Neural mechanisms underlying urgent and evaluative behaviors: An fMRI study on the interaction of automatic and controlled processes

Decoding the dynamic perception of risk and speed using naturalistic stimuli: A multivariate, whole-brain analysis

Time-resolved decoding of speed and risk perception in car driving is important for understanding the perceptual processes related to driving safety. In this study, we used an fMRI-compatible trackball with naturalistic stimuli to record dynamic ratings of perceived risk and speed and investigated the degree to which different brain regions were able to decode these. We presented participants with first-person perspective videos of cars racing on the same course. These videos varied in terms of subjectively perceived speed and risk profiles, as determined during a behavioral pilot. During the fMRI experiment, participants used the trackball to dynamically rate subjective risk in a first and speed in a second session and assessed overall risk and speed after watching each video. A standard multivariate correlation analysis based on these ratings revealed sparse decodability in visual areas only for the risk ratings. In contrast, the dynamic rating-based correlation analysis uncovered frontal, visual, and temporal region activation for subjective risk and dorsal visual stream and temporal region activation for subjectively perceived speed. Interestingly, further analyses showed that the brain regions for decoding risk changed over time, whereas those for decoding speed remained constant. Overall, our results demonstrate the advantages of time-resolved decoding to help our understanding of the dynamic networks associated with decoding risk and speed perception in realistic driving scenarios.

Dual-Process Theory of Thought and Inhibitory Control: An ALE Meta-Analysis

The dual-process theory of thought rests on the co-existence of two different thinking modalities: a quick, automatic, and associative process opposed to a slow, thoughtful, and deliberative process. The increasing interest in determining the neural foundation of the dual-process distinction has yielded mixed results, also given the difficulty of applying the fMRI standard approach to tasks usually employed in the cognitive literature. We report an activation likelihood estimation (ALE) meta-analysis to investigate the neural foundation of the dual-process theory of thought. Eligible studies allowed for the identification of cerebral areas associated with dual-process theory-based tasks without differentiating between fast and slow thinking. The ALE algorithm converged on the medial frontal cortex, superior frontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, insula, and left inferior frontal gyrus. These structures partially overlap with the cerebral areas recurrently reported in the literature about the neural basis of the dual-process distinction, where the PARCS theory-based interpretation emphasizes the role of the right inferior gyrus. The results confirm the potential (but still almost unexplored) common ground between the dual-process literature and the cognitive control literature.

Impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors of the negative relationship between emotional intelligence and health-related risk-taking: evidence from a sample of university students

BACKGROUND

Better abilities in emotional intelligence (EI) have been linked to a decreased tendency to engage in health-related risk behaviour. However, the processes underlying this relationship are still unclear. The aim of this research was to examine the role of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward as mediating factors in the relationship between EI and health risk-taking.

METHODS

Two hundred and fifty participants (Mage = 23.60, age range = 18-59; SD = 6.67; 71.60% women) were assessed on ability EI levels, risk-taking in health contexts, impulsivity, and sensitivity to reward. Unlike previous studies in the literature, we employed a performance-based ability measure to assess EI (Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test, MSCEIT).

RESULTS

The results confirmed the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking and revealed the existence of a significant negative indirect effect of EI on health-risk taking through various dimensions of impulsivity and sensitivity to reward. EI abilities -particularly the ability to manage emotions- were associated with lower levels of impulsivity under positive and negative emotional states, a better management of the tendency towards sensation seeking, and a decreased emotional reactivity to rewards.

CONCLUSIONS

The present research provides a better understanding of the processes underlying the negative relationship between EI and health risk-taking. Our findings suggest that having higher levels of EI abilities would allow for a more objective evaluation of risk scenarios and a more appropriate and safer decision making through its influence on the levels of impulsivity and emotional reactivity to rewards. Practical implications, limitations, and future lines of research are discussed.

Building a healthy lifestyle: the role of emotional intelligence among Italian university students

Given the numerous evidence demonstrating the influence of emotions in engaging risky behaviors, it seems inevitable to consider new approaches that promote healthy lifestyles. This study examines the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) and unhealthy lifestyles among undergraduate university students in Southern Italy, since a correlation between EI and harmful health behaviors has been postulated. The present cross-sectional study was conducted among over 18-year-old university students using an online, anonymous, self-administered questionnaire. Socio-demographic characteristics, tobacco use, nicotine dependence, alcohol consumption, and skipping breakfast were investigated. Nearly a third of the sample were current smokers (30.9%). Problematic drinking was shown in 9.9% of the students. Almost one-fourth (23.1%) reported breakfast skipping ≥ 3 days a week. Emotional clarity and total EI scores were significantly lower in current smokers with moderate/high nicotine dependence. Problematic drinking revealed lower emotional clarity and total EI scores. Breakfast skippers showed lower emotional attention and total EI scores. The interconnectedness of unhealthy behaviors and the potential for one behavior to lead to or predict another were  also shown. The study findings provide useful insights to develop evidence-based strategies to empower the young adults to choose a health-promoting lifestyle. The figures suggest that emotional learning interventions could support this goal.

Visualizing risky situations induces a stronger neural response in brain areas associated with mental imagery and emotions than visualizing non-risky situations

In an fMRI study, we tested the prediction that visualizing risky situations induces a stronger neural response in brain areas associated with mental imagery and emotions than visualizing non-risky and more positive situations. We assumed that processing mental images that allow for "trying-out" the future has greater adaptive importance for risky than non-risky situations, because the former can generate severe negative outcomes. We identified several brain regions that were activated when participants produced images of risky situations and these regions overlap with brain areas engaged in visual, speech, and movement imagery. We also found that producing images of risky situations, in contrast to non-risky situations, was associated with increased neural activation in the insular cortex and cerebellum-the regions involved, among other functions, in emotional processing. Finally, we observed an increased BOLD signal in the cingulate gyrus associated with reward-based decision making and monitoring of decision outcomes. In summary, risky situations increased neural activation in brain areas involved in mental imagery, emotional processing, and decision making. These findings imply that the evaluation of everyday risky situations may be driven by emotional responses that result from mental imagery.

Task and Resting-State Functional Connectivity Predict Driving Violations

Aberrant driving behaviors cause accidents; however, there is a lack of understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying these behaviors. To address this issue, a task and resting-state functional connectivity was used to predict aberrant driving behavior and associated personality traits. The study included 29 right-handed participants with driving licenses issued for more than 1 year. During the functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment, participants first recorded their resting state and then watched a driving video while continuously rating the risk and speed on each block. Functional connectome-based predictive modeling was employed for whole brain tasks and resting-state functional connectivity to predict driving behavior (violation, error, and lapses), sensation-seeking, and impulsivity. Resting state and task-based functional connectivity were found to significantly predict driving violations, with resting state significantly predicting lapses and task-based functional connectivity showing a tendency to predict errors. Conversely, neither impulsivity nor sensation-seeking was associated with functional connectivity. The results suggest a significant association between aberrant driving behavior, but a nonsignificant association between impulsivity and sensation-seeking, and task-based or resting state functional connectivity. This could provide a deeper understanding of the neural processing underlying reckless driving that may ultimately be used to prevent accidents.

The relationship between self-reported ability emotional intelligence and risky driving behaviour: Consequences for accident and traffic ticket rate

Road safety represents one of the main public health issues worldwide, and risky driving behaviour is one of the most predominant factors in traffic road accidents. The primary objective of this research was to clarify the relationship between emotional intelligence (EI) abilities and the probability of engaging in risky behaviour during driving. Previous literature linking these constructs is limited, and research has yielded mixed findings. In the present study, 555 drivers from a Spanish community sample (M_age = 39.34, ranging from 18 to 79 years old; 49.19% women) were assessed on risky driving behaviour using the Dula Dangerous Driving Index while self-reported ability EI was measured using the Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale. Gender, age, and driving experience were controlled. The results of this study revealed that a higher self-reported ability EI, particularly the ability to regulate emotions, was related to a lower tendency to engage in risky driving behaviours. In turn, self-reported ability EI was negatively and indirectly related to the number of road accidents and traffic tickets through the mediating effect of risky driving. The regulation of emotions (via direct and indirect effect) and the appraisal of the emotions of others (via direct effect) were the EI abilities that better predicted the number of accidents and traffic tickets. We discuss the practical implications of these findings, along with suggested future lines of research.

Differences between risk perception and risk-taking are related to impulsivity levels

Background

Although there is broad agreement that perceived risks determine risk-taking behavior, previous research has shown that this association may not be as straightforward as expected. The main objective of this study was to investigate if the levels of impulsivity can explain part of these controversial findings.

Method

A total of 1579 participants (M_age = 23.06, from 18 to 60 years; 69.4% women) were assessed for levels of risk perception, risk-taking avoidance, and impulsivity.

Results

The results showed that while impulsivity was significantly and negatively related to both risk perception and risk-taking avoidance, the relationship with risk-taking avoidance was significantly stronger than with risk perception. The levels of impulsivity predicted risk-taking avoidance even when controlling for risk perception.

Conclusions

These findings indicate that impulsivity can differentially affect risk perception and risk-taking. We propose that the stronger influence of impulsivity on risk-taking is due to the greater reliance of risk-taking, compared with risk perception, on automatic processes guided by impulses and emotions.

Evidence on the Relationship Between Emotional Intelligence and Risk Behavior: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review

The aim of the present study was to carry out a qualitative and quantitative synthesis of the existing literature studying the relationship between emotional intelligence and risk behavior. We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of the scientific evidence available relating both constructs. Particular attention was paid to identifying possible differences in this relationship as a function of the different conceptualizations of EI and the risk domain. The study was conducted following the Cochrane and PRISMA guidelines. Our results revealed a significant negative relationship between EI and health-related risk behaviors. However, this relationship was not observed in other risk domains such as finance and gambling. The relationship between EI and risk behavior differed according to the risk domain studied, which supports the notion that risk is a domain-specific construct. The results associated with the health-related risk behaviors are consistent with existing literature about the positive impact of emotional abilities on the health domain. A more complete understanding of the emotional mechanisms that underlie risk behavior could help to establish action guidelines and improve programmes to prevent and reduce the negative effects of risk behavior on our society.

Social and Non-social Brain Areas in Risk Behaviour: The Role of Social Context

The human brain contains social areas that become active when interacting with another human. These are located in the ventral prefrontal and mediodorsal cortices, adjacent to areas involved in reward processing and cognitive control. Human behaviour is strongly influenced by the social context. This is particularly evident when observing greater risk propensity in the presence of a peer, particularly during adolescence and emerging adulthood. We explored the widely held view that enhanced risk propensity is the consequence of weak cognitive control. We used brain activity, estimated from EEG recordings in a sample of 114 emerging adult dyads whilst performing a risk perception task, to predict risk behaviour in a subsequent driving simulation task. Being with a peer reduced the ability to discriminate riskiness in images of traffic scenes, biased responses towards the perception of no-risk, and increased the rate of accidents in the driving simulation. Risk perception involved three sets of clusters showing activity only when being with a peer, only when being alone, and in both social contexts. Functional connectivity between the clusters accounted for the later driving simulation performance depending on the peer's presence. In the light of our findings, greater risk-taking, when a peer is present, seems to be triggered by the activation of a different, less efficient brain network for risk-processing.

Increased Neural Efficiency in Visual Word Recognition: Evidence from Alterations in Event-Related Potentials and Multiscale Entropy

Visual word recognition is a relatively effortless process, but recent research suggests the system involved is malleable, with evidence of increases in behavioural efficiency after prolonged lexical decision task (LDT) performance. However, the extent of neural changes has yet to be characterized in this context. The neural changes that occur could be related to a shift from initially effortful performance that is supported by control-related processing, to efficient task performance that is supported by domain-specific processing. To investigate this, we replicated the British Lexicon Project, and had participants complete 16 h of LDT over several days. We recorded electroencephalography (EEG) at three intervals to track neural change during LDT performance and assessed event-related potentials and brain signal complexity. We found that response times decreased during LDT performance, and there was evidence of neural change through N170, P200, N400, and late positive component (LPC) amplitudes across the EEG sessions, which suggested a shift from control-related to domain-specific processing. We also found widespread complexity decreases alongside localized increases, suggesting that processing became more efficient with specific increases in processing flexibility. Together, these findings suggest that neural processing becomes more efficient and optimized to support prolonged LDT performance.

A cross-cultural comparison of visual search strategies and response times in road hazard perception testing

Road hazard perception is considered the most prominent higher-order cognitive skill related to traffic-accident involvement. Regional cultures and social rules that govern acceptable behavior may influence drivers' interpretation of a traffic situation and, consequently, the correct identification of potentially hazardous situations. Here, we aimed to compare hazard perception skills among four European countries that differ in their traffic culture, policies to reduce traffic risks, and fatal crashes: Ukraine, Italy, Spain, and Sweden. We developed a static hazard perception test in which driving scenes with different levels of braking affordance were presented while drivers' gaze was recorded. The test required drivers to indicate the action they would undertake: to brake vs. to keep driving. We assessed 218 young adult drivers. Multilevel models revealed that the scenes' levels of braking affordance (i.e., road hazard) modulated drivers' behavior. As the levels of braking affordance increased, drivers' responses became faster and their gaze entropy decreased (i.e., visual search strategy became less erratic). The country of origin influenced these effects. Ukrainian drivers were the fastest and Swedish drivers were the slowest to respond. For all countries, the decrement in response times was less marked in the case of experienced drivers. Also, Spanish drivers showed the most structured (least erratic) visual search strategy, whereas the Italians had the most rigid (most constant) one. These results suggest that road hazard perception can be defined cross-culturally, with cultural factors (e.g., traffic climate, legislation) modulating response times and visual search strategies. Our results also support the idea that a multimodal assessment methodology is possible for mass testing of road hazard perception and its outcomes would be relevant to understand how different traffic cultures shape driving behavior.

Towards the next generation of LMRA instruments: the influence of generic and specific questions during risk assessment

Last minute risk assessment (LMRA) is a well-known work method to support employees' risk perception. However, little is known about the effectiveness of LMRA in providing this support. Here, we describe an eye-tracking experiment with which we attempted to gain more insight into the relationship between LMRA and risk perception and to assess the difference between generic and specific supporting questions. Employees from an international energy production and desalination company participated in this experiment by assessing photographs portraying a (staged) work situation and deciding whether it was safe enough to continue activities and which risk factors were present or absent. The results show a consistent interaction effect over several parameters between work experience and the type of supporting questions, indicating that generic and specific supporting questions should be considered complimentary to each other. Furthermore, the results revealed several other challenges concerning real-world application of the LMRA.

Risk proneness modulates the impact of impulsivity on brain functional connectivity

Impulsivity and sensation seeking are considered to be among the most important personality traits involved in risk-taking behavior. This study is focused on whether the association of these personality traits and brain functional connectivity depends on individuals' risk proneness. Risk proneness was assessed with the DOSPERT-30 scale and corroborated with performance in a motorcycle simulator. The associations of impulsivity- and sensation seeking-related traits with the between and within coupling of seven major brain functional networks, estimated from electroencefalograma (EEG) recordings, differ according to whether an individual is risk prone or not. In risk-prone individuals, (lack of) premeditation enhanced the coupling of the ventral attention and limbic networks. At the same time, emotion seeking increased the coupling of the frontoparietal network and the default mode networks (DMNs). Finally, (lack of) perseverance had a positive impact on the coupling of anterior temporal nodes of the limbic network whilst having a negative impact on some frontal nodes of the frontoparietal network and the DMNs. In general, the results suggest that the predisposition to behave riskily modulates the way in which impulsivity traits are linked to brain functionality, seemingly making the brain networks prepare for an immediate, automatic, and maladaptive response.

Neural correlates of risk perception as a function of risk level: An approach to the study of risk through a daily life task

We are often required to make decisions that can have safe or risky consequences. Evaluating the risk of each possible alternative is an important step before making our final decision. The main goal of the present research was to explore the neural basis of risk perception in a naturalistic context (driving). Twenty-two drivers evaluated the perceived risk in 72 traffic situations (previously categorized by driving instructors) while brain activity was recorded using fMRI. A neural network involving attentional factors, emotional processing, stimulus-response associations, and risk aversion was related to the perception of risks. Given the nature of our task, a more prominent role was played by emotional factors (evaluation of the consequences) than cognitive factors (e.g. probabilistic calculations). Moreover, activation in the insula, inferior frontal gyrus, precentral/postcentral gyrus, inferior parietal gyrus, and temporal and occipital regions linearly increased as a function of risk level. Our findings provide a new step towards understanding the neural processing underlying risk behavior in daily life tasks, which is particularly relevant given the study context and its important practical implications for our society.

Relationship Between Kinematic and Physiological Indices During Braking Events of Different Intensities

Objective To study the relationship between physiological indices and kinematic indices during braking events of different intensities. Background Based on mental workload theory, driving and other task demands may generate changes in physiological indices, such as the driver's heart rate and skin conductance. However, no attempts were made to associate changes in physiological indices with changes in vehicle kinematics that result from the driver attempts to meet task demands. Method Twenty-five drivers participated in a field experiment. We manipulated braking demands using roadside signs to communicate the speed (km/h) before braking (50 or 60) and the target speed for braking (30 or to a complete stop). In an additional session, we asked drivers to brake as if they were responding to an impending collision. We analyzed the relationship between the intensities of braking events as measured by deceleration values (g) and changes in heart rate, heart rate variability, and skin conductance. Results All physiological indices were associated with deceleration intensity. Especially salient were the differences in physiological indices between the intensive (|g| > 0.5) and nonintensive braking events. The strongest relationship was between braking intensity and skin conductance. Conclusions Skin conductance, heart rate, and heart rate variability can mirror the mental workload elicited by varying braking intensities. Application Associating vehicle kinematics with physiological indices related to short-term driving events may help improve the performance of driver assistance systems.

The relationship between voxel-based metrics of resting state functional connectivity and cognitive performance in cognitively healthy elderly adults

In previous studies, resting-state functional connectivity (FC) metrics of specific brain regions or networks based on prior hypotheses have been correlated with cognitive performance. Without constraining our analyses to specific regions or networks, we employed whole-brain voxel-based weighted degree (WD), a measure of local FC strength, to be correlated with three commonly used neuropsychological assessments of language, executive function and memory retrieval in both positive and negative directions in 67 cognitively healthy elderly adults. We also divided voxel-based WD into short-ranged and long-ranged WDs to evaluate the influence of FC distance on the WD-cognition relationship, and performed three validation tests. Our results showed that for language and executive function tests, positive WD correlates were located in the frontal and temporal cortices, and negative WD correlates in the precuneus and occipital cortices; for memory retrieval, positive WD correlates were located in the inferior temporal cortices, and negative WD correlates in the anterior cingulate cortices and supplementary motor areas. An FC-distance-dependent effect was also observed, with the short-ranged WD correlates of language and executive function tests located in the medial brain regions and the long-ranged WD correlates in the lateral regions. Our findings suggest that inter-individual differences in FC at rest are predictive of cognitive ability in the elderly adults. Moreover, the distinct patterns of positive and negative WD correlates of cognitive performance recapitulate the dichotomy between task-activated and task-deactivated neural systems, implying that a competition between distinct neural systems on functional network topology may have cognitive relevance.

Performance on emotional tasks engaging cognitive control depends on emotional intelligence abilities: an ERP study

Cognitive control is a key process in decision making and adequately adapting our behavior to the environment. Previous studies have provided evidence of a lower capacity for cognitive control in emotion-laden contexts in comparison with neutral contexts. The aim of the present research was to study changes in cognitive control performance as a function of emotional intelligence (EI) level in contexts involving emotional information. The study sample was composed of 2 groups of 22 participants each: the high and low EI group. Participants carried out an emotional go/no-go task while brain activity was recorded by EEG. N2 and P3 ERPs were used as indices of cognitive control processing. Participants with higher EI showed a larger N2, reflecting a greater capacity for cognitive control related to changes in conflict monitoring, and to a better detection and evaluation of the emotional stimuli. Moreover, in general, response inhibition accuracy was reduced when emotional information was involved in this process. Our findings reveal that neural mechanisms underlying tasks that engage cognitive control depend on emotional content and EI level. This study indicates the important role played by EI in the relationship between emotion and cognition. EI training may be a very useful tool for improving performance in emotion-laden contexts.

Using negative emotional feedback to modify risky behavior of young moped riders

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this research was to investigate whether the use of messages with negative emotional content is effective in promoting safe behavior of moped riders and how exactly these messages modulate rider behavior.

METHODS

Participants received negative feedback when performing risky behaviors using a computer task. The effectiveness of this treatment was subsequently tested in a riding simulator.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated how riders receiving negative feedback had a lower number of traffic accidents than a control group. The reduction in accidents was accompanied by a set of changes in the riding behavior. We observed a lower average speed and greater respect for speed limits. Furthermore, analysis of the steering wheel variance, throttle variance, and average braking force provided evidence for a more even and homogenous riding style. This greater abidance of traffic regulations and friendlier riding style could explain some of the causes behind the reduction in accidents.

CONCLUSIONS

The use of negative emotional feedback in driving schools or advanced rider assistance systems could enhance riding performance, making riders aware of unsafe practices and helping them to establish more accurate riding habits. Moreover, the combination of riding simulators and feedback-for example, in the training of novice riders and traffic offenders-could be an efficient tool to improve their hazard perception skills and promote safer behaviors.

Modifying Evaluations and Decisions in Risky Situations

The main aim of this research was to investigate the decision making process in risky situations. We studied how different types of feedback on risky driving behaviors modulate risk evaluation and risk-taking. For a set of risky traffic situations, participants had to make evaluative judgments (judge the situation as risky or not) and urgent decisions (brake or not). In Experiment 1, participants received feedback with and without negative emotional content when they made risky behaviors. In Experiment 2 we investigated the independent effects of feedback and negative emotional stimuli. The results showed three important findings: First, urgent decisions were faster [F(1, 92) = 6.76, p = .01] and more cautious [F(1, 92) = 17.16, p < .001] than evaluative judgments. These results suggest that evaluative judgments of risk and actual risk-taking may not always coincide, and that they seem to be controlled by two different processing systems as proposed by dual process theories. Second, feedback made participants' responses even faster [F(1, 111) = 71.53, p < .001], allowing greater risk sensitivity [F(1, 111) = 22.12, p < .001] and skewing towards more cautious responses [F(1, 111) = 14.09, p < .001]. Finally, emotional stimuli had an effect only when they were presented as feedback. The results of this research increase our understanding of the processes involved in risky driving behavior and suggest efficient ways to control risk taking through the use of feedback.