1
|
Hunter SK, S Angadi S, Bhargava A, Harper J, Hirschberg AL, D Levine B, L Moreau K, J Nokoff N, Stachenfeld NS, Bermon S. The Biological Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance: Consensus Statement for the American College of Sports Medicine. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:2328-2360. [PMID: 37772882 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Biological sex is a primary determinant of athletic performance because of fundamental sex differences in anatomy and physiology dictated by sex chromosomes and sex hormones. Adult men are typically stronger, more powerful, and faster than women of similar age and training status. Thus, for athletic events and sports relying on endurance, muscle strength, speed, and power, males typically outperform females by 10%-30% depending on the requirements of the event. These sex differences in performance emerge with the onset of puberty and coincide with the increase in endogenous sex steroid hormones, in particular testosterone in males, which increases 30-fold by adulthood, but remains low in females. The primary goal of this consensus statement is to provide the latest scientific knowledge and mechanisms for the sex differences in athletic performance. This review highlights the differences in anatomy and physiology between males and females that are primary determinants of the sex differences in athletic performance and in response to exercise training, and the role of sex steroid hormones (particularly testosterone and estradiol). We also identify historical and nonphysiological factors that influence the sex differences in performance. Finally, we identify gaps in the knowledge of sex differences in athletic performance and the underlying mechanisms, providing substantial opportunities for high-impact studies. A major step toward closing the knowledge gap is to include more and equitable numbers of women to that of men in mechanistic studies that determine any of the sex differences in response to an acute bout of exercise, exercise training, and athletic performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandra K Hunter
- Exercise Science Program, Department of Physical Therapy, and Athletic and Human Performance Center, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI
| | | | - Aditi Bhargava
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA
| | - Joanna Harper
- Loughborough University, Loughborough, UNITED KINGDOM
| | - Angelica Lindén Hirschberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, and Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SWEDEN
| | - Benjamin D Levine
- Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine, Texas Health Presbyterian Hospital Dallas, and the Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Cardiology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX
| | - Kerrie L Moreau
- Department of Medicine, Division of Geriatric Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, and Eastern Colorado Health Care System, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Aurora, CO
| | - Natalie J Nokoff
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Endocrinology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO
| | - Nina S Stachenfeld
- The John B. Pierce Laboratory and Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Sciences, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Stéphane Bermon
- Health and Science Department, World Athletics, Monaco and the LAMHESS, University Côte d'Azur, Nice, FRANCE
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Delli Paoli E, Di Chiano S, Paoli D, Lenzi A, Lombardo F, Pallotti F. Androgen insensitivity syndrome: a review. J Endocrinol Invest 2023; 46:2237-2245. [PMID: 37300628 DOI: 10.1007/s40618-023-02127-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/31/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) is a disorder characterized by peripheral androgen resistance due to androgen receptor mutations in subjects with 46 XY karyotype. The severity of hormone resistance (complete, partial or mild) determines the wide spectrum of phenotypes. METHODS We performed a literature review on Pubmed focusing on etiopathogenesis, molecular alterations, and diagnostic-therapeutic management. RESULTS AIS is determined by a large variety of X-linked mutations that account for the wide phenotypic spectrum of subjects; it represents one of the most frequent disorders of sexual development (DSD). Clinical suspicion can arise at birth in partial AIS, due to the presence of variable degrees of ambiguity of the external genitalia, and at pubertal age in complete AIS, due to the development of female secondary sex characteristics, primary amenorrhea, and absence of female primary sex characteristics (uterus and ovaries). Laboratory tests showing elevated LH and testosterone levels despite mild or absent virilization may be helpful, but diagnosis can be achieved only after genetic testing (karyotype examination and androgen receptor sequencing). The clinical phenotype and especially the decision on sex assignment of the patient, if the diagnosis is made at birth or in the neonatal period, will guide the following medical, surgical and psychological management. CONCLUSIONS For the management of AIS, a multidisciplinary team consisting of physicians, surgeons, and psychologists is highly recommended to support the patient and his/her family on gender identity choices and subsequent appropriate therapeutic decisions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Delli Paoli
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - S Di Chiano
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - D Paoli
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - A Lenzi
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - F Lombardo
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy
| | - F Pallotti
- Laboratory of Seminology‑Sperm Bank "Loredana Gandini", Department of Experimental Medicine, "Sapienza" University of Rome, Viale del Policlinico 155, 00161, Rome, Italy.
- Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University of Enna "Kore", Contrada Santa Panasia, 94100, Enna, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Moon S, Alsarkhi L, Lin TT, Inoue R, Tahiri A, Colson C, Cai W, Shirakawa J, Qian WJ, Zhao JY, El Ouaamari A. Transcriptome and secretome profiling of sensory neurons reveals sex differences in pathways relevant to insulin sensing and insulin secretion. FASEB J 2023; 37:e23185. [PMID: 37695721 PMCID: PMC10503313 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202300941r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Sensory neurons in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) convey somatosensory and metabolic cues to the central nervous system and release substances from stimulated terminal endings in peripheral organs. Sex-biased variations driven by the sex chromosome complement (XX and XY) have been implicated in the sensory-islet crosstalk. However, the molecular underpinnings of these male-female differences are not known. Here, we aim to characterize the molecular repertoire and the secretome profile of the lower thoracic spinal sensory neurons and to identify molecules with sex-biased insulin sensing- and/or insulin secretion-modulating activity that are encoded independently of circulating gonadal sex hormones. We used transcriptomics and proteomics to uncover differentially expressed genes and secreted molecules in lower thoracic T5-12 DRG sensory neurons derived from sexually immature 3-week-old male and female C57BL/6J mice. Comparative transcriptome and proteome analyses revealed differential gene expression and protein secretion in DRG neurons in males and females. The transcriptome analysis identified, among others, higher insulin signaling/sensing capabilities in female DRG neurons; secretome screening uncovered several sex-specific candidate molecules with potential regulatory functions in pancreatic β cells. Together, these data suggest a putative role of sensory interoception of insulin in the DRG-islet crosstalk with implications in sensory feedback loops in the regulation of β-cell activity in a sex-biased manner. Finally, we provide a valuable resource of molecular and secretory targets that can be leveraged for understanding insulin interoception and insulin secretion and inform the development of novel studies/approaches to fathom the role of the sensory-islet axis in the regulation of energy balance in males and females.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sohyun Moon
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Lamyaa Alsarkhi
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 01595, USA
| | - Tai-Tu Lin
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Ryota Inoue
- Laboratory of Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation (IMCR), Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Azeddine Tahiri
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 01595, USA
| | - Cecilia Colson
- The Child Health Institute of New Jersey, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey. New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Weikang Cai
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Jun Shirakawa
- Laboratory of Diabetes and Metabolic Disorders, Institute for Molecular and Cellular Regulation (IMCR), Gunma University, Maebashi, Japan
| | - Wei-Jun Qian
- Biological Sciences Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Jerry Yingtao Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, New York Institute of Technology College of Osteopathic Medicine, Old Westbury, NY 11568, USA
| | - Abdelfattah El Ouaamari
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 01595, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, New York Medical College, Valhalla, NY 01595, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Beltz AM, Demidenko MI, Wilson SJ, Berenbaum SA. Prenatal androgen influences on the brain: A review, critique, and illustration of research on congenital adrenal hyperplasia. J Neurosci Res 2023; 101:563-574. [PMID: 34139025 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Sex hormones, especially androgens, contribute to sex and gender differences in the brain and behavior. Organizational effects are particularly important because they are thought to be permanent, reflecting hormone exposure during sensitive periods of development. In human beings, they are often studied with natural experiments in which sex hormones are dissociated from other biopsychosocial aspects of development, such as genes and experiences. Indeed, the greatest evidence for organizational effects on sex differences in human behavior comes from studies of females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), who have heightened prenatal androgen exposure, female-typical rearing, and masculinized toy play, activity and career interests, spatial skills, and some personal characteristics. Interestingly, however, neuroimaging studies of females with CAH have revealed few neural mechanisms underlying these hormone-behavior links, with the exception of emotion processing; studies have instead shown reduced gray matter volumes and reduced white matter integrity most consistent with other disease-related processes. The goals of this narrative review are to: (a) describe methods for studying prenatal androgen influences, while offering a brief overview of behavioral outcomes; (b) provide a critical methodological review of neuroimaging research on females with CAH; (c) present an illustrative analysis that overcomes methodological limitations of previous work, focusing on person-specific neural reward networks (and their associations with sensation seeking) in women with CAH and their unaffected sisters in order to inform future research questions and approaches that are most likely to reveal organizational hormone effects on brain structure and function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriene M Beltz
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Stephen J Wilson
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Sheri A Berenbaum
- Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Guma E, Beauchamp A, Liu S, Levitis E, Clasen LS, Torres E, Blumenthal J, Lalonde F, Qiu LR, Hrncir H, MacKenzie-Graham A, Yang X, Arnold AP, Lerch JP, Raznahan A. A Cross-Species Neuroimaging Study of Sex Chromosome Dosage Effects on Human and Mouse Brain Anatomy. J Neurosci 2023; 43:1321-1333. [PMID: 36631267 PMCID: PMC9987571 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1761-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
All eutherian mammals show chromosomal sex determination with contrasting sex chromosome dosages (SCDs) between males (XY) and females (XX). Studies in transgenic mice and humans with sex chromosome trisomy (SCT) have revealed direct SCD effects on regional mammalian brain anatomy, but we lack a formal test for cross-species conservation of these effects. Here, we develop a harmonized framework for comparative structural neuroimaging and apply this to systematically profile SCD effects on regional brain anatomy in both humans and mice by contrasting groups with SCT (XXY and XYY) versus XY controls. Total brain size was substantially altered by SCT in humans (significantly decreased by XXY and increased by XYY), but not in mice. Robust and spatially convergent effects of XXY and XYY on regional brain volume were observed in humans, but not mice, when controlling for global volume differences. However, mice do show subtle effects of XXY and XYY on regional volume, although there is not a general spatial convergence in these effects within mice or between species. Notwithstanding this general lack of conservation in SCT effects, we detect several brain regions that show overlapping effects of XXY and XYY both within and between species (cerebellar, parietal, and orbitofrontal cortex), thereby nominating high priority targets for future translational dissection of SCD effects on the mammalian brain. Our study introduces a generalizable framework for comparative neuroimaging in humans and mice and applies this to achieve a cross-species comparison of SCD effects on the mammalian brain through the lens of SCT.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sex chromosome dosage (SCD) affects neuroanatomy and risk for psychopathology in humans. Performing mechanistic studies in the human brain is challenging but possible in mouse models. Here, we develop a framework for cross-species neuroimaging analysis and use this to show that an added X- or Y-chromosome significantly alters human brain anatomy but has muted effects in the mouse brain. However, we do find evidence for conserved cross-species impact of an added chromosome in the fronto-parietal cortices and cerebellum, which point to regions for future mechanistic dissection of sex chromosome dosage effects on brain development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Guma
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Antoine Beauchamp
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
| | - Siyuan Liu
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Elizabeth Levitis
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Liv S. Clasen
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Erin Torres
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Jonathan Blumenthal
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Francois Lalonde
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| | - Lily R. Qiu
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
| | - Haley Hrncir
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Allan MacKenzie-Graham
- Department of Neurology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Xia Yang
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Arthur P. Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095
| | - Jason P. Lerch
- Mouse Imaging Centre, Toronto, Ontario M5T 3H7, Canada
- The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1X8, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5G 1L7, Canada
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, OX3 9DU, United Kingdom
| | - Armin Raznahan
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, Bethesda, 20892, Maryland
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Ferguson CJ. The American psychological Association's practice guidelines for men and boys: Are they hurting rather than helping male mental wellness? NEW IDEAS IN PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.newideapsych.2022.100984] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
|
7
|
Skorska MN, Lobaugh NJ, Lombardo MV, van Bruggen N, Chavez S, Thurston LT, Aitken M, Zucker KJ, Chakravarty MM, Lai MC, VanderLaan DP. Inter-Network Brain Functional Connectivity in Adolescents Assigned Female at Birth Who Experience Gender Dysphoria. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:903058. [PMID: 35937791 PMCID: PMC9353716 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.903058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Gender dysphoria (GD) is characterized by distress due to an incongruence between experienced gender and sex assigned at birth. Brain functional connectivity in adolescents who experience GD may be associated with experienced gender (vs. assigned sex) and/or brain networks implicated in own-body perception. Furthermore, sexual orientation may be related to brain functional organization given commonalities in developmental mechanisms proposed to underpin GD and same-sex attractions. Here, we applied group independent component analysis to resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) BOLD timeseries data to estimate inter-network (i.e., between independent components) timeseries correlations, representing functional connectivity, in 17 GD adolescents assigned female at birth (AFAB) not receiving gender-affirming hormone therapy, 17 cisgender girls, and 15 cisgender boys (ages 12-17 years). Sexual orientation was represented by degree of androphilia-gynephilia and sexual attractions strength. Multivariate partial least squares analyses found that functional connectivity differed among cisgender boys, cisgender girls, and GD AFAB, with the largest difference between cisgender boys and GD AFAB. Regarding sexual orientation and age, the brain's intrinsic functional organization of GD AFAB was both similar to and different from cisgender girls, and both differed from cisgender boys. The pattern of group differences and the networks involved aligned with the hypothesis that brain functional organization is different among GD AFAB (vs. cisgender) adolescents, and certain aspects of this organization relate to brain areas implicated in own-body perception and self-referential thinking. Overall, brain functional organization of GD AFAB was generally more similar to that of cisgender girls than cisgender boys.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Malvina N. Skorska
- Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Nancy J. Lobaugh
- Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Michael V. Lombardo
- Laboratory for Autism and Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems @UniTn, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Rovereto, Italy
| | - Nina van Bruggen
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Sofia Chavez
- Brain Health Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Lindsey T. Thurston
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| | - Madison Aitken
- Department of Psychiatry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Kenneth J. Zucker
- Department of Psychiatry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - M. Mallar Chakravarty
- Cerebral Imaging Centre, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, PQ, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, PQ, Canada
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, PQ, Canada
| | - Meng-Chuan Lai
- Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- The Margaret and Wallace McCain Centre for Child, Youth & Family Mental Health and Azrieli Adult Neurodevelopmental Centre, Campbell Family Mental Health Research Institute, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry and Autism Research Unit, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychiatry, National Taiwan University Hospital and College of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
- Autism Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Doug P. VanderLaan
- Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Alex AM, Ruvio T, Xia K, Jha SC, Girault JB, Wang L, Li G, Shen D, Cornea E, Styner MA, Gilmore JH, Knickmeyer RC. Influence of gonadal steroids on cortical surface area in infancy. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:3206-3223. [PMID: 34952542 PMCID: PMC9340392 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Sex differences in the human brain emerge as early as mid-gestation and have been linked to sex hormones, particularly testosterone. Here, we analyzed the influence of markers of early sex hormone exposure (polygenic risk score (PRS) for testosterone, salivary testosterone, number of CAG repeats, digit ratios, and PRS for estradiol) on the growth pattern of cortical surface area in a longitudinal cohort of 722 infants. We found PRS for testosterone and right-hand digit ratio to be significantly associated with surface area, but only in females. PRS for testosterone at the most stringent P value threshold was positively associated with surface area development over time. Higher right-hand digit ratio, which is indicative of low prenatal testosterone levels, was negatively related to surface area in females. The current work suggests that variation in testosterone levels during both the prenatal and postnatal period may contribute to cortical surface area development in female infants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ann Mary Alex
- Neuroengineering Division, Institute for Quantitative Health Sciences and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Tom Ruvio
- Neuroengineering Division, Institute for Quantitative Health Sciences and Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Kai Xia
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Shaili C Jha
- Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Jessica B Girault
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Gang Li
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Research Imaging Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Dinggang Shen
- School of Biomedical Engineering, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
- Department of Artificial Intelligence, Korea University, Seoul 02841, Republic of Korea
| | - Emil Cornea
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Martin A Styner
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
- Department of Computer Science, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - John H Gilmore
- Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
| | - Rebecca C Knickmeyer
- Address correspondence to Rebecca C. Knickmeyer, Institute for Quantitative Health Science and Engineering, 775 Woodlot Dr, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
National Gender Equality and AR CAG Repeats Among Resident Males. EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40806-022-00332-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
|
10
|
Bakker J. The role of steroid hormones in the sexual differentiation of the human brain. J Neuroendocrinol 2022; 34:e13050. [PMID: 34708466 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Revised: 09/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Widespread sex differences in human brain structure and function have been reported. Research on animal models has demonstrated that sex differences in brain and behavior are induced by steroid hormones during specific, hormone sensitive, developmental periods. It was shown that typical male neural and behavioral characteristics develop under the influence of testosterone, mostly acting during perinatal development. By contrast, typical female neural and behavioral characteristics may actually develop under the influence of estradiol during a specific prepubertal period. This review provides an overview of our current knowledge on the role of steroid hormones in the sexual differentiation of the human brain. Both clinical and neuroimaging data obtained in patients with altered androgen levels/actions (i.e., congenital adrenal hyperplasia or complete androgen insensitivity syndrome [CAIS]), point to an important role of (prenatal) androgens in inducing typical male neural and psychosexual characteristics in humans. In contrast to rodents, there appears to be no obvious role for estrogens in masculinizing the human brain. Furthermore, data from CAIS also suggest a contribution of sex chromosome genes to the development of the human brain. The final part of this review is dedicated to a brief discussion of gender incongruence, also known as gender dysphoria, which has been associated with an altered or less pronounced sexual differentiation of the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Julie Bakker
- Neuroendocrinology, GIGA Neurosciences, Liège University, Liege, Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Gata-Garcia A, Porat A, Brimberg L, Volpe BT, Huerta PT, Diamond B. Contributions of Sex Chromosomes and Gonadal Hormones to the Male Bias in a Maternal Antibody-Induced Model of Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Neurol 2021; 12:721108. [PMID: 34721260 PMCID: PMC8548617 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.721108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a group of neurodevelopmental conditions that is four times more commonly diagnosed in males than females. While susceptibility genes located in the sex chromosomes have been identified in ASD, it is unclear whether they are sufficient to explain the male bias or whether gonadal hormones also play a key role. We evaluated the sex chromosomal and hormonal influences on the male bias in a murine model of ASD, in which mice are exposed in utero to a maternal antibody reactive to contactin-associated protein-like 2 (Caspr2), which was originally cloned from a mother of a child with ASD (termed C6 mice henceforth). In this model, only male mice are affected. We used the four-core-genotypes (FCG) model in which the Sry gene is deleted from the Y chromosome (Y−) and inserted into autosome 3 (TgSry). Thus, by combining the C6 and FCG models, we were able to differentiate the contributions of sex chromosomes and gonadal hormones to the development of fetal brain and adult behavioral phenotypes. We show that the presence of the Y chromosome, or lack of two X chromosomes, irrespective of gonadal sex, increased the susceptibility to C6-induced phenotypes including the abnormal growth of the developing fetal cerebral cortex, as well as a behavioral pattern of decreased open-field exploration in adult mice. Our results indicate that sex chromosomes are the main determinant of the male bias in the maternal C6-induced model of ASD. The less dominant hormonal effect may be due to modulation by sex chromosome genes of factors involved in gonadal hormone pathways in the brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Gata-Garcia
- Center for Autoimmune, Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States.,Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, United States
| | - Amit Porat
- Elmezzi Graduate School of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Lior Brimberg
- Center for Autoimmune, Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Bruce T Volpe
- Center for Autoimmune, Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Patricio T Huerta
- Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, United States.,Laboratory of Immune and Neural Networks, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States
| | - Betty Diamond
- Center for Autoimmune, Musculoskeletal and Hematopoietic Diseases, Institute of Molecular Medicine, Feinstein Institutes for Medical Research, Northwell Health, Manhasset, NY, United States.,Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, Hempstead, NY, United States
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Patisaul HB. REPRODUCTIVE TOXICOLOGY: Endocrine disruption and reproductive disorders: impacts on sexually dimorphic neuroendocrine pathways. Reproduction 2021; 162:F111-F130. [PMID: 33929341 PMCID: PMC8484365 DOI: 10.1530/rep-20-0596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We are all living with hundreds of anthropogenic chemicals in our bodies every day, a situation that threatens the reproductive health of present and future generations. This review focuses on endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs), both naturally occurring and man-made, and summarizes how they interfere with the neuroendocrine system to adversely impact pregnancy outcomes, semen quality, age at puberty, and other aspects of human reproductive health. While obvious malformations of the genitals and other reproductive organs are a clear sign of adverse reproductive health outcomes and injury to brain sexual differentiation, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis can be much more difficult to discern, particularly in humans. It is well-established that, over the course of development, gonadal hormones shape the vertebrate brain such that sex-specific reproductive physiology and behaviors emerge. Decades of work in neuroendocrinology have elucidated many of the discrete and often very short developmental windows across pre- and postnatal development in which this occurs. This has allowed toxicologists to probe how EDC exposures in these critical windows can permanently alter the structure and function of the HPG axis. This review includes a discussion of key EDC principles including how latency between exposure and the emergence of consequential health effects can be long, along with a summary of the most common and less well-understood EDC modes of action. Extensive examples of how EDCs are impacting human reproductive health, and evidence that they have the potential for multi-generational physiological and behavioral effects are also provided.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather B Patisaul
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Patisaul HB. Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and the neuroendocrine system: Beyond estrogen, androgen, and thyroid. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2021; 92:101-150. [PMID: 34452685 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Hundreds of anthropogenic chemicals occupy our bodies, a situation that threatens the health of present and future generations. This chapter focuses on endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs), both naturally occurring and man-made, that affect the neuroendocrine system to adversely impact health, with an emphasis on reproductive and metabolic pathways. The neuroendocrine system is highly sexually dimorphic and essential for maintaining homeostasis and appropriately responding to the environment. Comprising both neural and endocrine components, the neuroendocrine system is hormone sensitive throughout life and touches every organ system in the body. The integrative nature of the neuroendocrine system means that EDCs can have multi-system effects. Additionally, because gonadal hormones are essential for the sex-specific organization of numerous neuroendocrine pathways, endocrine disruption of this programming can lead to permanent deficits. Included in this review is a brief history of the neuroendocrine disruption field and a thorough discussion of the most common and less well understood neuroendocrine disruption modes of action. Also provided are extensive examples of how EDCs are likely contributing to neuroendocrine disorders such as obesity, and evidence that they have the potential for multi-generational effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Heather B Patisaul
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Human Health and the Environment, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Marino L, Messina A, S Acierno J, Phan-Hug F, J Niederländer N, Santoni F, La Rosa S, Pitteloud N. Testosterone-induced increase in libido in a patient with a loss-of-function mutation in the AR gene. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep 2021; 2021:EDM21-0031. [PMID: 34152287 PMCID: PMC8240814 DOI: 10.1530/edm-21-0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Complete androgen-insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), a disorder of sex development (46,XY DSD), is caused primarily by mutations in the androgen receptor (AR). Gonadectomy is recommended due to the increased risk of gonadoblastoma, however, surgical intervention is often followed by loss of libido. We present a 26-year-old patient with CAIS who underwent gonadectomy followed by a significant decrease in libido, which was improved with testosterone treatment but not with estradiol. Genetic testing was performed and followed by molecular characterization. We found that this patient carried a previously unidentified start loss mutation in the androgen receptor. This variant resulted in an N-terminal truncated protein with an intact DNA binding domain and was confirmed to be loss-of-function in vitro. This unique CAIS case and detailed functional studies raise intriguing questions regarding the relative roles of testosterone and estrogen in libido, and in particular, the potential non-genomic actions of androgens. LEARNING POINTS N-terminal truncation of androgen receptor can cause androgen-insensitivity syndrome. Surgical removal of testosterone-producing gonads can result in loss of libido. Libido may be improved with testosterone treatment but not with estradiol in some forms of CAIS. A previously unreported AR mutation - p.Glu2_Met190del (c.2T>C) - is found in a CAIS patient and results in blunted AR transcriptional activity under testosterone treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura Marino
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Andrea Messina
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - James S Acierno
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Franziska Phan-Hug
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas J Niederländer
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Federico Santoni
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Stefano La Rosa
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| | - Nelly Pitteloud
- Department of Service of Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Metabolism, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Vaud, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Bhargava A, Arnold AP, Bangasser DA, Denton KM, Gupta A, Hilliard Krause LM, Mayer EA, McCarthy M, Miller WL, Raznahan A, Verma R. Considering Sex as a Biological Variable in Basic and Clinical Studies: An Endocrine Society Scientific Statement. Endocr Rev 2021; 42:219-258. [PMID: 33704446 PMCID: PMC8348944 DOI: 10.1210/endrev/bnaa034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
In May 2014, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) stated its intent to "require applicants to consider sex as a biological variable (SABV) in the design and analysis of NIH-funded research involving animals and cells." Since then, proposed research plans that include animals routinely state that both sexes/genders will be used; however, in many instances, researchers and reviewers are at a loss about the issue of sex differences. Moreover, the terms sex and gender are used interchangeably by many researchers, further complicating the issue. In addition, the sex or gender of the researcher might influence study outcomes, especially those concerning behavioral studies, in both animals and humans. The act of observation may change the outcome (the "observer effect") and any experimental manipulation, no matter how well-controlled, is subject to it. This is nowhere more applicable than in physiology and behavior. The sex of established cultured cell lines is another issue, in addition to aneuploidy; chromosomal numbers can change as cells are passaged. Additionally, culture medium contains steroids, growth hormone, and insulin that might influence expression of various genes. These issues often are not taken into account, determined, or even considered. Issues pertaining to the "sex" of cultured cells are beyond the scope of this Statement. However, we will discuss the factors that influence sex and gender in both basic research (that using animal models) and clinical research (that involving human subjects), as well as in some areas of science where sex differences are routinely studied. Sex differences in baseline physiology and associated mechanisms form the foundation for understanding sex differences in diseases pathology, treatments, and outcomes. The purpose of this Statement is to highlight lessons learned, caveats, and what to consider when evaluating data pertaining to sex differences, using 3 areas of research as examples; it is not intended to serve as a guideline for research design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Bhargava
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Arthur P Arnold
- Department of Integrative Biology & Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Debra A Bangasser
- Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Program, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Kate M Denton
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Arpana Gupta
- G. Oppenheimer Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Lucinda M Hilliard Krause
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emeran A Mayer
- G. Oppenheimer Center for Neurobiology of Stress and Resilience, Division of Digestive Diseases, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Margaret McCarthy
- Department of Pharmacology and Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Walter L Miller
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Armin Raznahan
- Section on Developmental Neurogenomics, Human Genetics Branch, National Institutes of Mental Health, Intramural Research Program, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ragini Verma
- Diffusion and Connectomics In Precision Healthcare Research (DiCIPHR) lab, Department of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Abstract
Gender identity development is complex and involves several key processes. Transgender people experience incongruence between their biological and identified gender. This incongruence can cause significant impairment in overall functioning and lead to gender dysphoria (GD). The pathophysiology of GD is complex and is poorly understood. A PubMed search based on predetermined eligibility criteria was conducted to review neuropsychiatric articles focused on neurological, biological and neuroimaging aspects of gender development, transgender identity and GD. The information obtained from the literature was then used to formulize a GD model. Distinct gray matter volume and brain activation and connectivity differences were found in individuals with GD compared to controls, suggesting a neurobiological basis of GD; which leads to the concept of brain gender. Individuals with GD encounter a recurrent conflict between their brain gender and the societal feedback; which causes recurrent and ongoing cognitive dissonance, finally leading to GD and functional connectivity and activation changes in the transgender brain. GD has neurobiological basis, but it is closely associated with the individuals' interaction with the external world, their self-perception and the feedback received in return. We propose a novel model where the development of GD includes cognitive dissonance, involving anterior cingulate cortex and ventral striatum as the key brain structures. This model can be used to generate testable hypotheses using behavioral and neuroimaging techniques to understand the neuropsychobiology of GD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Murat Altinay
- Center for Behavioral Health, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue/P57, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA.
| | - Amit Anand
- Center for Behavioral Health, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue/P57, Cleveland, OH, 44195, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Bertelloni S, Tyutyusheva N, Valiani M, D'Alberton F, Baldinotti F, Caligo MA, Baroncelli GI, Peroni DG. Disorders/Differences of Sex Development Presenting in the Newborn With 46,XY Karyotype. Front Pediatr 2021; 9:627281. [PMID: 33968844 PMCID: PMC8100517 DOI: 10.3389/fped.2021.627281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Differences/disorders of sex development (DSD) are a heterogeneous group of congenital conditions, resulting in discordance between an individual's sex chromosomes, gonads, and/or anatomic sex. The management of a newborn with suspected 46,XY DSD remains challenging. Newborns with 46,XY DSD may present with several phenotypes ranging from babies with atypical genitalia or girls with inguinal herniae to boys with micropenis and cryptorchidism. A mismatch between prenatal karyotype and female phenotype is an increasing reason for presentation. Gender assignment should be avoided prior to expert evaluation and possibly until molecular diagnosis. The classic diagnostic approach is time and cost-consuming. Today, a different approach may be considered. The first line of investigations must exclude rare life-threatening diseases related to salt wasting crises. Then, the new genetic tests should be performed, yielding increased diagnostic performance. Focused imaging or endocrine studies should be performed on the basis of genetic results in order to reduce repeated and invasive investigations for a small baby. The challenge for health professionals will lie in integrating specific genetic information with better defined clinical and endocrine phenotypes and in terms of long-term evolution. Such advances will permit optimization of counseling of parents and sex assignment. In this regard, society has significantly changed its attitude to the acceptance and expansion beyond strict binary male and female sexes, at least in some countries or cultures. These management advances should result in better personalized care and better long-term quality of life of babies born with 46,XY DSD.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvano Bertelloni
- Paediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Nina Tyutyusheva
- Paediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Margherita Valiani
- Paediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Fulvia Baldinotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Pisana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Maria Adelaide Caligo
- Laboratory of Molecular Genetics, Azienda Ospedaliero Universitaria Pisana, Pisa, Italy
| | - Giampiero I Baroncelli
- Paediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | - Diego G Peroni
- Paediatric and Adolescent Endocrinology, Division of Pediatrics, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Arnold AP. Sexual differentiation of brain and other tissues: Five questions for the next 50 years. Horm Behav 2020; 120:104691. [PMID: 31991182 PMCID: PMC7440839 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2020.104691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This paper is part of the celebration of the 50th anniversary of founding of the journal Hormones and Behavior, the official journal of the Society for Behavioral Neuroendocrinology. All sex differences in phenotypic development stem from the sexual imbalance in X and Y chromosomes, which are the only known differences in XX and XY zygotes. The sex chromosome genes act within cells to cause differences in phenotypes of XX and XY cells throughout the body. In the gonad, they determine the type of gonad, leading to differences in secretion of testicular vs. ovarian hormones, which cause further sex differences in tissue function. These current ideas of sexual differentiation are briefly contrasted with a hormones-only view of sexual differentiation of the last century. The multiple, independent action of diverse sex-biasing agents means that sex-biased factors can be synergistic, increasing sex differences, or compensatory, making the two sexes more equal. Several animal models have been fruitful in demonstrating sex chromosome effects, and interactions with gonadal hormones. MRI studies of human brains demonstrate variation in brain structure associated with both differences in gonadal hormones, and in the number of X and Y chromosomes. Five unanswered questions are posed as a challenge to future investigators to improve understanding of sexual differentiation throughout the body.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arthur P Arnold
- Department Integrative Biology and Physiology, University of California, Los Angeles, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Wang D, Han L, Xi C, Xu Y, Lai J, Lu S, Huang M, Hu J, Wei N, Xu W, Zhou W, Lu Q, He H, Hu S. Interactive effects of gender and sexual orientation on cortical thickness, surface area and gray matter volume: a structural brain MRI study. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2020; 10:835-846. [PMID: 32355647 DOI: 10.21037/qims.2020.03.07] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Background Testosterone is thought to play a crucial role in sexual differentiation of the brain, and sexual orientation is programmed into our brain structures even when we are still fetuses. Although gender and sexual orientation differences have been shown respectively in many brain structures, the mechanism underlying the sexual differentiation of the brain is still unknown. The study is to investigate the interactive effects of gender and sexual orientation on cerebral structures in homosexual and heterosexual people. Methods Sexual orientation was evaluated by the Kinsey scale. We collected structural magnetic resonance image (MRI) data of local cortical thickness, surface area, and gray matter volume in all the subjects (29 homosexual and 29 heterosexual men, 17 homosexual and 17 heterosexual women). Statistical maps were generated using a general linear model (GLM) using FreeSurfer's Query, Design, Estimate, Contrast (QDEC) interface. We had sexual orientation and gender as 2 discrete factors with 2 levels, allowing for the generation of the interaction between sexual orientation and gender: homosexual women and heterosexual men versus heterosexual women and homosexual men. Coordinates were in Talairach space. All the cluster sizes were calculated with a P value of 0.01. Results Results revealed interactions concerning the area and gray matter volume between the factors of sexual orientation and gender. Regarding the thickness, an interaction was not found in any regions of the clusters. Regarding the area, an interaction was found in region of left middle temporal lobe, inferior temporal lobe, lateral occipital lobe, fusiform [(-58.1, -38.6, -14.7), maximum vertex-wise (MV) log10(P) =3.30, cluster size (CS) =1,286.90 mm2], and left rostral middle frontal lobe, pars opercularis, caudal middle frontal lobe [(-37.3, 23.6, 24.8), MV log10(P) =2.92, CS =1,194.40 mm2]. Regarding the gray matter volume, an interaction was found in the region of the left pars opercularis (inferior frontal gyrus) [(-42.9, 6.3, 18.5), MV log10(P) =1.31, CS =526.79 mm2]. Conclusions The present study extends our understandings of how structural features differ in homosexual men, heterosexual men, homosexual women, and heterosexual women. Furthermore, it highlights the interactions between sexual orientation and gender in the left inferior frontal gyrus, bilateral temporal lobe, and the right rostral anterior cingulate cortex, which are suggested to play a critical role in the sexual differentiation of the human brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dandan Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Lu Han
- Center for Brain Imaging Science and Technology, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrumental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Caixi Xi
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Yi Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Jianbo Lai
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Shaojia Lu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Manli Huang
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Jianbo Hu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Ning Wei
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Weijuan Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Weihua Zhou
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Qiaoqiao Lu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Hongjian He
- Center for Brain Imaging Science and Technology, Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of Education, College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrumental Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China
| | - Shaohua Hu
- Department of Psychiatry, First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou 310003, China.,The Key Laboratory of Mental Disorder Management in Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou 310003, China
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Wernicke J, Zabel JT, Zhang Y, Becker B, Montag C. Association between tendencies for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the 2D:4D digit ratio: a cross-cultural replication in Germany and China. Early Hum Dev 2020; 143:104943. [PMID: 32126477 DOI: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.104943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 12/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal testosterone is considered to be a possible factor contributing to the development of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptomatology, but findings regarding the connection between individual variations in prenatal testosterone exposure as (indirectly) indexed by the second-to-fourth digit (2D:4D) ratio and ADHD remain inconsistent. To clarify the inconsistent findings and to facilitate generalization on the association between subclinical variations in ADHD tendencies and lower 2D:4D ratios the current study applied a cross-cultural replication approach employing independent healthy adult cohorts from Germany and China. Samples from Germany and China were matched for gender and age (in each sample nmales = 96, nfemales = 96; ageGermany: M = 21.47, SD = 2.55; ageChina: M = 21.36, SD = 2.28). All participants filled in the Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale Symptom Checklist (ASRS) and provided hand scans to measure 2D:4D ratios. The German sample had significantly higher 2D:4D ratios than the Chinese sample but in both samples males had significantly lower 2D:4D ratios than females. The hypothesised negative association between 2D:4D ratios and ADHD tendencies was observed on a descriptive level in German and Chinese males and with one exception in Chinese females. But only in German males correlations gained significance (range: r = -0.198 to r = -0.177). The observed effect sizes are in line with former research that was conducted in samples from different cultures. In future research on the connection between testosterone and ADHD not only prenatal but also postnatal testosterone as well as possible moderators like childhood maltreatment should be taken into account.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Wernicke
- Department of Molecular Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany.
| | - Julia Tamara Zabel
- Department of Molecular Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Yingying Zhang
- Department of Molecular Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany
| | - Benjamin Becker
- The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| | - Christian Montag
- Department of Molecular Psychology, Institute of Psychology and Education, Ulm University, Ulm, Germany; The Clinical Hospital of Chengdu Brain Science Institute, MOE Key Laboratory for Neuroinformation, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Eklund E, Ekström L, Thörngren JO, Ericsson M, Berglund B, Hirschberg AL. Digit Ratio (2D:4D) and Physical Performance in Female Olympic Athletes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2020; 11:292. [PMID: 32528408 PMCID: PMC7247813 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2020.00292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The second to fourth digit ratio (2D:4D ratio) is suggested to be a negative correlate of prenatal testosterone. Little is known about the role of the 2D:4D ratio in relation to serum and urinary androgens for physical performance in female athletes. We aimed to compare the 2D:4D ratio in female Olympic athletes with sedentary controls, and to investigate the 2D:4D ratio in relation to serum and urinary androgens and physical performance in the athletes. Methods: This cross-sectional study included 104 Swedish female Olympic athletes participating in power, endurance and technical sports and 117 sedentary controls. The 2D:4D ratio was calculated using direct digit measurements. Serum androgens and urinary androgen metabolites were analyzed by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The athletes performed standardized physical performance tests and body composition was established by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results: The 2D:4D ratio was significantly lower in the athletes compared with controls although serum testosterone levels were comparable between groups and within normal reference values. The 2D:4D ratio correlated negatively with urinary levels of testosterone glucuronide and 5α- and 5βAdiol-17G, whereas there were no correlations to serum androgen levels. Furthermore, the 2D:4D ratio correlated negatively with strength tests and positively with 3,000-meter running in the athletes. Conclusion: Female Olympic athletes had a lower 2D:4D ratio, possibly reflecting a higher prenatal androgen exposure, than sedentary controls. Furthermore, the 2D:4D ratio was related to urinary levels of androgen metabolites and physical performance in the athletes but not to serum androgen levels. It is suggested that the 2D:4D ratio could reflect androgen metabolism and may be of importance for sporting success in female athletes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emma Eklund
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lena Ekström
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - John-Olof Thörngren
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magnus Ericsson
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bo Berglund
- Department of Internal Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Solna, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Angelica Lindén Hirschberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Sigurdardottir HL, Lanzenberger R, Kranz GS. Genetics of sex differences in neuroanatomy and function. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2020; 175:179-193. [PMID: 33008524 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64123-6.00013-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
Sex differences are observed at many distinct biologic levels, such as in the anatomy and functioning of the brain, behavior, and susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders. Previously, these differences were believed to entirely result from the secretion of gonadal hormones; however, recent research has demonstrated that differences are also the consequence of direct or nonhormonal effects of genes located on the sex chromosomes. This chapter reviews the four core genotype model that separates the effects of hormones and sex chromosomes and highlights a few genes that are believed to be partly responsible for sex dimorphism of the brain, in particular, the Sry gene. Genetics of the brain's neurochemistry is discussed and the susceptibility to certain neurologic and psychiatric disorders is reviewed. Lastly, we discuss the sex-specific genetic contribution in disorders of sexual development. The precise molecular mechanisms underlying these differences are currently not entirely known. An increased knowledge and understanding of the role of candidate genes will undeniably be of great aid in elucidating the molecular basis of sex-biased disorders and potentially allow for more sex-specific therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helen L Sigurdardottir
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Rupert Lanzenberger
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg S Kranz
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Department of Rehabilitation Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China; The State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People's Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Pearse RV, Young-Pearse TL. Lost in translational biology: Understanding sex differences to inform studies of diseases of the nervous system. Brain Res 2019; 1722:146352. [PMID: 31351977 PMCID: PMC6755063 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Female and male humans are different. As simple and obvious as that statement is, in biomedical research there has been an historical tendency to either not consider sex at all or to only use males in clinical and in preclinical model system studies. The result is a large volume of research that reflects the average biology and pathology of males even though we know that disease risk, presentation, and response to therapies can be different between females and males. This is true, albeit to differing degrees, for virtually all neurological and psychiatric diseases. However, the days of ignoring sex as a biological variable are over - both because of the realization that genetic sex impacts brain function, and because of the 2014 mandate by the U.S. National Institutes of Health that requires that "sex as a biological variable" be addressed in each grant application. This review is written for neuroscientists who may not have considered sex as a biological variable previously but who now are navigating the best way to adapt their research programs to consider this important biology. We first provide a brief overview of the evidence that male versus female differences in the brain are biologically and clinically meaningful. We then present some fundamental principles that have been forged by a dedicated but small group of ground-breaking researchers along with a description of tools and model systems for incorporating a sex differences component into a research project. Finally, we will highlight some key technologies that, in the coming years, are likely to provide critical information about sex differences in the human brain.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Richard V Pearse
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Tracy L Young-Pearse
- Ann Romney Center for Neurologic Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Parslow E, Ranehill E, Zethraeus N, Blomberg L, von Schoultz B, Hirschberg AL, Johannesson M, Dreber A. The digit ratio (2D:4D) and economic preferences: no robust associations in a sample of 330 women. JOURNAL OF THE ECONOMIC SCIENCE ASSOCIATION 2019; 5:149-169. [PMID: 31894199 PMCID: PMC6917633 DOI: 10.1007/s40881-019-00076-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Many studies report on the association between 2D:4D, a putative marker for prenatal testosterone exposure, and economic preferences. However, most of these studies have limited sample sizes and test multiple hypotheses (without preregistration). In this study we mainly replicate the common specifications found in the literature for the association between the 2D:4D ratio and risk taking, the willingness to compete, and dictator game giving separately. In a sample of 330 women we find no robust associations between any of these economic preferences and 2D:4D. We find no evidence of a statistically significant relation for 16 of the 18 total regressions we run. The two regression specifications which are statistically significant have not previously been reported and the associations are not in the expected direction, and therefore they are unlikely to represent a real effect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elle Parslow
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Eva Ranehill
- Department of Economics, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Niklas Zethraeus
- Department of Learning, Informatics, Management and Ethics, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Liselott Blomberg
- Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | - Bo von Schoultz
- Karolinska University Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, Solna, Sweden
| | | | - Magnus Johannesson
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Dreber
- Department of Economics, Stockholm School of Economics, P.O Box 6501, 11383 Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Economics, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Sala A, Malpetti M, Ferrulli A, Gianolli L, Luzi L, Perani D. High body mass index, brain metabolism and connectivity: an unfavorable effect in elderly females. Aging (Albany NY) 2019; 11:8573-8586. [PMID: 31600734 PMCID: PMC6814611 DOI: 10.18632/aging.102347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
There are reported gender differences in brain connectivity associated with obesity. In the elderlies, the neural endophenotypes of obesity are yet to be elucidated. We aim at exploring the brain metabolic and connectivity correlates to different BMI levels in elderly individuals, taking into account gender as variable of interest.We evaluated the association between BMI, brain metabolism and connectivity, in elderly females and males, by retrospectively collecting a large cohort of healthy elderly subjects (N=222; age=74.03±5.88 [61.2-85.9] years; M/F=115/107; BMI=27.00±4.02 [19.21-38.79] kg/m2). Subjects underwent positron emission tomography with [18F]FDG. We found that, in females, high BMI was associated with increased brain metabolism in the orbitofrontal cortex (R=0.44; p<0.001). A significant BMI-by-gender interaction was present (F=7.024, p=0.009). We also revealed an altered connectivity seeding from these orbitofrontal regions, namely expressing as a decreased connectivity in crucial control/decision making circuits, and as an abnormally elevated connectivity in reward circuits, only in females. Our findings support a link between high BMI and altered brain metabolism and neural connectivity, only in elderly females. These findings indicate a strong gender effect of high BMI and obesity that brings to considerations for medical practice and health policy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Sala
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- In vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Maura Malpetti
- In vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Anna Ferrulli
- Metabolism Research Center and Endocrinology and Metabolism Division, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, Milan, Italy
| | - Luigi Gianolli
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | - Livio Luzi
- Metabolism Research Center and Endocrinology and Metabolism Division, IRCCS Policlinico San Donato, Milan, Italy
- Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Perani
- Vita-Salute San Raffaele University, Milan, Italy
- In vivo Human Molecular and Structural Neuroimaging Unit, Division of Neuroscience, IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
- Nuclear Medicine Unit, IRCCS San Raffaele Hospital, Milan, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
Trait and state patterns of basolateral amygdala connectivity at rest are related to endogenous testosterone and aggression in healthy young women. Brain Imaging Behav 2019; 13:564-576. [PMID: 29744800 DOI: 10.1007/s11682-018-9884-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The steroid hormone testosterone (T) has been suggested to influence reactive aggression upon its action on the basolateral amygdala (BLA), a key brain region for threat detection. However, it is unclear whether T modulates resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC) of the BLA, and whether this predicts subsequent aggressive behavior. Aggressive interactions themselves, which often induce changes in T concentrations, could further alter BLA rsFC, but this too remains untested. Here we investigated the effect of endogenous T on rsFC of the BLA at baseline as well as after an aggressive encounter, and whether this was related to behavioral aggression in healthy young women (n = 39). Pre-scan T was negatively correlated with basal rsFC between BLA and left superior temporal gyrus (STG; p < .001, p < .05 Family-Wise Error [FWE] cluster-level corrected), which in turn was associated with increased aggression (r = .37, p = .020). BLA-STG coupling at rest might thus underlie hostile readiness in low-T women. In addition, connectivity between the BLA and the right superior parietal lobule (SPL), a brain region involved in higher-order perceptual processes, was reduced in aggressive participants (p < .001, p < .05 FWE cluster-level corrected). On the other hand, post-task increases in rsFC between BLA and medial orbitofrontal cortex (mOFC) were linked to reduced aggression (r = -.36, p = .023), consistent with the established notion that the mOFC regulates amygdala activity in order to curb aggressive impulses. Finally, competition-induced changes in T were associated with increased coupling between the BLA and the right lateral OFC (p < .001, p < .05 FWE cluster-level corrected), but this effect was unrelated to aggression. We thus identified connectivity patterns that prospectively predict aggression in women, and showed how aggressive interactions in turn impact these neural systems.
Collapse
|
27
|
Prenatal testosterone exposure is associated with delay of gratification and attention problems/overactive behavior in 3-year-old boys. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2019; 104:49-54. [PMID: 30802710 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2019.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences in self-control become apparent during preschool years. Girls are better able to delay their gratification and show less attention problems and overactive behavior than boys. In this context, organizational effects of gonadal steroids affecting the neural circuitry underlying self-control could be responsible for these early sex differences. In the present study testosterone levels measured in amniotic fluid (via ultra performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry) were used to examine the role of organizational sex hormones on self-control. One hundred and twenty-two 40-month-old children participated in a delay of gratification task (DoG task) and their parents reported on their attention problems and overactive behavior. Girls waited significantly longer for their preferred reward than boys, and significantly more girls than boys waited the maximum period of time, providing evidence for sex differences in delay of gratification. Boys that were rated as suffering from more attention problems and overactive behavior waited significantly shorter in the DoG task. Amniotic testosterone measures were reliable in boys only. Most importantly, boys who waited shorter in the DoG task and boys who were reported to suffer from more attention problems and overactive behavior had higher prenatal testosterone levels. These findings extend our knowledge concerning organizational effects of testosterone on the brain circuitry underlying self-control in boys, and are of relevance for understanding how sex differences in behavioral disorders are connected with a lack of self-control.
Collapse
|
28
|
Effects of age, sex, and puberty on neural efficiency of cognitive and motor control in adolescents. Brain Imaging Behav 2019; 14:1089-1107. [PMID: 30903550 DOI: 10.1007/s11682-019-00075-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Critical changes in adolescence involve brain cognitive maturation of inhibitory control processes that are essential for a myriad of adult functions. Cognitive control advances into adulthood as there is more flexible integration of component processes, including inhibitory control of conflicting information, overwriting inappropriate response tendencies, and amplifying relevant responses for accurate execution. Using a modified Stroop task with fMRI, we investigated the effects of age, sex, and puberty on brain functional correlates of cognitive and motor control in 87 boys and 91 girls across the adolescent age range. Results revealed dissociable brain systems for cognitive and motor control processes, whereby adolescents flexibly adapted neural responses to control demands. Specifically, when response repetitions facilitated planning-based action selection, frontoparietal-insular regions associated with cognitive control operations were less activated, whereas cortical-pallidal-cerebellar motor regions associated with motor skill acquisition, were more activated. Attenuated middle cingulate cortex activation occurred with older adolescent age for both motor control and cognitive control with automaticity from repetition learning. Sexual dimorphism for control operations occurred in extrastriate cortices involved in visuo-attentional selection: While boys enhanced extrastriate selection processes for motor control, girls activated these regions more for cognitive control. These sex differences were attenuated with more advanced pubertal stage. Together, our findings show that brain cognitive and motor control processes are segregated, demand-specific, more efficient in older adolescents, and differ between sexes relative to pubertal development. Our findings advance our understanding of how distributed brain activity and the neurodevelopment of automaticity enhances cognitive and motor control ability in adolescence.
Collapse
|
29
|
Strandqvist A, Herlitz A, Nordenskjöld A, Örtqvist L, Frisén L, Hirschberg AL, Nordenström A. Cognitive abilities in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome and women with gonadal dysgenesis. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2018; 98:233-241. [PMID: 29884451 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 05/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Many questions regarding the mechanisms behind sex differences in cognitive abilities are still unanswered. On a group level, men typically outperform women on certain spatial tasks, whereas women perform better on certain tests of memory and verbal ability. The prevailing theories concerning the biological predispositions for these and other differences in behaviour and brain function focus on early and prolonged exposure to sex hormones. There is, however, evidence of direct effects of sex chromosomes on sex-typical behaviour in other species. OBJECTIVES To study the influence of sex hormones and sex chromosomes on cognition in women with Complete androgen insensitivity (CAIS) and Gonadal dysgenesis (GD). METHODS Eighteen women with CAIS, 6 women with 46,XYGD, and 7 women with 46,XXGD were compared with age-matched male and female controls on tests of spatial and verbal abilities, memory functions, and emotion recognition. RESULTS Women with CAIS, XYGD, and XXGD performed similar to female controls on cognitive tasks. However, on a test of emotion recognition, women with XXGD outperformed the other groups, whereas women with CAIS and XYGD performed similar to male controls. CONCLUSION Our results support theories of androgen effects on cognitive abilities and suggest that factors related to sex chromosomes may influence emotion recognition. Implications of an atypical sex hormone situation and sex chromosome variation are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Strandqvist
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Agneta Herlitz
- Division of Psychology, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Agneta Nordenskjöld
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Center for Molecular Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Pediatric Surgery, Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Lisa Örtqvist
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Pediatric Surgery, Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Louise Frisén
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Research Center, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Angelica Lindén Hirschberg
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Anna Nordenström
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Pediatric Endocrinology, Astrid Lindgren Children's Hospital, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
La Vignera S, Condorelli RA, Cannarella R, Duca Y, Calogero AE. Sport, doping and female fertility. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2018; 16:108. [PMID: 30449281 PMCID: PMC6241032 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-018-0437-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2018] [Accepted: 10/24/2018] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This article is a review that addresses the following topics, divided by paragraphs. The first paragraph investigates the effects of physical activity on ovarian function, analyzing in particular the changes concerning the serum concentrations of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, growth hormone, thyroid hormones, leptin, ghrelin, neuropeptide Y. The second paragraph analyzes the effects of doping on the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis. Finally, the last paragraph analyzes the PCOS category, evaluating the effects of hyperandrogenism in relation to athletic performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sandro La Vignera
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Policlinico "G. Rodolico", via S. Sofia 78, 95123, Catania, Italy.
| | - Rosita A Condorelli
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Policlinico "G. Rodolico", via S. Sofia 78, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Rossella Cannarella
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Policlinico "G. Rodolico", via S. Sofia 78, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Ylenia Duca
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Policlinico "G. Rodolico", via S. Sofia 78, 95123, Catania, Italy
| | - Aldo E Calogero
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of Catania, Policlinico "G. Rodolico", via S. Sofia 78, 95123, Catania, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Manzouri A, Savic I. Multimodal MRI suggests that male homosexuality may be linked to cerebral midline structures. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203189. [PMID: 30278046 PMCID: PMC6168246 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The neurobiology of sexual preference is often discussed in terms of cerebral sex dimorphism. Yet, our knowledge about possible cerebral differences between homosexual men (HoM), heterosexual men (HeM) and heterosexual women (HeW) are extremely limited. In the present MRI study, we addressed this issue investigating measures of cerebral anatomy and function, which were previously reported to show sex difference. Specifically, we asked whether there were any signs of sex atypical cerebral dimorphism among HoM, if these were widely distributed (providing substrate for more general 'female' behavioral characteristics among HoM), or restricted to networks involved in self-referential sexual arousal. Cortical thickness (Cth), surface area (SA), subcortical structural volumes, and resting state functional connectivity were compared between 30 (HoM), 35 (HeM) and 38 (HeW). HoM displayed a significantly thicker anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), precuneus, and the left occipito-temporal cortex compared to both control groups. These differences seemed coordinated, since HoM also displayed stronger cortico-cortical covariations between these regions. Furthermore, functional connections within the default mode network, which mediates self- referential processing, and includes the ACC and precuneus were significantly weaker in HoM than HeM and HeW, whereas their functional connectivity between the thalamus and hypothalamus (important nodes for sexual behavior) was stronger. In addition to these singular features, HoM displayed 'female' characteristics, with a similar Cth in the left superior parietal and cuneus cortices as HeW, but different from HeM. These data suggest both singular and sex atypical features and motivate further investigations of cerebral midline structures in relation to male homosexuality.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Manzouri
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, and Neurology Clinic, Karolinska Institute and Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ivanka Savic
- Department of Women’s and Children’s Health, and Neurology Clinic, Karolinska Institute and Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
Manzouri A, Savic I. Cerebral sex dimorphism and sexual orientation. Hum Brain Mapp 2018; 39:1175-1186. [PMID: 29227002 PMCID: PMC6866632 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2017] [Revised: 11/29/2017] [Accepted: 11/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurobiology of sexual orientation is frequently discussed in terms of cerebral sex dimorphism (defining both functional and structural sex differences). Yet, the information about possible cerebral differences between sex-matched homo and heterosexual persons is limited, particularly among women. In this multimodal MRI study, we addressed these issues by investigating possible cerebral differences between homo and heterosexual persons, and by asking whether there is any sex difference in this aspect. Measurements of cortical thickness (Cth), subcortical volumes, and functional and structural resting-state connections among 40 heterosexual males (HeM) and 40 heterosexual females (HeF) were compared with those of 30 homosexual males (HoM) and 30 homosexual females (HoF). Congruent with previous reports, sex differences were detected in heterosexual controls with regard to fractional anisotropy (FA), Cth, and several subcortical volumes. Homosexual groups did not display any sex differences in FA values. Furthermore, their functional connectivity was significantly less pronounced in the mesial prefrontal and precuneus regions. In these two particular regions, HoM also displayed thicker cerebral cortex than other groups, whereas HoF did not differ from HeF. In addition, in HoM the parietal Cth showed "sex-reversed" values, not observed in HoF. Homosexual orientation seems associated with a less pronounced sexual differentiation of white matter tracts and a less pronounced functional connectivity of the self-referential networks compared to heterosexual orientation. Analyses of Cth suggest that male and female homosexuality are not simple analogues of each other and that differences from heterosexual controls are more pronounced in HoM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amirhossein Manzouri
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, and Neurology ClinicKarolinska Institutet and HospitalStickholmSE‐171 76Sweden
| | - Ivanka Savic
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, and Neurology ClinicKarolinska Institutet and HospitalStickholmSE‐171 76Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Donishi T, Terada M, Kaneoke Y. Effects of gender, digit ratio, and menstrual cycle on intrinsic brain functional connectivity: A whole-brain, voxel-wise exploratory study using simultaneous local and global functional connectivity mapping. Brain Behav 2018; 8:e00890. [PMID: 29568687 PMCID: PMC5853634 DOI: 10.1002/brb3.890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Gender and sex hormones influence brain function, but their effects on functional network organization within the brain are not yet understood. METHODS We investigated the influence of gender, prenatal sex hormones (estimated by the 2D:4D digit ratio), and the menstrual cycle on the intrinsic functional network organization of the brain (as measured by 3T resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI)) using right-handed, age-matched university students (100 males and 100 females). The mean (±SD) age was 20.9 ± 1.5 (range: 18-24) years and 20.8 ± 1.3 (range: 18-24) years for males and females, respectively. Using two parameters derived from the normalized alpha centrality analysis (one for local and another for global connectivity strength), we created mean functional connectivity strength maps. RESULTS There was a significant difference between the male mean map and female mean map in the distributions of network properties in almost all cortical regions and the basal ganglia but not in the medial parietal, limbic, and temporal regions and the thalamus. A comparison between the mean map for the low 2D:4D digit ratio group (indicative of high exposure to testosterone during the prenatal period) and that for the high 2D:4D digit ratio group revealed a significant difference in the network properties of the medial parietal region for males and in the temporal region for females. The menstrual cycle affected network organization in the brain, which varied with the 2D:4D digit ratio. Most of these findings were reproduced with our other datasets created with different preprocessing steps. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that differences in gender, prenatal sex hormone exposure, and the menstrual cycle are useful for understanding the normal brain and investigating the mechanisms underlying the variable prevalence and symptoms of neurological and psychiatric diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Donishi
- Department of System Neurophysiology Graduate School of Wakayama Medical University Wakayama Japan
| | | | - Yoshiki Kaneoke
- Department of System Neurophysiology Graduate School of Wakayama Medical University Wakayama Japan
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
The Sexual Differentiation of the Human Brain: Role of Sex Hormones Versus Sex Chromosomes. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2018; 43:45-67. [PMID: 30599078 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2018_70] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Men and women differ, not only in their anatomy but also in their behavior. Research using animal models has convincingly shown that sex differences in the brain and behavior are induced by sex hormones during a specific, hormone-sensitive period during early development. Thus, male-typical psychosexual characteristics seem to develop under the influence of testosterone, mostly acting during early development. By contrast, female-typical psychosexual characteristics may actually be organized under the influence of estradiol during a specific prepubertal period. The sexual differentiation of the human brain also seems to proceed predominantly under the influence of sex hormones. Recent studies using magnetic resonance imaging have shown that several sexually differentiated aspects of brain structure and function are female-typical in women with complete androgen insensitivity syndrome (CAIS), who have a 46 XY karyotype but a female phenotype due to complete androgen resistance, suggesting that these sex differences most likely reflect androgen action, although feminizing effects of estrogens or female-typical socialization cannot be ruled out. By contrast, some male-typical neural characteristics were also observed in women with CAIS suggesting direct effects of sex chromosome genes in the sexual differentiation of the human brain. In conclusion, the sexual differentiation of the human brain is most likely a multifactorial process including both sex hormone and sex chromosome effects, acting in parallel or in combination.
Collapse
|
35
|
Rosenfeld CS. Brain Sexual Differentiation and Requirement of SRY: Why or Why Not? Front Neurosci 2017; 11:632. [PMID: 29200993 PMCID: PMC5696354 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 10/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Brain sexual differentiation is orchestrated by precise coordination of sex steroid hormones. In some species, programming of select male brain regions is dependent upon aromatization of testosterone to estrogen. In mammals, these hormones surge during the organizational and activational periods that occur during perinatal development and adulthood, respectively. In various fish and reptiles, incubation temperature during a critical embryonic period results in male or female sexual differentiation, but this can be overridden in males by early exposure to estrogenic chemicals. Testes development in mammals requires a Y chromosome and testis determining gene SRY (in humans)/Sry (all other therian mammals), although there are notable exceptions. Two species of spiny rats: Amami spiny rat (Tokudaia osimensis) and Tokunoshima spiny rat (Tokudaia tokunoshimensis) and two species of mole voles (Ellobius lutescens and Ellobius tancrei), lack a Y chromosome/Sry and possess an XO chromosome system in both sexes. Such rodent species, prototherians (monotremes, who also lack Sry), and fish and reptile species that demonstrate temperature sex determination (TSD) seemingly call into question the requirement of Sry for brain sexual differentiation. This review will consider brain regions expressing SRY/Sry in humans and rodents, respectively, and potential roles of SRY/Sry in the brain will be discussed. The evidence from various taxa disputing the requirement of Sry for brain sexual differentiation in mammals (therians and prototherians) and certain fish and reptilian species will be examined. A comparative approach to address this question may elucidate other genes, pathways, and epigenetic modifications stimulating brain sexual differentiation in vertebrate species, including humans.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl S Rosenfeld
- Bond Life Sciences Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Biomedical Sciences, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Thompson Center for Autism and Neurobehavioral Disorders, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.,Genetics Area Program, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
| |
Collapse
|