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Dai H, Wang C, Yu W, Han J. Tracing COVID-19 drugs in the environment: Are we focusing on the right environmental compartment? ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 339:122732. [PMID: 37838316 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
The Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic led to over 770 million confirmed cases, straining public healthcare systems and necessitating extensive and prolonged use of synthetic chemical drugs around the globe for medical treatment and symptom relief. Concerns have arisen regarding the massive release of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and their metabolites into the environment, particularly through domestic sewage. While discussions surrounding this issue have primarily centered on their discharge into aquatic environments, particularly through treated effluent from municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), one often overlooked aspect is the terrestrial environment as a significant receptor of pharmaceutical-laden waste. This occurs through the disposal of sewage sludge, for instance, by applying biosolids to land or non-compliant disposal of sewage sludge, in addition to the routine disposal of expired and unused medications in municipal solid wastes. In this article, we surveyed sixteen approved pharmaceuticals for treating COVID-19 and bacterial co-infections, along with their primary metabolites. For this, we delved into their physiochemical properties, ecological toxicities, environmental persistence, and fate within municipal WWTPs. Emphasis was given on lipophilic substances with log Kow >3.0, which are more likely to be found in sewage sludge at significant factions (25.2%-75.0%) of their inputs in raw sewage and subsequently enter the terrestrial environment through land application of biosolids, e.g., 43% in the United States and as high as 96% in Ireland or non-compliant practices of sewage sludge disposal in developing communities, such as open dumping and land application without prior anaerobic digestion. The available evidence underscores the importance of adequately treating and disposing of sewage sludge before its final disposal or land application in an epidemic or pandemic scenario, as mismanaged sewage sludge could be a significant vector for releasing pharmaceutical compounds and their metabolites into the terrestrial environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Dai
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China; Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Chaoqi Wang
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China
| | - Wangyang Yu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China; College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, People's Republic of China
| | - Jie Han
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710049, People's Republic of China.
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Collada Sánchez VL, Villamañán Bueno E, Ayllón Morales M, Ruano Encinar M, Sobreino Jimenez C, Lara Catedra C, Perez Andreu E, Herrero Ambrosio A. Green hospital pharmacy: A sustainable approach to the medication use process in a tertiary hospital. FARMACIA HOSPITALARIA 2023; 47:T196-T200. [PMID: 37673702 DOI: 10.1016/j.farma.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustainable management of healthcare waste has a positive impact on the global environment. In order to reduce it, the sustainable practice of the pharmacotherapeutic process in all its stages is essential. OBJECTIVE To analyse the sustainability strategies proposed by the pharmacy service to reduce drug waste derived from the pharmacotherapeutic process. SECONDARY OBJECTIVES To analyse the stage of the pharmacotherapeutic process and the number and type of drugs involved. METHODS The study was carried out in a tertiary-level hospital. To coordinate the proposals, a referent pharmacist from every pharmacy department area was selected. Four stages of the process were evaluated (management, validation, dispensing and compounding), patients concerned were classified as outpatients or inpatients, and drugs potentially involved were analysed by the administration route: Into oral or parenteral. RESULTS Twenty eight ideas were proposed, which could affect more than 1200 drugs. 39.3% would affect the validation process, 17.9% the procurement management, 17.9% dispensing, and 7.1% the compounding. Implementation feasibility and acceptability of these proposals were evaluated. Those with the greatest potential were: Limiting the duration of treatments when possible, favouring the implementation of computer prescription order entry, favouring the use of the oral route over the parenteral route, and implementing computers in the preparation areas to avoid the use of paper guides. DISCUSION In our study, many ideas have been proposed by hospital pharmacists to improve the sustainability of the medication use process. When assessing these proposals by impact and feasibility, according to our results, shorten as much as possible the duration of treatments, computerization of the medication use process, and oral administration over intravenous should be prioritized in order to reduce environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - C Lara Catedra
- Servicio de Farmacia, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, España
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Sánchez VLC, Bueno EV, Morales MA, Encinar MR, Jimenez CS, Catedra CL, Perez EA, Ambrosio AH. Green hospital pharmacy: A sustainable approach to the medication use process in a tertiary hospital. FARMACIA HOSPITALARIA 2023; 47:196-200. [PMID: 37451908 DOI: 10.1016/j.farma.2023.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sustainable management of healthcare waste has a positive impact on the global environment. In order to reduce it, the sustainable practice of the pharmacotherapeutic process in all its stages is essential. OBJECTIVE To analyze the sustainability strategies proposed by the pharmacy service to reduce drug waste derived from the pharmacotherapeutic process. SECONDARY OBJECTIVES to analyze the stage of the pharmacotherapeutic process and the number and type of drugs involved. METHODS The study was carried out in a tertiary level hospital. To coordinate the proposals, a referent pharmacist from every pharmacy department area was selected. Four stages of the process were evaluated (procurement, validation, dispensing and compounding), patients concerned were classified as outpatients or inpatients, and drugs potentially involved were analyzed by the administration route: into oral or parenteral. RESULTS 28 ideas were proposed, which could affect more than 1200 drugs. 39.3% would affect the validation process, 17.9% the procurement management, 17.9% dispensing and 7.1% the compounding. Implementation feasibility and acceptability of these proposals were evaluated. Those with the greatest potential were: limiting the duration of treatments when possible, favoring the implementation of computer prescription order entry, favoring the use of the oral route over the parenteral route, and implementing computers in the preparation areas to avoid the use of paper guides. DISCUSSION In our study, many ideas have been proposed by hospital pharmacists to improve the sustainability of the medication use process. When assessing these proposals by impact and feasibility, according to our results, shorten as much as possible the duration of treatments, computerization of the medication use process and oral administration over intravenous should be prioritized in order to reduce environmental impact.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - M Ruano Encinar
- Pharmacy Service, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - C Lara Catedra
- Pharmacy Service, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
| | - E Andreu Perez
- Pharmacy Service, Hospital Universitario La Paz, Madrid, Spain
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Yu X, Zhao W, Lyu S, Cai Z, Yu G, Wang H, Barceló D, Sui Q. Estimating the Mass of Pharmaceuticals Harbored in Municipal Solid Waste Landfills by Analyzing Refuse Samples at Various Ages and Depths. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:6063-6071. [PMID: 36988440 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceuticals have been detected at high concentrations in municipal solid waste (MSW) landfill leachates, which are recognized as an underestimated source of pharmaceutical residues in the environment. However, limited efforts have been made to characterize pharmaceuticals in MSW landfill refuse, which is also of significant concern given the potential long-term environmental impact. Herein, we excavated landfill refuse from six cells with landfill ages of 7-27 years in the largest MSW landfill in Shanghai (in each cell, landfill refuse was collected from different depths of 2-8 m) and analyzed samples for the presence of 55 pharmaceuticals, including antibiotics and non-antibiotics. The results reveal the presence of 42 pharmaceuticals in landfill refuse, with median concentrations ranging from 0.30 to 116 μg/kg. Antibiotic and non-antibiotic pharmaceuticals exhibited diverse concentration trends with age, related to changes in policy intervention and consumption over time. Different concentration variations of individual pharmaceuticals were observed in refuse samples excavated at different depths and positively correlated to their sorption ability. The mass of pharmaceuticals in the investigated landfill was estimated from the obtained concentrations to be 80-220 tons with 95% probability, based on Monte Carlo analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this study provides the first estimate of pharmaceutical mass in an MSW landfill. The results will be helpful for understanding the potential long-term environmental impact of pharmaceuticals in landfills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xia Yu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Wentao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shuguang Lyu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zhenxiao Cai
- MicroHAOPs Inc., University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Gang Yu
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hualin Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Damià Barceló
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research, Spanish Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), Barcelona 08034, Spain
| | - Qian Sui
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Risk Assessment and Control on Chemical Process, School of Resources and Environmental Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
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Wang Y, Lei Y, Liu X, Song L, Hamid N, Zhang R. Sulfonamide and tetracycline in landfill leachates from seven municipal solid waste (MSW) landfills: Seasonal variation and risk assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 825:153936. [PMID: 35189208 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 01/29/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Antibiotics have received increased attention as emerging contaminants due to their toxicity and potential risk. Landfills serve as one of the important reservoirs of antibiotics. The antibiotics in landfills leaching to nearby environment by leachate may threat ecosystem health. The present study aimed to evaluate the levels of tetracyclines (TCs) and sulfonamides (SAs) in seven Chinese Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) landfill leachates over two years (2017-2018). Seven target antibiotics, TC, oxytetracycline (OTC), doxycycline (DXC), sulfonamide sulfadiazine (SD), sulfamerazine (SM), sulfamethazine (SMX), and sulfamethoxazole (SMT), were detected in 56 landfill leachate samples. Among these, SMT had the highest mean concentration at 654 ng/L (n = 45), followed by OTC (219.58 ng/L, n = 47), and SD (209.98 ng/L, n = 49). The temporal trend showed that antibiotic concentrations were higher in 2017 than in 2018. Furthermore, physicochemical properties were significantly correlated with SAs (p < 0.05), whereas no significant correlation was found for TCs. Seasonal variation analysis revealed that antibiotic levels were higher in spring and winter compared to summer and fall seasons, which might be attributed to the higher waterfall levels in these seasons. Risk assessment revealed that SAs (SM, SMX, SMT) are associated with high risk, and the RQs follow the order of: SMX > SMT > SM. In contrast, TCs had insignificant risk. The findings of this two-year comprehensive monitoring project have produced positive results regarding antibiotic pollution at landfill sites, which can be applied to antibiotics management in landfill and further ensure public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangqing Wang
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chongqing 400714, China; Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Yu Lei
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chongqing 400714, China; Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
| | - Xi Liu
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chongqing 400714, China
| | - Liyan Song
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chongqing 400714, China; School of resources and environmental engineering, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China.
| | - Naima Hamid
- Key Laboratory of Reservoir Aquatic Environment, Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400714, China
| | - Rui Zhang
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Chongqing 400714, China
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Barcellos DDS, Procopiuck M, Bollmann HA. Management of pharmaceutical micropollutants discharged in urban waters: 30 years of systematic review looking at opportunities for developing countries. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 809:151128. [PMID: 34710408 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical micropollutants' contamination of urban waters has been studied globally for decades, but the concentration of innovations in management initiatives is still in developed economies. The gap between the locus of innovations in pharmaceuticals and the relative stagnation in less developed economies to manage waste originating in this activity seems fruitful for investigations on innovation in integrated micropollutant management strategies. These tensions allow for advances in current knowledge for environmental management and, particularly, finding solutions for the contamination by pharmaceutical micropollutants of urban water bodies in developing countries. We aim to list the main strategies for managing pharmaceutical micropollutants discussed to point out opportunities for developing countries to advance in this direction. Methodologically, we conducted a systematic literature review from 1990 to 2020, covering 3027 documents on "pharmaceutical micropollutants management." The framework formed by the macro-approach to integrated management operationalized by the dimensional micro-approaches: technical, organizational, community, and governmental allowed us to understand that (1) the management of pharmaceutical micropollutants tends to occur through a technical approach centered on the removal of aquatic matrices, green chemistry, and urine diversion; (2) management with an organizational approach has enabled removing drugs from water bodies by drug take-back program, collaborative projects, drug use reduction, and better organizational practices; (3) the community approach have helped minimize this type of pollution by reducing the consumption of medicines and the proper destination for medicines that are no longer in use. Finally, the government management approach emerges as a source of legal, economic, and informational instruments to reduce pollution by pharmaceutical micropollutants. Furthermore, these management approaches allowed us to identify 15 opportunities for possible adjustments for developing societies. These opportunities can be promising for practices and research and, in the medium term, contribute to minimizing pollution by pharmaceutical micropollutants in urban waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Demian da Silveira Barcellos
- Graduate Program in Urban Management (PPGTU), Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná (PUCPR), 1155 Imaculada Conceição St, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil.
| | - Mario Procopiuck
- Graduate Program in Urban Management (PPGTU), Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná (PUCPR), 1155 Imaculada Conceição St, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil.
| | - Harry Alberto Bollmann
- Graduate Program in Urban Management (PPGTU), Pontifical Catholic University of Paraná (PUCPR), 1155 Imaculada Conceição St, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil.
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Poulopoulos SG, Ulykbanova G, Philippopoulos CJ. Photochemical mineralization of amoxicillin medicinal product by means of UV, hydrogen peroxide, titanium dioxide and iron. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2021; 42:2941-2949. [PMID: 31964229 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2020.1720300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, the photochemical degradation of amoxicillin and total organic carbon (TOC) removal in pharmaceutical aqueous solutions was studied using UV irradiation, titanium dioxide, hydrogen peroxide and iron in a batch photoreactor operated for 120-150 min. The effect of the initial concentrations of the target compound, hydrogen peroxide and ferric ions and of their combination was examined. It was found that under direct UV photolysis, considerable TOC removals were obtained only when the initial concentration of amoxicillin (AM) was below 100 mg/L. For initial concentration of AM 250 mg/L, the TOC removals achieved were of no practical use (below 5%). The TOC removals achieved in the presence of TiO2 were lower than 20% in all cases. In the presence of hydrogen peroxide in the range of 12.2-146.9 mmol/L and initial AM concentration 250 mg/L, for increasing H2O2 concentrations higher TOC removals were achieved up to the concentration of 73.4 mmol/L H2O2. The presence of even very small amounts of Fe(III) in the solution resulted in significantly increased TOC removals; 2.2 times higher than without Fe(III) after 120 min. Fe(III) presence accelerated dramatically the process during the first 60 min. The origin of Fe(III) ions was not important since practically the same results were obtained whether FeCl3 or Fe(NO3)3 was used as source of ferric ions. Adjusting the initial concentrations of AM, Fe(III) and H2O2, TOC removals above 90% were achieved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stavros G Poulopoulos
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
- Environmental Science & Technology Group (ESTg), Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan
| | - Gaukhar Ulykbanova
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan
- Environmental Science & Technology Group (ESTg), Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University, Astana, Kazakhstan
| | - Constantine J Philippopoulos
- Chemical Process Engineering Laboratory, School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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Disposal Practices of Unused and Leftover Medicines in the Households of Dhaka Metropolis. PHARMACY 2021; 9:pharmacy9020103. [PMID: 34065255 PMCID: PMC8162525 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy9020103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2021] [Revised: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: This fact-finding study aimed to attain an overall idea and knowledge about medicine disposal practices in Dhaka Metropolitan households. Methods: This mixed study (both quantitative and qualitative) was orchestrated to inspect the household leftover medicine disposal pattern's governing status. A cross-sectional survey was conducted following a structured questionnaire and key informant interview with a household person and in-depth interviews with the top pharmaceutical and government officials. Results: Findings disclose that, for most of the key informants, the terms "drug disposal" and "drug pollution" were unknown; more precisely, 67% and 74% of key informants even did not hear these two terms. Almost all (87%) households faced undesired incidents due to the insecure storage of medicines. People disposed of excess and expired medication in regular dustbins (47%), threw out of the window (19%), flushed within commode (4%), burnt in fire (2%), and reused (4%). A good percentage of people (21%) returned unexpired drugs to the pharmacy and bought other medicines on a need basis. A total of 72% wanted a medicine take-back program, and 100% agreed on mass education on this issue. Officials of pharmaceuticals conferred mixed opinion: top-ranked pharmaceuticals will adopt leftover medicine disposal practices; middle and low-ranked pharmaceutical companies are reluctant, merely denied mentioning the less important issue. Conclusions: The absence of mass awareness and standard laws and policies may explain these existing aberrant practices.
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O'Flynn D, Lawler J, Yusuf A, Parle-McDermott A, Harold D, Mc Cloughlin T, Holland L, Regan F, White B. A review of pharmaceutical occurrence and pathways in the aquatic environment in the context of a changing climate and the COVID-19 pandemic. ANALYTICAL METHODS : ADVANCING METHODS AND APPLICATIONS 2021; 13:575-594. [PMID: 33507166 DOI: 10.1039/d0ay02098b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are increasingly being identified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). They have potentially detrimental ecological and human health impacts but most are not currently subject to environmental regulation. Addressing the life cycle of these pharmaceuticals plays a significant role in identifying the potential sources and understanding the environmental impact that pharmaceuticals may have in surface waters. The stability and biological activity of these "micro-pollutants" can lead to a pseudo persistence, with ensuing unknown chronic behavioural and health-related effects. Research that investigates pharmaceuticals predominantly focuses on their occurrence and effect within surface water environments. However, this review will help to collate this information with factors that affect their environmental concentration. This review focuses on six pharmaceuticals (clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, venlafaxine, gemfibrozil and diclofenac), chosen because they are heavily consumed globally, have poor removal rates in conventional activated sludge wastewater treatment plants (CAS WWTPs), and are persistent in the aquatic environment. Furthermore, these pharmaceuticals are included in numerous published prioritisation studies and/or are on the Water Framework Directive (WFD) "Watch List" or are candidates for the updated Watch List (WL). This review investigates the concentrations seen in European Union (EU) surface waters and examines factors that influence final concentrations prior to release, thus giving a holistic overview on the source of pharmaceutical surface water pollution. A period of 10 years is covered by this review, which includes research from 2009-2020 examining over 100 published studies, and highlighting that pharmaceuticals can pose a severe risk to surface water environments, with each stage of the lifecycle of the pharmaceutical determining its concentration. This review additionally highlights the necessity to improve education surrounding appropriate use, disposal and waste management of pharmaceuticals, while implementing a source directed and end of pipe approach to reduce pharmaceutical occurrence in surface waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dylan O'Flynn
- DCU Water Institute, School of Chemical Sciences, Dublin City University, Glasnevin, Dublin 9, Ireland.
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Alhomoud FK, Alsadiq Y, Alghalawin L, Alhifany A, Alhomoud F. Pharmacy students' knowledge and practices concerning the storing and disposal of household medication in Saudi Arabia. CURRENTS IN PHARMACY TEACHING & LEARNING 2021; 13:5-13. [PMID: 33131618 DOI: 10.1016/j.cptl.2020.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 07/05/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pharmacists, and thus pharmacy students, must participate in promoting awareness about proper storage and disposal of expired or unused medications. This study aimed to determine Saudi Arabian pharmacy students' knowledge and personal practices regarding storing and disposing of household medications. METHODS This was a descriptive, cross-sectional, questionnaire-based study of pharmacy undergraduates or postgraduates across Saudi Arabia. The online survey was distributed to a convenience sample of participants and supplemented with snowball sampling on social media. RESULTS Of 807 pharmacy students who viewed the questionnaire, 464 students completed it (response rate 57.5%). Common reasons for keeping medications included having left-over medication (74%) and self-discontinuation of therapy (63.5%). The majority of students (79%) stored their medication in a bedroom or kitchen. Gender-specific variables revealed a gender difference in storing and disposing of these medications. Many students reported previously discarding medicines in the garbage (89%) or giving them to someone else to use (22%). More than half of the sample (60%) had not received any information on how to store or dispose of medications. CONCLUSIONS The current practice and knowledge of Saudi Arabian pharmacy students regarding storage and disposal of household medications was inappropriate. Concerned authorities (e.g., Ministry of Health, Ministry of Education) should provide proper education to all students on the safe storage and disposal of medications, which may necessitate curriculum reform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farah Kais Alhomoud
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, 2835 King Faisal Road, Dammam 34212, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Yara Alsadiq
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Laila Alghalawin
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Abdullah Alhifany
- Clinical Pharmacy Department, College of Pharmacy, Umm Al-Qura University, Makkah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Faten Alhomoud
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, College of Clinical Pharmacy, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
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Alnahas F, Yeboah P, Fliedel L, Abdin AY, Alhareth K. Expired Medication: Societal, Regulatory and Ethical Aspects of a Wasted Opportunity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17030787. [PMID: 32012703 PMCID: PMC7037917 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17030787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 01/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
A massive volume of expired medications amasses annually around the world because of pharmaceutical overprescription, combined with overproduction. The accumulation of pharmaceutical waste imposes ecological, economic and social/ethical burdens. Managing this presumed “waste” has developed into a global challenge due to the absence of specific regulations, unreasonable behavior of the patients, and an improper understanding of the concept of “expired medications” in general. This paper summaries, first, the recent literature reporting practices related to the disposal of unused medications. In this context, 48 papers from 34 countries with a total of 33,832 participants point towards a significant lack of public awareness regarding the appropriate disposal of such biologically potent chemicals. These findings are corroborated by a local survey on the disposal practices of unused medicines among pharmacy students at Saarland University. The regulatory aspects surrounding this topic, often based on the official guidelines for the disposal of expired medications and local waste management strategies, are then discussed in light of these findings. Finally, a closer inspection of the epistemic values of expired medications and different strategies for managing expired medications have been reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faez Alnahas
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (F.A.); (P.Y.); (A.Y.A.)
| | - Prince Yeboah
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (F.A.); (P.Y.); (A.Y.A.)
| | - Louise Fliedel
- UTCBS (Chemical and Biological Technologies for Health Group), Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université de Paris, CNRS, INSERM, 75006 Paris, France;
| | - Ahmad Yaman Abdin
- Division of Bioorganic Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbruecken, Germany; (F.A.); (P.Y.); (A.Y.A.)
| | - Khair Alhareth
- UTCBS (Chemical and Biological Technologies for Health Group), Faculté de Pharmacie de Paris, Université de Paris, CNRS, INSERM, 75006 Paris, France;
- Correspondence:
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Tetorou A, Makhatova A, Poulopoulos SG. Photochemical mineralization of Ibuprofen medicinal product by means of UV, hydrogen peroxide, titanium dioxide and iron. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2019; 80:2200-2205. [PMID: 32198337 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2020.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutical compounds contribute to the emerging pollutants in water and in many cases, they are not efficiently mineralized by conventional treatment methods. At the same time, landfills remain the main final destination of discarded drugs. In the present study, the mineralization of the Ibuprofen medicinal commercial product (Algofren®) in aqueous solutions using UV irradiation, hydrogen peroxide, titanium dioxide and ferric ions was examined. All experiments were conducted in a batch photoreactor operated for 120-150 min. The main target was to select the most effective operating conditions for the mineralization of the solutions treated. Single photolysis or TiO2 photocatalysis were proved inefficient in eliminating the total organic carbon (TOC). By adjusting the initial amounts of Ibuprofen product and hydrogen peroxide, 81% TOC removal was achieved after 120 min. Adding iron in the solution led to a higher mineralization degree, especially during the first 30 min of the process. Iron was shown also to decrease the environmental footprint of the process as expressed via the electric energy per order, EEo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aphrodite Tetorou
- Science and Technology School, Hellenic Open University, Patra, 26 335, Greece
| | - Ardak Makhatova
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan and Environmental Science & Technology Group (ESTg), Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University, 010000, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan E-mail:
| | - Stavros G Poulopoulos
- The Environment & Resource Efficiency Cluster (EREC), Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan and Environmental Science & Technology Group (ESTg), Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Nazarbayev University, 010000, Nur-Sultan, Kazakhstan E-mail:
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Khan U, Bloom RA, Nicell JA, Laurenson JP. Risks associated with the environmental release of pharmaceuticals on the U.S. Food and Drug Administration "flush list". THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2017; 609:1023-1040. [PMID: 28787777 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.05.269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2017] [Accepted: 05/30/2017] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
A select few prescription drugs can be especially harmful and, in some cases, fatal with just one dose when not used as prescribed. Therefore, the U. S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends that expired, unwanted, or otherwise unused portions of most of these drugs be disposed of quickly through a take-back program. If such an option is not readily available, FDA recommends that they be flushed down the sink or toilet. The goal of the current investigation was to evaluate the ecological and human-health risks associated with the environmental release of the 15 active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) currently on the FDA "flush list". The evaluation suggests that even when highly conservative assumptions are used-including that the entire API mass supplied for clinical use is flushed, all relevant sources in addition to clinical use of the API are considered, and no metabolic loss, environmental degradation, or dilution of wastewater effluents are used in estimating environmental concentrations-most of these APIs present a negligible eco-toxicological risk, both as individual compounds and as a mixture. For a few of these APIs, additional eco-toxicological data will need to be developed. Using similar conservative assumptions for human-health risks, all 15 APIs present negligible risk through ingestion of water and fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Usman Khan
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Raanan A Bloom
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA
| | - James A Nicell
- Department of Civil Engineering & Applied Mechanics, McGill University, 817 Sherbrooke Street West, Montreal, Quebec, Canada, H3A 0C3
| | - James P Laurenson
- Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993, USA.
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14
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Hochman ME. Disposing of Unused Medications: Have We Been Doing It All Wrong? Am J Med 2017; 130:115-116. [PMID: 27639874 DOI: 10.1016/j.amjmed.2016.08.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Revised: 08/16/2016] [Accepted: 08/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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15
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Paut Kusturica M, Tomas A, Sabo A. Disposal of Unused Drugs: Knowledge and Behavior Among People Around the World. REVIEWS OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2017; 240:71-104. [PMID: 27115675 DOI: 10.1007/398_2016_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the practice of medication disposal around the world and get insight into possible association between environmental awareness and people's behavior regarding this issue. A literature search (2005-2015) was performed to identify reports with quantitative data on disposal practices published in peer-reviewed literature. The most common method for disposal of unused medications in households is disposal in the garbage (Kuwait, United Kingdom, Lithuania, Qatar, Serbia, Ghana, Bangladesh, Malta and Saudi Arabia). The practice of flushing drugs into the sewage system still takes place in New Zealand, USA and Bangladesh. Only in Sweden and Germany, practice of returning drugs to pharmacy was practiced to a larger extent. The environmental impact of improper medication disposal is expected in countries with poorly functioning waste management schemes (Middle Eastern, Asian and African countries). Lack of the adequate information and clear instructions on proper manners of drug disposal was reported in many surveyed countries (USA, New Zealand, Bangladesh, Malta and Ireland). Clear and definite connection between knowledge about environmental detrimental effects of improper drug disposal and the preference towards disposal methods could not be established. Many respondents were generally concerned with issues of inadequate medicines discarding but the behavior regarding disposal of unused drugs often did not equate the awareness (Serbia, USA, Kuwait, Malta and UK). The current data emphasizes the global issue of improper medicine disposal, prevalent in environmentally-aware people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milica Paut Kusturica
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Hajduk Veljkova 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia.
| | - Ana Tomas
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Hajduk Veljkova 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Ana Sabo
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Novi Sad, Hajduk Veljkova 3, 21000, Novi Sad, Serbia
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16
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Vestel J, Caldwell DJ, Constantine L, D'Aco VJ, Davidson T, Dolan DG, Millard SP, Murray-Smith R, Parke NJ, Ryan JJ, Straub JO, Wilson P. Use of acute and chronic ecotoxicity data in environmental risk assessment of pharmaceuticals. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2016; 35:1201-12. [PMID: 26403382 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2015] [Revised: 06/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/22/2015] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
For many older pharmaceuticals, chronic aquatic toxicity data are limited. To assess risk during development, scale-up, and manufacturing processes, acute data and physicochemical properties need to be leveraged to reduce potential long-term impacts to the environment. Aquatic toxicity data were pooled from daphnid, fish, and algae studies for 102 active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) to evaluate the relationship between predicted no-effect concentrations (PNECs) derived from acute and chronic tests. The relationships between acute and chronic aquatic toxicity and the n-octanol/water distribution coefficient (D(OW)) were also characterized. Statistically significant but weak correlations were observed between toxicity and log D(OW), indicating that D(OW) is not the only contributor to toxicity. Both acute and chronic PNEC values could be calculated for 60 of the 102 APIs. For most compounds, PNECs derived from acute data were lower than PNECs derived from chronic data, with the exception of steroid estrogens. Seven percent of the PNECs derived from acute data were below the European Union action limit of 0.01 μg/L and all were anti-infectives affecting algal species. Eight percent of available PNECs derived from chronic data were below the European Union action limit, and fish were the most sensitive species for all but 1 API. These analyses suggest that the use of acute data may be acceptable if chronic data are unavailable, unless specific mode of action concerns suggest otherwise.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Lisa Constantine
- Pfizer Global Research and Development, Pfizer, Groton, Connecticut, USA
| | | | - Todd Davidson
- Bristol-Myers Squibb, New Brunswick, New Jersey, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Jim J Ryan
- GlaxoSmithKline, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
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Caldwell DJ, Mertens B, Kappler K, Senac T, Journel R, Wilson P, Meyerhoff RD, Parke NJ, Mastrocco F, Mattson B, Murray-Smith R, Dolan DG, Straub JO, Wiedemann M, Hartmann A, Finan DS. A risk-based approach to managing active pharmaceutical ingredients in manufacturing effluent. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2016; 35:813-822. [PMID: 26183919 DOI: 10.1002/etc.3163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2015] [Revised: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The present study describes guidance intended to assist pharmaceutical manufacturers in assessing, mitigating, and managing the potential environmental impacts of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) in wastewater from manufacturing operations, including those from external suppliers. The tools are not a substitute for compliance with local regulatory requirements but rather are intended to help manufacturers achieve the general standard of "no discharge of APIs in toxic amounts." The approaches detailed in the present study identify practices for assessing potential environmental risks from APIs in manufacturing effluent and outline measures that can be used to reduce the risk, including selective application of available treatment technologies. These measures either are commonly employed within the industry or have been implemented to a more limited extent based on local circumstances. Much of the material is based on company experience and case studies discussed at an industry workshop held on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Birgit Mertens
- Janssen Pharmaceutical Companies of Johnson & Johnson, Beerse, Belgium
| | - Kelly Kappler
- Johnson & Johnson Consumer Group of Companies, Skillman, New Jersey, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Bengt Mattson
- LIF, Swedish Association of the Pharmaceutical Industry, Stockholm, Sweden
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