onset EE affected transcription much more than age (24mSC vs. 24mEE: 1311 DEGs, 24mSC vs. 5mSC: 860 DEGs). Remarkably, a small intersection of 72 age-related DEGs was counter-regulated by late-onset EE. Of these, Bcl3, Cttnbp2, Diexf, Esr2, Grb10, Il4ra, Inhba, Rras2, Rps6ka1 and Socs3 appear to be particularly relevant as key regulators involved in dendritic spine plasticity and in age-relevant molecular signaling cascades mediating senescence, insulin resistance, apoptosis and tissue regeneration. In summary, our observations suggest that the brains of aged mice in standard cage housing preserve a considerable degree of plasticity. Switching them to EE proved to be a promising and non-pharmacological intervention against cognitive decline.
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6
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Bajia D, Bottani E, Derwich K. Effects of Noonan Syndrome-Germline Mutations on Mitochondria and Energy Metabolism. Cells 2022; 11:cells11193099. [PMID: 36231062 PMCID: PMC9563972 DOI: 10.3390/cells11193099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Noonan syndrome (NS) and related Noonan syndrome with multiple lentigines (NSML) contribute to the pathogenesis of human diseases in the RASopathy family. This family of genetic disorders constitute one of the largest groups of developmental disorders with variable penetrance and severity, associated with distinctive congenital disabilities, including facial features, cardiopathies, growth and skeletal abnormalities, developmental delay/mental retardation, and tumor predisposition. NS was first clinically described decades ago, and several genes have since been identified, providing a molecular foundation to understand their physiopathology and identify targets for therapeutic strategies. These genes encode proteins that participate in, or regulate, RAS/MAPK signalling. The RAS pathway regulates cellular metabolism by controlling mitochondrial homeostasis, dynamics, and energy production; however, little is known about the role of mitochondrial metabolism in NS and NSML. This manuscript comprehensively reviews the most frequently mutated genes responsible for NS and NSML, covering their role in the current knowledge of cellular signalling pathways, and focuses on the pathophysiological outcomes on mitochondria and energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donald Bajia
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Transplantology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Ul. Fredry 10, 61701 Poznan, Poland
| | - Emanuela Bottani
- Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, Section of Pharmacology, University of Verona, Piazzale L. A. Scuro 10, 37134 Verona, Italy
- Correspondence: (E.B.); (K.D.); Tel.: +39-3337149584 (E.B.); +48-504199285 (K.D.)
| | - Katarzyna Derwich
- Department of Pediatric Oncology, Hematology and Transplantology, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Ul. Fredry 10, 61701 Poznan, Poland
- Correspondence: (E.B.); (K.D.); Tel.: +39-3337149584 (E.B.); +48-504199285 (K.D.)
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Garcia-Martin G, Alcover-Sanchez B, Wandosell F, Cubelos B. Pathways Involved in Remyelination after Cerebral Ischemia. Curr Neuropharmacol 2022; 20:751-765. [PMID: 34151767 PMCID: PMC9878953 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x19666210610093658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain ischemia, also known as ischemic stroke, occurs when there is a lack of blood supply into the brain. When an ischemic insult appears, both neurons and glial cells can react in several ways that will determine the severity and prognosis. This high heterogeneity of responses has been a major obstacle in developing effective treatments or preventive methods for stroke. Although white matter pathophysiology has not been deeply assessed in stroke, its remodelling can greatly influence the clinical outcome and the disability degree. Oligodendrocytes, the unique cell type implied in CNS myelination, are sensible to ischemic damage. Loss of myelin sheaths can compromise axon survival, so new Oligodendrocyte Precursor Cells are required to restore brain function. Stroke can, therefore, enhance oligodendrogenesis to regenerate those new oligodendrocytes that will ensheath the damaged axons. Given that myelination is a highly complex process that requires coordination of multiple pathways such as Sonic Hedgehog, RTKs or Wnt/β-catenin, we will analyse new research highlighting their importance after brain ischemia. In addition, oligodendrocytes are not isolated cells inside the brain, but rather form part of a dynamic environment of interactions between neurons and glial cells. For this reason, we will put some context into how microglia and astrocytes react against stroke and influence oligodendrogenesis to highlight the relevance of remyelination in the ischemic brain. This will help to guide future studies to develop treatments focused on potentiating the ability of the brain to repair the damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Garcia-Martin
- Departamento de Biología Molecular and Centro Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Berta Alcover-Sanchez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular and Centro Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Wandosell
- Departamento de Biología Molecular and Centro Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Cubelos
- Departamento de Biología Molecular and Centro Biología Molecular “Severo Ochoa”, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain,Address correspondence to this author at the Departamento de Biología Molecular, Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Nicolás Cabrera 1, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; Tel: 34-91-1964561; Fax: 34-91-1964420; E-mail:
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Garcia-Martin G, Sanz-Rodriguez M, Alcover-Sanchez B, Pereira MP, Wandosell F, Cubelos B. R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 Expression in Anatomical Regions and Cell Types of the Central Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:978. [PMID: 35055164 PMCID: PMC8781598 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the optic nerve is one of the most myelinated tracts in the central nervous system (CNS), many myelin diseases affect the visual system. In this sense, our laboratory has recently reported that the GTPases R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 are essential for oligodendrocyte survival and maturation. Hypomyelination produced by the absence of one or both proteins triggers axonal degeneration and loss of visual and motor function. However, little is known about R-Ras specificity and other possible roles that they could play in the CNS. In this work, we describe how a lack of R-Ras1 and/or R-Ras2 could not be compensated by increased expression of the closely related R-Ras3 or classical Ras. We further studied R-Ras1 and R-Ras2 expression within different CNS anatomical regions, finding that both were more abundant in less-myelinated regions, suggesting their expression in non-oligodendroglial cells. Finally, using confocal immunostaining colocalization, we report for the first time that R-Ras2 is specifically expressed in neurons. Neither microglia nor astrocytes expressed R-Ras1 or R-Ras2. These results open a new avenue for the study of neuronal R-Ras2's contribution to the process of myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonzalo Garcia-Martin
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.G.-M.); (M.S.-R.); (B.A.-S.); (M.P.P.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Miriam Sanz-Rodriguez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.G.-M.); (M.S.-R.); (B.A.-S.); (M.P.P.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Berta Alcover-Sanchez
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.G.-M.); (M.S.-R.); (B.A.-S.); (M.P.P.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Marta P. Pereira
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.G.-M.); (M.S.-R.); (B.A.-S.); (M.P.P.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Francisco Wandosell
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
- Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Degenerative Dementias, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), 28031 Madrid, Spain
| | - Beatriz Cubelos
- Departamento de Biología Molecular, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain; (G.G.-M.); (M.S.-R.); (B.A.-S.); (M.P.P.)
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Madrid, Spain;
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